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Rehabilitation effect of intelligent rehabilitation training system on hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke

  • Mingqing Hao , Qian Fang , Bei Wu , Lin Liu , Huan Tang , Fang Tian , Lihua Chen , Demiao Kong and Juan Li EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 30, 2023
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Open Life Sciences
From the journal Open Life Sciences Volume 18 Issue 1

Abstract

This article aimed to explore the rehabilitation efficacy of intelligent rehabilitation training systems in hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke and provided more theoretical basis for the application of intelligent rehabilitation systems in the rehabilitation of hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke. To explore the rehabilitation efficacy of intelligent rehabilitation training system (RTS for short here) in post-stroke hemiplegic limb spasms, this study selected 99 patients with post-stroke hemiplegic limb spasms admitted to a local tertiary hospital from March 2021 to March 2023 as the research subjects. This article used blind selection to randomly divide them into three groups: control group 1, control group 2, and study group, with 33 patients in each group. Control group 1 used a conventional RTS, group 2 used the brain–computer interface RTS from reference 9, and research group used the intelligent RTS from this article. This article compared the degree of spasticity, balance ability score, motor function score, and daily living activity score of three groups of patients after 10 weeks of treatment. After 10 weeks of treatment, the number of patients in the study group with no spasms at level 0 (24) was significantly higher than the number of patients in group 1 (7) and group 2 (10), with a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05); In the comparison of Barthel index scores, after ten weeks of treatment, the total number of people in the study group with scores starting at 71–80 and 81–100 was 23. The total number of people in the score range of 71–80 and 81–100 in group 1 was 5, while in group 2, the total number of people in this score range was 8. The study group scored considerably higher than the control group and the difference was found to be statistically relevant (P < 0.05). In the Berg balance assessment scale and motor function assessment scale, after 10 weeks of treatment, the scores of the study group patients on both scales were significantly higher than those of group 1 and group 2 (P < 0.05). The intelligent RTS is beneficial for promoting the improvement of spasticity in stroke patients with hemiplegic limb spasms, as well as improving their balance ability, motor ability, and daily life activities. Its rehabilitation effect is good.

Keywords: hemiplegic limb spasms; intelligent RTS; rehabilitation efficacy; stroke patients

1 Introduction

Stroke is a collective term for a type of acute cerebrovascular disease, which seriously threatens the health and life of older and middle-aged persons [1]. It is characterized by high incidence rate, high disability rate, high mortality, high recurrence rate, and high economic burden. Due to the advancement of medical technology and the development of medical information services, the mortality rate of stroke has decreased, but patients often experience hemiplegia and limb spasms after stroke. Spasm is a chronic motor disorder caused by damage to upper motor neurons. Its clinical manifestation is characterized by an increase in muscle tension characterized by a velocity-dependent enhancement of the stretching reflex, accompanied by an active tendon reflex, which is caused by an increase in the excitability of the stretching reflex. About 65% of patients after stroke would experience spasms, and appropriate spasms are beneficial for patients, while excessive spasms can affect their motor function and daily activities, which is not conducive to their prognosis [2]. Therefore, effective rehabilitation training for patients with hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke is of great practical significance. However, at present, conventional rehabilitation training mainly relies on physical methods, medication methods, orthosis methods, and nerve block methods, which have poor therapeutic effects and have not formed a systematic rehabilitation training system (RTS). This article combines the current popular artificial intelligence and computer technology to improve the rehabilitation effect of hemiplegic limb spasms in patients, indicating that the intelligent RTS can be applied to the rehabilitation training of hemiplegic limb spasms in stroke patients. This article aims to improve the rehabilitation efficacy of stroke hemiplegic limb spasms through the research of intelligent RTS and provide more theoretic foundation for the use of artificial intelligence and computer technology in the field of medical rehabilitation.

With the continuous improvement of current medical technology, research on the rehabilitation of hemiplegia after stroke has also attracted increasing attention [3]. Many scholars have explored rehabilitation training for stroke hemiplegia and proposed different methods to promote limb rehabilitation for patients. Kim studied the impact of morning walking-assisted gait training on the rehabilitation of stroke patients with hemiplegia. He demonstrated through controlled trials that combining morning exercise-assisted gait training with traditional physical therapy can improve the autonomy and balance of stroke hemiplegic patients, promoting their recovery [4]. Zhu et al. demonstrated the effectiveness of yin-yang balancing acupuncture in cooperation with rehabilitation training and single rehabilitation training in the treatment of upper limb spasticity in stroke patients with hemiplegia [5]. Shao et al. studied the effect of non-hemiplegic side strength training on balance function, activity ability, and muscle strength of stroke patients. He showed through randomized controlled trials that rehabilitation strength training based on the national medical service system can promote the balance, flexibility, and muscle strength recovery of the paralyzed side of stroke patients [6]. Tomida et al. research is a randomized controlled trial using gait-assisted robots for gait training in stroke patients with hemiplegia. He said the gait-motor-assisted robot can enhance the walking capability of subacute stroke patients, to optimize the difficulty of training and facilitate their physical rehabilitation [7]. These scholars’ research on rehabilitation training for hemiplegia after stroke has enriched their theoretical content, which provides more possibilities for the recovery of limb function in patients with hemiplegia, but there are also some shortcomings. Although scholars have different opinions on rehabilitation training for hemiplegia after stroke, there has never been a systematic RTS formed, nor has it been combined with current intelligent technologies. This leads to the lack of significant reference value for research.

Some scholars have also applied RTS to the rehabilitation of stroke patients and elaborated on the role of RTS. Kim et al. evaluated the impact of a novel, portable upper limb training method for chronic stroke patients. He demonstrated through experiments that the upper limb training system improved upper limb function and cognitive ability in stroke patients after 6 weeks of training [8]. Yang and Li have developed a brain–computer interface RTS for post-stroke patients. He stated that the system can accurately identify the patient’s movement intention in real time and then trigger the operation of rehabilitation peripheral devices to provide feedback from visual, auditory, and tactile perspectives. The active rehabilitation of patients is also achieved through this system [9]. Scholars’ research on RTS can provide some theoretical support for this article, but due to the lack of emphasis on exploring the rehabilitation effectiveness of RTS for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke, this research cannot be well applied. Through the research of scholars, it can be seen that there is relatively little discussion on the rehabilitation efficacy of intelligent RTS in hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke, and more research is needed in the future.

To better promote the rehabilitation of hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke, this article optimizes the rehabilitation of hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke based on theoretical analysis of intelligent RTS and previous scholars’ exploration of hemiplegic limb spasms rehabilitation training. This article conducted empirical research on the efficacy of the proposed rehabilitation method and found that the intelligent RTS in this article can better promote the relief of spasms in patients. Compared with traditional RTS, the innovation of this system lies in its attention to the importance of artificial intelligence and computer technology and its application in the construction of RTS. This helps to improve the rehabilitation effectiveness of RTS for stroke hemiplegic limb spasms.

2 Rehabilitation methods for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke

2.1 Rehabilitation of hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke

2.1.1 Poststroke hemiplegic limb spasms

Spasm is a common symptom in stroke patients [10]. After stroke, due to the disorder of the central motor inhibitory system, the mutual restriction and influence of α and γ motor neurons are dysregulated, giving γ neurons an advantage. Excessive release of lower motor neuron function can cause muscle spasms or abnormal excitation, accompanied by weakness and low muscle tone in antagonistic muscles. This can lead to imbalanced muscle movement, which in turn can cause movement disorders in the limbs. The increase or spasm of muscle tone in hemiplegic limbs after stroke is an important link in the rehabilitation of hemiplegic limbs, while excessive spasm is an important factor affecting the recovery of motor function in hemiplegic limbs [11]. Normal muscle tone and strength are the basic conditions for exercise. After stroke, it can lead to various functional impairments, among which unilateral limb motor dysfunction and limited daily living activities are the most common. The main purpose of stroke rehabilitation is to maximize the recovery of patients’ motor ability, enhance their ability to engage in daily activities, and enable them to participate in social activities again.

2.1.2 Rehabilitation training for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke

Rehabilitation training is a necessary step for stroke patients with hemiplegia to receive effective treatment and recover [12]. The occurrence of spasms in patients can hinder the recovery of limb function, and normal muscle tone is an important prerequisite for the recovery of limb function [13]. In the early stages of the rehabilitation of stroke patients with hemiplegia, it is possible to increase their spastic symptoms [14]. It requires medical staff to selectively carry out anti-spastic treatment based on the actual situation of the patient.

Rehabilitation training can alleviate muscle spasms in stroke patients and improve their motor ability [15]. Although traditional rehabilitation training can provide targeted treatment and adjust the intensity of treatment in a timely manner according to the patient’s course, muscle tone, and muscle strength, it cannot guarantee the treatment intensity of the patient within a certain treatment period. For patients with severe limb spasms after stroke or limb spasms after stroke, conventional rehabilitation training-induced central nervous system compensation and functional reorganization are usually difficult to achieve the goal of relieving spasms. The intelligent RTS can reduce the tension of the extensor muscles of the limbs, enhance the strength of the quadriceps femoris muscle and cricoid muscles, and significantly improve the stability and balance of the knee joint.

2.2 Intelligent RTS

2.2.1 Overview of intelligent RTS

At present, there are generally two directions for research on rehabilitation therapy: one is virtual information technology and the other is the assistance of machine rehabilitation equipment. Machine rehabilitation equipment utilizes its own rehabilitation training program to provide targeted training to patients, achieving physical recovery by completing prescribed training tasks. At the same time, most machine-assisted devices have online communication capabilities, allowing patients to have face-to-face communication with doctors and other patients, facilitating consultation and communication. Doctors can also monitor and provide real-time guidance to patients throughout the process, maximizing the efficiency of rehabilitation training. During the rehabilitation process of patients, doctors can adjust their training plans in a timely manner based on their rehabilitation status, which plays a significant role in responding to emergencies. Artificial intelligence and computer technology can be applied to rehabilitation training, which can improve the overall functionality of the RTS. When using the training system, patients can engage in targeted exercise according to their own needs to achieve the best exercise results.

2.2.2 Design of intelligent RTS

Because when using rehabilitation machines for rehabilitation training of stroke hemiplegic limb spasms patients, there would be motion coupling and force interaction between the end of the machine and the patient’s arm. Patients and rehabilitation machines can be viewed as a system and subjected to relevant dynamic analysis. Human limbs are usually simplified as two connected series structures, which achieve rehabilitation training through force interaction with rehabilitation and rehabilitation.

To achieve dynamic analysis of rehabilitation machines, Lagrange equation is a commonly used analysis method. If Lagrange equation is directly used to analyze the motion trajectory of its system, it would become very complex. This is because the rehabilitation machine is a planar parallel structure with four joint angles interrelated, which makes it difficult to obtain the deviation formula for its connecting rod position and driving joint angle. In response to this situation, the rehabilitation machine should be divided into three linkage structures with two degrees of freedom, and each connected branch should be processed separately. Then, the dynamic equations of the rehabilitation machine training system should be derived:

(1) P A ̈ + L A ̇ = H ,

(2) P = P 1 + P 2 + P 3 ,

(3) L = L 1 + L 2 + L 3 ,

(4) H = W 1 − S ( ϑ 1 , γ 1 ) ε 1 + W 2 − S ( ϑ 2 , γ 2 ) ε 2 + W 3 − S ( ϑ 3 , γ 3 ) ε 3 .

Among them: P – inertia; L – centripetal force; H – equivalent force of joint torque at the end; P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , L 1 , L 2 , L 3 – inertia term and centripetal force term of three series branches; W 1 − S , W 2 − S , W 3 − S – Jacobian matrix; and ε 1 , ε 2 , ε 3 – joint torque of three branches.

Rehabilitation machines interact through impedance control methods. The impedance of the rehabilitation machine is defined as the relationship between input force H and motion speed A ̇ , and its impedance form can be expressed as:

(5) H = − M ( A ( s ) − A 0 ) − Z A ̇ ( s ) − F A ̈ ( s ) .

Among them: M , Z , F – stiffness, damping, and inertia.

The relationship between the impedance of the rehabilitation machine in another formula is achieved by the joint torque of a planar parallel structure, which is:

(6) S = W S ( ϑ ) H = − W S ( ϑ ) [ M ( Q ( ϑ ) − A 0 ) + Z ( W ( ϑ ) ϑ ̇ ) + F ( W ( ϑ ) ϑ ̈ + W ( ϑ ) ϑ ̇ ) ] .

Among them: Q – the principle of forward dynamics of rehabilitation machines and ϑ – joint angle.

The key point of the intelligent RTS in this article is to collect motion information provided by patients and rehabilitation machines. The intelligent RTS can collect data through the interaction between patients and rehabilitation machines and then integrate these two actions into a dataset. By comparing these two actions, a suitable training scenario and training tasks for the patient can be integrated and, then, sent to the client. It is transmitted from the client to the server for software evaluation, and the evaluated results are sent to the attending physician. Finally, the attending physician analyzes the system analysis results and provides final treatment suggestions and plans. The interface of the intelligent RTS for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke is depicted in Figure 1:

Figure 1 Interface diagram of the intelligent RTS for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke.
Figure 1

Interface diagram of the intelligent RTS for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke.

The intelligent RTS for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke in this article mainly consists of five parts, namely user management, user evaluation, fun rehabilitation training, intelligent interaction, and professional and innovative. The system uses a client server mode, which has the advantages of strong interactivity, fast client response speed, and low server workload. Patients need to undergo functional assessment before diagnosis and treatment. It is possible to determine whether a patient needs hospitalization for rehabilitation treatment based on patient information and evaluation results. After rehabilitation treatment is completed, it is also necessary to score the patient’s various functional conditions. Patients who meet the evaluation criteria are considered eligible to be discharged and go home for rest.

3 Empirical analysis of the rehabilitation effect of intelligent RTS on hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke

3.1 Materials and methods

3.1.1 General information

This article selects 99 patients with hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke admitted to a local tertiary hospital from March 2021 to March 2023 as the research subjects. They are divided into three groups using the blind selection method, namely group 1, group 2, and the study group. There are 33 patients in each group. Control group 1 used a conventional RTS, group 2 used the brain–computer interface RTS from reference 9, and the research group used the intelligent RTS from this article. There was no statistically difference in basic data among the three groups of patients (P > 0.05), indicating comparability. The specific situation of the three groups of patients is depicted in Table 1.

Table 1

Comparison of general information among three groups of patients

General information Group Control group 1 Control group 2 Study group
Gender Man 17 15 16
Woman 16 18 17
Age 58.06 ± 7.82 57.94 ± 8.02 58.45 ± 7.55
Course of disease 10.61 ± 2.75 11.12 ± 2.38 12.36 ± 2.37
Disease type Cerebral hemorrhage 15 14 14
Cerebral infarction 18 19 19

Inclusion criteria are as follows: those who meet the clinical diagnostic criteria for hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke and patients without other sequelae of stroke. Exclusion criteria are as follows: patients with severe neurological disorders and patients with comorbidities such as heart, liver, and kidney. The patient is informed and the patient and their family members voluntarily sign an informed consent form.

3.1.2 Methods

Control group 1 used a conventional RTS. Neurostimulation techniques can be used to passively exercise patients with physical therapists, keeping each movement in an anti spastic state for 2–4 min. Reflective suppression can be used by controlling the head and torso parts. This article combines some physical factor therapy methods, once a day for 45 min each time.

Control group 2 used a brain–computer interface RTS (method in ref. [9]). Brain–computer interface system refers to an interface device based on electroencephalogram (EEG) signals [16]. An EEG data collector can be worn on the patient’s head, allowing them to imagine movement and collect their EEG signals under the guidance of virtual reality animations. By wirelessly transmitting to the host, motor awareness can be recognized, functional electrical stimulation can be controlled, and electrodes attached to the limbs can be used to treat the patient’s limbs, thereby achieving the goal of assisting rehabilitation training. After entering the system, it guides patients to relax, calms them down, and then allows them to exercise, collect EEG data during relaxation, and record it. Treatment includes two types: repeated treatment and single treatment, with a treatment time of 20 min. During the treatment process, the doctor needs to guide the patient to follow the virtual reality images presented on the computer screen, allowing them to focus on imaginative actions. After successful imagination, the patient would receive functional electrical stimulation for treatment.

The research group adopts an intelligent RTS, which includes the upper rotation and the lower boarding wheel. According to the specific situation of the patient, three modes can be selected: passive training, assisted training, and active training. Corresponding game training can be conducted from the perspectives of physical rehabilitation, cognitive rehabilitation, and balance training. There are hard base eye-opening balance training, upper limb orientation training, reaction coordination training, and image combination training. The passive and active training methods alternate, and the resistance of the intelligent RTS can be adjusted in view of the patient’s condition. The speed is 15–30 rpm, once a day, for 20 min each time.

3.1.3 Observation indicators

(1) The degree of spasms in patients can be compared before and after ten weeks of treatment. (2) It is possible to compare the better balance ability. (3) It can compare the motor function of three groups of patients before and after 10 weeks of treatment. (4) It can compare the daily living activities.

3.1.4 Statistical methods

The data analysis was conducted using SPSS 17.0. The mean ± standard deviation (± SD) can be used to express the measurement data that conforms to the normal distribution. The P value (a parameter used to judge the hypothesis test results) is used between groups for grouping comparison. P < 0.05 means the variation is found to be statistically significant.

3.2 Result analysis

3.2.1 Spasticity degree

To compare the degree of spasticity among three groups of patients, this article evaluated the spasticity level of patients before and after treatment using the Modified Ashworth spasticity scale, which was divided into five levels. Level 0 indicates muscle relaxation without spasms; level 1 refers to mild spasms, where muscles experience slight resistance when rapidly stretched; level 2 refers to obvious spasms. When rapidly stretched, the muscles produce significant resistance, but can still stretch; level 3 is severe spasms. When rapidly stretched, the muscles have strong resistance and require many stretching movements to succeed; level 4 refers to extreme spasms, where muscles become stiff and unable to stretch. The spasticity grades of the three groups of patients under different methods before and after treatment are indicated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Comparison of spasticity levels. (a) Spasms before treatment and (b) spasms after treatment.
Figure 2

Comparison of spasticity levels. (a) Spasms before treatment and (b) spasms after treatment.

The horizontal axis represents the level of spasms in the patient; the vertical axis represents the number of patients with different levels of spasms.

From Figure 2a, it can be seen that before treatment, there were 15 patients with grade 2 obvious spasms in group 1, and 13 patients with grade 2 obvious spasms in group 2. There were 14 patients in the study group with grade 2 obvious spasms. Overall, there was no discernible difference in spasticity among the three groups of patients before treatment (P > 0.05), and there was a certain degree of comparability in the study. From Figure 2b, it can be seen that after treatment, there were 7 patients in group 1 with no spasms at level 0 and 11 patients with mild spasms at level 1; there were 8 patients with grade 2 obvious spasms, 4 patients with grade 3 severe spasms, and 3 patients with grade 4 extreme spasms; in group 2, there were 10 patients with no spasms at level 0 and 14 patients with mild spasms at level 1; there were 5 patients with grade 2 obvious spasms, 2 patients with grade 3 severe spasms, and 2 patients with grade 4 extreme spasms; there were 24 patients in the study group who did not experience spasms at level 0, 3 patients with mild spasms at level 1, and 3 patients with significant spasms at level 2; there were 2 patients with grade 3 severe spasms, and 1 patient with grade 4 severe spasms. The number of patients in the study group who did not experience spasms at level 0 was significantly higher than that of group 1 and group 2, with a difference (P < 0.05). This indicates that the intelligent RTS in this article has a significant rehabilitation effect on hemiplegic limb spasms in stroke patients, which is more conducive to the rehabilitation of patients after spasms.

3.2.2 Balance ability analysis

This article uses the Berg Balance Scale to compare the balance ability of three groups of patients. This table has a total of 14 items, each with a score of 0–4, totaling 56 points. The higher the score, the better its balance ability. This article divides the score range of the scale into 0–10 points, 11–20 points, 21–30 points, 31–40 points, 41–50 points, and 51–56 points. This article summarizes the overall scores of the Berg balance assessment scale, as depicted in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Comparison of Berg balance assessment scale scores. (a) Berg balance assessment scale scores before treatment and (b) Berg balance assessment scale scores after treatment.
Figure 3

Comparison of Berg balance assessment scale scores. (a) Berg balance assessment scale scores before treatment and (b) Berg balance assessment scale scores after treatment.

The horizontal axis represents the score range of the scale, while the vertical axis represents the number of scoring individuals in different score ranges.

From Figure 3a, it can be seen that before treatment, the Berg balance assessment scale scores of the three groups of patients were mostly concentrated in the range of 21–30 points. Among them, 14 patients in group 1 scored in this range, while 15 patients in group 2 scored in this range. There were 14 patients in the study group who scored in this range, and there was no discernible difference in overall scores among the three groups of patients (P > 0.05). According to Figure 3b, after treatment, there were 3 individuals in group 1 with scores starting at 0–10, 5 individuals in the control group 11–20, 6 individuals in the control group 21–30, 11 individuals in the control group 31–40, 5 individuals in the control group 41–50, and 3 individuals in the control group 51–56; in group 2, there were 2 individuals with scores starting at 0–10, 3 individuals with scores starting at 11–20, 7 individuals with scores starting at 21–30, 13 individuals with scores starting at 31–40, 4 individuals with scores starting at 41–50, and 4 individuals with scores starting at 51–56; in the research group, there were 0 people with scores starting at 0–10, 1 person with scores starting at 11–20, 3 people with scores starting at 21–30, 7 people with scores starting at 31–40, 13 people with scores starting at 41–50, and 9 people with scores starting at 51–56. The number of patients in the study group with a score range of 41–50 was significantly higher than that of group 1 and group 2, with a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05). After three different rehabilitation training methods, the Berg balance assessment scale scores of all three groups of patients were improved, indicating a significant improvement in their balance ability. The study group of patients who underwent the intelligent RTS in this article scored higher on the Berg balance assessment scale, indicating that the method proposed in this article is more helpful in promoting the improvement of patients’ balance ability and achieving better rehabilitation outcomes. This is because the system in this article combines intelligence with rehabilitation training, which can not only assist patients in rehabilitation training and better recovery but also provide real-time understanding of patients’ physical conditions, reasonable rehabilitation suggestions, and targeted training.

3.2.3 Sports functional analysis

In addition to statistical analysis of the patient’s spasticity and balance ability, the patient’s exercise function was also analyzed. This article uses the simplified Fugl-Meyer assessment to compare the motor function. The scale has a total of 100 points, with a higher score indicating better motor function. This article divides the score range of the scale into 0–20 points, 21–30 points, 31–40 points, 41–50 points, 51–60 points, 61–70 points, 71–80 points, and 81–100 points. This article summarizes the overall scores of the motor function assessment scale, as depicted in Figure 4:

Figure 4 Comparison of overall scores on the motor function assessment scale. (a) Score of motor function assessment scale before treatment and (b) score of motor function assessment scale after treatment.
Figure 4

Comparison of overall scores on the motor function assessment scale. (a) Score of motor function assessment scale before treatment and (b) score of motor function assessment scale after treatment.

The horizontal axis represents the scale score range, while the vertical axis represents the number of patients in different score ranges. Due to the fact that the number of patients in the score range of 71–80 and 81–100 in Figure 4a is 0, it cannot be presented in the figure, so it is not included in Figure 4a.

From Figure 4a and b, it can be seen that there is no discernible difference in the number of patients in each score range before treatment (P > 0.05), and the study is comparative. After treatment, in group 1, there were 1 person with a score of 0–20, 2 people with a score of 21–30; there were 4 people with a score of 31–40, 4 people with a score of 41–50, and 5 people with a score of 51–60; there were 9 people with a score of 61–70, 6 people with a score of 71–80, and 2 people with a score of 81–100; in group 2, there were 1 person with a score of 0–20 and 1 person with a score of 21–30; there were 2 people with scores starting at 31–40 and 3 people with scores starting at 41–50; there were 4 people with scores starting at 51–60 and 13 people with scores starting at 61–70; there were 6 people with scores starting at 71–80 and 3 people with scores starting at 81–100; in the research group, there were 0 people with scores starting at 0–20 and 0 people with scores starting at 21–30; there were 1 person with a score of 31–40 and 2 people with a score of 41–50; there were 2 people with scores starting at 51–60 and 6 people with scores starting at 61–70; there were 15 people with scores starting at 71–80 and 7 people with scores starting at 81–100. It can be clearly seen that the number of people in the study group with scores starting at 71–80 and 81–100 is significantly higher than that of group 1 and group 2, with a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05). This indicates that the intelligent RTS in this article can improve the motor function assessment scale scores of the study group patients. This means that the motor function recovery of the study group patients is better than that of group 1 and group 2, indicating that the rehabilitation effect of the intelligent RTS is better, and the recovery effect of the patient’s motor function is more obvious.

3.2.4 Daily life activity ability

Finally, the daily living activities of three groups of patients were compared. This article uses the modified Barthel index rating scale to compare the daily living activities of three groups of patients. The scale has a score of 100, and a higher score means that the patient’s daily living activities are better. Similarly, this article divides the score range of the evaluation table into 0–20 points, 21–30 points, 31–40 points, 41–50 points, 51–60 points, 61–70 points, 71–80 points, and 81–100 points. This article calculates the overall score of the Barthel Index assessment table, as depicted in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Comparison of Barthel Index scores. (a) The Barthel index evaluation table scores before treatment and (b) the Barthel index evaluation table scores after treatment.
Figure 5

Comparison of Barthel Index scores. (a) The Barthel index evaluation table scores before treatment and (b) the Barthel index evaluation table scores after treatment.

The horizontal axis represents the score range, and the vertical axis represents the number of patients within that score range.

From Figure 5a and b, it can be seen that there was no discernible difference in the Barthel index score among the three groups of patients before treatment (P > 0.05). After treatment, in group 1, there were 2 individuals with scores starting at 0–20, 3 individuals with scores starting at 21–30, and 4 individuals with scores starting at 31–40; there were 6 people from 41 to 50 and 10 people from 51 to 60; there were 3 people from 61 to 70 and 2 people from 71 to 80; there were three people from 81 to 100. In group 2, there were 1 person with a score range of 0–20 and 2 people with a score range of 21–30; there were 3 people from 31 to 40 and 4 people from 41–50; there were 6 people from 51 to 60 and 9 people from 61 to 70; there were 4 people from 71 to 80 and 4 people from 81 to 100; in the research group, there were 0 people with scores starting at 0–20 and 1 person with scores starting at 21–30; there were 1 person from 31 to 40 and 1 person from 41–50; there were 2 people from 51 to 60 and 5 people from 61 to 70; there were 15 people from 71 to 80 and 8 people from 81 to 100. After treatment, there were 23 patients in the study group with scores starting at 71–80 and 81–100, while there were 5 patients in group 1 with scores starting at 71–80 and 81–100. There were a total of 8 individuals in group 2 with scores starting at 71–80 and 81–100. It can be seen that the total number of patients in the study group with scores starting at 71–80 and 81–100 is larger than that in group 1 and group 2, with a difference (P < 0.05). This indicates that the method proposed in this article is more conducive to the recovery of patients’ daily living activities, and its rehabilitation effect is better.

In addition, this article counted the average scores of the Berg Balance Rating Scale, Motor Function Rating Scale, and Barthel Index Rating Scale, as depicted in Table 2.

Table 2

Average scores of scale tests after treatment

After treatment Control group 1 Control group 2 Control group 3 F P
Berg balance assessment scale 31.97 ± 12.34 34.97 ± 12.30 42.09 ± 9.39 6.834 0.002
Motor function assessment scale 55.33 ± 16.61 60.33 ± 15.86 70.30 ± 12.62 8.374 <0.001
Barthel index evaluation form 51.06 ± 17.31 57.30 ± 17.09 69.36 ± 12.99 11.272 <0.001

According to Table 2, after 10 weeks of treatment, the average scores of the Berg balance assessment scale, motor function assessment scale, and Barthel index assessment scale in the study group were larger than those in group 1 and group 2. The P-values are all less than 0.05. This means that the rehabilitation efficacy of the intelligent RTS in this article is better than that of the conventional RTS and the brain–computer interface RTS in ref. [9].

3.3 Discussions

Rehabilitation training can effectively alleviate the symptoms of limb spasms and improve their limb motor ability. In long-term clinical work, it has been found that relying solely on traditional rehabilitation training cannot effectively alleviate hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke. The intelligent RTS formed by combining artificial intelligence and computer technology with rehabilitation training can not only ensure the targeted rehabilitation treatment, but also greatly reduce the workload of therapists. During the same training cycle, using an intelligent RTS can not only achieve high-intensity training for patients but also reduce the occurrence of limb spasms caused by upper motor neuron damage. This can improve the efficiency of rehabilitation training and is a promising new type of rehabilitation training method.

4 Conclusions

With the continuous promotion and application of artificial intelligence technology, artificial intelligence in the medical field has also achieved better development. However, there is still room for further exploration in introducing artificial intelligence into RTS. The theme of this article is the rehabilitation effect of an intelligent RTS on hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke. First, the relevant research background of this article was introduced, and then, the advantages and disadvantages of previous scholars’ research on stroke hemiplegia rehabilitation were summarized and analyzed. Then, based on the analysis of the current rehabilitation training for hemiplegia limb spasms after stroke, an intelligent RTS was introduced. To verify the effectiveness of the intelligent RTS, this article compared the rehabilitation efficacy of the system, conventional RTS, and reference 9 brain–computer interface RTS for hemiplegic limb spasms in stroke patients through a controlled experiment. The experimental results showed that after 10 weeks of treatment, the spasticity level of the study group patients who used the intelligent RTS as the rehabilitation method in this study was significantly higher among the three groups of patients. The balance ability, motor ability, and daily life activity ability were significantly superior to group 1 using conventional training systems as the rehabilitation method and group 2 using brain–computer interface RTS as the rehabilitation method, with statistically significant differences (P < 0.05). There are also some shortcomings in this study, and further improvement is needed. There are also some shortcomings in this study. Due to practical conditions, the overall number of samples selected in this study is relatively small, which may have a certain impact on the final results. In addition, as the intelligent RTS applied to hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke is a system that needs continuous improvement and optimization, the performance and operational requirements of the system would be higher and more user-friendly in the future, and further exploration is needed.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Center for Disease Control and Prevention in China, Health Commission of Guizhou Province, and Guizhou Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine for providing the funding.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by Center for Disease Control and Prevention in China (BZ2022-Q042), Health Commission of Guizhou Province (gzwkj2021-476), and Guizhou Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine(QZYY-2023-115).

  2. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-05-29
Revised: 2023-08-14
Accepted: 2023-08-18
Published Online: 2023-09-30

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  267. Erratum to “Protein Z modulates the metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma cells”
  268. Erratum to “BRCA1 subcellular localization regulated by PI3K signaling pathway in triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells and hormone-sensitive T47D cells”
  269. Retraction
  270. Retraction to “Protocatechuic acid attenuates cerebral aneurysm formation and progression by inhibiting TNF-alpha/Nrf-2/NF-kB-mediated inflammatory mechanisms in experimental rats”
https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2022-0724
Keywords for this article
hemiplegic limb spasms; intelligent RTS; rehabilitation efficacy; stroke patients
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  8. Isoimperatorin alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced periodontitis by downregulating ERK1/2 and NF-κB pathways
  9. Immunoregulation of synovial macrophages for the treatment of osteoarthritis
  10. Novel CPLANE1 c.8948dupT (p.P2984Tfs*7) variant in a child patient with Joubert syndrome
  11. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the risk of thrombosis in myeloproliferative neoplasms
  12. Immunological responses of septic rats to combination therapy with thymosin α1 and vitamin C
  13. High glucose and high lipid induced mitochondrial dysfunction in JEG-3 cells through oxidative stress
  14. Pharmacological inhibition of the ubiquitin-specific protease 8 effectively suppresses glioblastoma cell growth
  15. Levocarnitine regulates the growth of angiotensin II-induced myocardial fibrosis cells via TIMP-1
  16. Age-related changes in peripheral T-cell subpopulations in elderly individuals: An observational study
  17. Single-cell transcription analysis reveals the tumor origin and heterogeneity of human bilateral renal clear cell carcinoma
  18. Identification of iron metabolism-related genes as diagnostic signatures in sepsis by blood transcriptomic analysis
  19. Long noncoding RNA ACART knockdown decreases 3T3-L1 preadipocyte proliferation and differentiation
  20. Surgery, adjuvant immunotherapy plus chemotherapy and radiotherapy for primary malignant melanoma of the parotid gland (PGMM): A case report
  21. Dosimetry comparison with helical tomotherapy, volumetric modulated arc therapy, and intensity-modulated radiotherapy for grade II gliomas: A single‑institution case series
  22. Soy isoflavone reduces LPS-induced acute lung injury via increasing aquaporin 1 and aquaporin 5 in rats
  23. Refractory hypokalemia with sexual dysplasia and infertility caused by 17α-hydroxylase deficiency and triple X syndrome: A case report
  24. Meta-analysis of cancer risk among end stage renal disease undergoing maintenance dialysis
  25. 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase inhibition arrests growth and induces apoptosis in gastric cancer via AMPK activation and oxidative stress
  26. Experimental study on the optimization of ANM33 release in foam cells
  27. Primary retroperitoneal angiosarcoma: A case report
  28. Metabolomic analysis-identified 2-hydroxybutyric acid might be a key metabolite of severe preeclampsia
  29. Malignant pleural effusion diagnosis and therapy
  30. Effect of spaceflight on the phenotype and proteome of Escherichia coli
  31. Comparison of immunotherapy combined with stereotactic radiotherapy and targeted therapy for patients with brain metastases: A systemic review and meta-analysis
  32. Activation of hypermethylated P2RY1 mitigates gastric cancer by promoting apoptosis and inhibiting proliferation
  33. Association between the VEGFR-2 -604T/C polymorphism (rs2071559) and type 2 diabetic retinopathy
  34. The role of IL-31 and IL-34 in the diagnosis and treatment of chronic periodontitis
  35. Triple-negative mouse breast cancer initiating cells show high expression of beta1 integrin and increased malignant features
  36. mNGS facilitates the accurate diagnosis and antibiotic treatment of suspicious critical CNS infection in real practice: A retrospective study
  37. The apatinib and pemetrexed combination has antitumor and antiangiogenic effects against NSCLC
  38. Radiotherapy for primary thyroid adenoid cystic carcinoma
  39. Design and functional preliminary investigation of recombinant antigen EgG1Y162–EgG1Y162 against Echinococcus granulosus
  40. Effects of losartan in patients with NAFLD: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trial
  41. Bibliometric analysis of METTL3: Current perspectives, highlights, and trending topics
  42. Performance comparison of three scaling algorithms in NMR-based metabolomics analysis
  43. PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and its related molecules participate in PROK1 silence-induced anti-tumor effects on pancreatic cancer
  44. The altered expression of cytoskeletal and synaptic remodeling proteins during epilepsy
  45. Effects of pegylated recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor on lymphocytes and white blood cells of patients with malignant tumor
  46. Prostatitis as initial manifestation of Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia diagnosed by metagenome next-generation sequencing: A case report
  47. NUDT21 relieves sevoflurane-induced neurological damage in rats by down-regulating LIMK2
  48. Association of interleukin-10 rs1800896, rs1800872, and interleukin-6 rs1800795 polymorphisms with squamous cell carcinoma risk: A meta-analysis
  49. Exosomal HBV-DNA for diagnosis and treatment monitoring of chronic hepatitis B
  50. Shear stress leads to the dysfunction of endothelial cells through the Cav-1-mediated KLF2/eNOS/ERK signaling pathway under physiological conditions
  51. Interaction between the PI3K/AKT pathway and mitochondrial autophagy in macrophages and the leukocyte count in rats with LPS-induced pulmonary infection
  52. Meta-analysis of the rs231775 locus polymorphism in the CTLA-4 gene and the susceptibility to Graves’ disease in children
  53. Cloning, subcellular localization and expression of phosphate transporter gene HvPT6 of hulless barley
  54. Coptisine mitigates diabetic nephropathy via repressing the NRLP3 inflammasome
  55. Significant elevated CXCL14 and decreased IL-39 levels in patients with tuberculosis
  56. Whole-exome sequencing applications in prenatal diagnosis of fetal bowel dilatation
  57. Gemella morbillorum infective endocarditis: A case report and literature review
  58. An unusual ectopic thymoma clonal evolution analysis: A case report
  59. Severe cumulative skin toxicity during toripalimab combined with vemurafenib following toripalimab alone
  60. Detection of V. vulnificus septic shock with ARDS using mNGS
  61. Novel rare genetic variants of familial and sporadic pulmonary atresia identified by whole-exome sequencing
  62. The influence and mechanistic action of sperm DNA fragmentation index on the outcomes of assisted reproduction technology
  63. Novel compound heterozygous mutations in TELO2 in an infant with You-Hoover-Fong syndrome: A case report and literature review
  64. ctDNA as a prognostic biomarker in resectable CLM: Systematic review and meta-analysis
  65. Diagnosis of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis by metagenomic next-generation sequencing: A case report
  66. Phylogenetic analysis of promoter regions of human Dolichol kinase (DOLK) and orthologous genes using bioinformatics tools
  67. Collagen changes in rabbit conjunctiva after conjunctival crosslinking
  68. Effects of NM23 transfection of human gastric carcinoma cells in mice
  69. Oral nifedipine and phytosterol, intravenous nicardipine, and oral nifedipine only: Three-arm, retrospective, cohort study for management of severe preeclampsia
  70. Case report of hepatic retiform hemangioendothelioma: A rare tumor treated with ultrasound-guided microwave ablation
  71. Curcumin induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells by decreasing the expression of STAT3/VEGF/HIF-1α signaling
  72. Rare presentation of double-clonal Waldenström macroglobulinemia with pulmonary embolism: A case report
  73. Giant duplication of the transverse colon in an adult: A case report and literature review
  74. Ectopic thyroid tissue in the breast: A case report
  75. SDR16C5 promotes proliferation and migration and inhibits apoptosis in pancreatic cancer
  76. Vaginal metastasis from breast cancer: A case report
  77. Screening of the best time window for MSC transplantation to treat acute myocardial infarction with SDF-1α antibody-loaded targeted ultrasonic microbubbles: An in vivo study in miniswine
  78. Inhibition of TAZ impairs the migration ability of melanoma cells
  79. Molecular complexity analysis of the diagnosis of Gitelman syndrome in China
  80. Effects of maternal calcium and protein intake on the development and bone metabolism of offspring mice
  81. Identification of winter wheat pests and diseases based on improved convolutional neural network
  82. Ultra-multiplex PCR technique to guide treatment of Aspergillus-infected aortic valve prostheses
  83. Virtual high-throughput screening: Potential inhibitors targeting aminopeptidase N (CD13) and PIKfyve for SARS-CoV-2
  84. Immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer patients with COVID-19
  85. Utility of methylene blue mixed with autologous blood in preoperative localization of pulmonary nodules and masses
  86. Integrated analysis of the microbiome and transcriptome in stomach adenocarcinoma
  87. Berberine suppressed sarcopenia insulin resistance through SIRT1-mediated mitophagy
  88. DUSP2 inhibits the progression of lupus nephritis in mice by regulating the STAT3 pathway
  89. Lung abscess by Fusobacterium nucleatum and Streptococcus spp. co-infection by mNGS: A case series
  90. Genetic alterations of KRAS and TP53 in intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma associated with poor prognosis
  91. Granulomatous polyangiitis involving the fourth ventricle: Report of a rare case and a literature review
  92. Studying infant mortality: A demographic analysis based on data mining models
  93. Metaplastic breast carcinoma with osseous differentiation: A report of a rare case and literature review
  94. Protein Z modulates the metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma cells
  95. Inhibition of pyroptosis and apoptosis by capsaicin protects against LPS-induced acute kidney injury through TRPV1/UCP2 axis in vitro
  96. TAK-242, a toll-like receptor 4 antagonist, against brain injury by alleviates autophagy and inflammation in rats
  97. Primary mediastinum Ewing’s sarcoma with pleural effusion: A case report and literature review
  98. Association of ADRB2 gene polymorphisms and intestinal microbiota in Chinese Han adolescents
  99. Tanshinone IIA alleviates chondrocyte apoptosis and extracellular matrix degeneration by inhibiting ferroptosis
  100. Study on the cytokines related to SARS-Cov-2 in testicular cells and the interaction network between cells based on scRNA-seq data
  101. Effect of periostin on bone metabolic and autophagy factors during tooth eruption in mice
  102. HP1 induces ferroptosis of renal tubular epithelial cells through NRF2 pathway in diabetic nephropathy
  103. Intravaginal estrogen management in postmenopausal patients with vaginal squamous intraepithelial lesions along with CO2 laser ablation: A retrospective study
  104. Hepatocellular carcinoma cell differentiation trajectory predicts immunotherapy, potential therapeutic drugs, and prognosis of patients
  105. Effects of physical exercise on biomarkers of oxidative stress in healthy subjects: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
  106. Identification of lysosome-related genes in connection with prognosis and immune cell infiltration for drug candidates in head and neck cancer
  107. Development of an instrument-free and low-cost ELISA dot-blot test to detect antibodies against SARS-CoV-2
  108. Research progress on gas signal molecular therapy for Parkinson’s disease
  109. Adiponectin inhibits TGF-β1-induced skin fibroblast proliferation and phenotype transformation via the p38 MAPK signaling pathway
  110. The G protein-coupled receptor-related gene signatures for predicting prognosis and immunotherapy response in bladder urothelial carcinoma
  111. α-Fetoprotein contributes to the malignant biological properties of AFP-producing gastric cancer
  112. CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 axis in placenta tissues of patients with placenta previa
  113. Association between thyroid stimulating hormone levels and papillary thyroid cancer risk: A meta-analysis
  114. Significance of sTREM-1 and sST2 combined diagnosis for sepsis detection and prognosis prediction
  115. Diagnostic value of serum neuroactive substances in the acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease complicated with depression
  116. Research progress of AMP-activated protein kinase and cardiac aging
  117. TRIM29 knockdown prevented the colon cancer progression through decreasing the ubiquitination levels of KRT5
  118. Cross-talk between gut microbiota and liver steatosis: Complications and therapeutic target
  119. Metastasis from small cell lung cancer to ovary: A case report
  120. The early diagnosis and pathogenic mechanisms of sepsis-related acute kidney injury
  121. The effect of NK cell therapy on sepsis secondary to lung cancer: A case report
  122. Erianin alleviates collagen-induced arthritis in mice by inhibiting Th17 cell differentiation
  123. Loss of ACOX1 in clear cell renal cell carcinoma and its correlation with clinical features
  124. Signalling pathways in the osteogenic differentiation of periodontal ligament stem cells
  125. Crosstalk between lactic acid and immune regulation and its value in the diagnosis and treatment of liver failure
  126. Clinicopathological features and differential diagnosis of gastric pleomorphic giant cell carcinoma
  127. Traumatic brain injury and rTMS-ERPs: Case report and literature review
  128. Extracellular fibrin promotes non-small cell lung cancer progression through integrin β1/PTEN/AKT signaling
  129. Knockdown of DLK4 inhibits non-small cell lung cancer tumor growth by downregulating CKS2
  130. The co-expression pattern of VEGFR-2 with indicators related to proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation of anagen hair follicles
  131. Inflammation-related signaling pathways in tendinopathy
  132. CD4+ T cell count in HIV/TB co-infection and co-occurrence with HL: Case report and literature review
  133. Clinical analysis of severe Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia: Case series study
  134. Bioinformatics analysis to identify potential biomarkers for the pulmonary artery hypertension associated with the basement membrane
  135. Influence of MTHFR polymorphism, alone or in combination with smoking and alcohol consumption, on cancer susceptibility
  136. Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don counteracts the ampicillin resistance in multiple antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by downregulation of PBP2a synthesis
  137. Combination of a bronchogenic cyst in the thoracic spinal canal with chronic myelocytic leukemia
  138. Bacterial lipoprotein plays an important role in the macrophage autophagy and apoptosis induced by Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus
  139. TCL1A+ B cells predict prognosis in triple-negative breast cancer through integrative analysis of single-cell and bulk transcriptomic data
  140. Ezrin promotes esophageal squamous cell carcinoma progression via the Hippo signaling pathway
  141. Ferroptosis: A potential target of macrophages in plaque vulnerability
  142. Predicting pediatric Crohn's disease based on six mRNA-constructed risk signature using comprehensive bioinformatic approaches
  143. Applications of genetic code expansion and photosensitive UAAs in studying membrane proteins
  144. HK2 contributes to the proliferation, migration, and invasion of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cells by enhancing the ERK1/2 signaling pathway
  145. IL-17 in osteoarthritis: A narrative review
  146. Circadian cycle and neuroinflammation
  147. Probiotic management and inflammatory factors as a novel treatment in cirrhosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis
  148. Hemorrhagic meningioma with pulmonary metastasis: Case report and literature review
  149. SPOP regulates the expression profiles and alternative splicing events in human hepatocytes
  150. Knockdown of SETD5 inhibited glycolysis and tumor growth in gastric cancer cells by down-regulating Akt signaling pathway
  151. PTX3 promotes IVIG resistance-induced endothelial injury in Kawasaki disease by regulating the NF-κB pathway
  152. Pancreatic ectopic thyroid tissue: A case report and analysis of literature
  153. The prognostic impact of body mass index on female breast cancer patients in underdeveloped regions of northern China differs by menopause status and tumor molecular subtype
  154. Report on a case of liver-originating malignant melanoma of unknown primary
  155. Case report: Herbal treatment of neutropenic enterocolitis after chemotherapy for breast cancer
  156. The fibroblast growth factor–Klotho axis at molecular level
  157. Characterization of amiodarone action on currents in hERG-T618 gain-of-function mutations
  158. A case report of diagnosis and dynamic monitoring of Listeria monocytogenes meningitis with NGS
  159. Effect of autologous platelet-rich plasma on new bone formation and viability of a Marburg bone graft
  160. Small breast epithelial mucin as a useful prognostic marker for breast cancer patients
  161. Continuous non-adherent culture promotes transdifferentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells into retinal lineage
  162. Nrf3 alleviates oxidative stress and promotes the survival of colon cancer cells by activating AKT/BCL-2 signal pathway
  163. Favorable response to surufatinib in a patient with necrolytic migratory erythema: A case report
  164. Case report of atypical undernutrition of hypoproteinemia type
  165. Down-regulation of COL1A1 inhibits tumor-associated fibroblast activation and mediates matrix remodeling in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer
  166. Sarcoma protein kinase inhibition alleviates liver fibrosis by promoting hepatic stellate cells ferroptosis
  167. Research progress of serum eosinophil in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma
  168. Clinicopathological characteristics of co-existing or mixed colorectal cancer and neuroendocrine tumor: Report of five cases
  169. Role of menopausal hormone therapy in the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis
  170. Precisional detection of lymph node metastasis using tFCM in colorectal cancer
  171. Advances in diagnosis and treatment of perimenopausal syndrome
  172. A study of forensic genetics: ITO index distribution and kinship judgment between two individuals
  173. Acute lupus pneumonitis resembling miliary tuberculosis: A case-based review
  174. Plasma levels of CD36 and glutathione as biomarkers for ruptured intracranial aneurysm
  175. Fractalkine modulates pulmonary angiogenesis and tube formation by modulating CX3CR1 and growth factors in PVECs
  176. Novel risk prediction models for deep vein thrombosis after thoracotomy and thoracoscopic lung cancer resections, involving coagulation and immune function
  177. Exploring the diagnostic markers of essential tremor: A study based on machine learning algorithms
  178. Evaluation of effects of small-incision approach treatment on proximal tibia fracture by deep learning algorithm-based magnetic resonance imaging
  179. An online diagnosis method for cancer lesions based on intelligent imaging analysis
  180. Medical imaging in rheumatoid arthritis: A review on deep learning approach
  181. Predictive analytics in smart healthcare for child mortality prediction using a machine learning approach
  182. Utility of neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio and platelet–lymphocyte ratio in predicting acute-on-chronic liver failure survival
  183. A biomedical decision support system for meta-analysis of bilateral upper-limb training in stroke patients with hemiplegia
  184. TNF-α and IL-8 levels are positively correlated with hypobaric hypoxic pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary vascular remodeling in rats
  185. Stochastic gradient descent optimisation for convolutional neural network for medical image segmentation
  186. Comparison of the prognostic value of four different critical illness scores in patients with sepsis-induced coagulopathy
  187. Application and teaching of computer molecular simulation embedded technology and artificial intelligence in drug research and development
  188. Hepatobiliary surgery based on intelligent image segmentation technology
  189. Value of brain injury-related indicators based on neural network in the diagnosis of neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy
  190. Analysis of early diagnosis methods for asymmetric dementia in brain MR images based on genetic medical technology
  191. Early diagnosis for the onset of peri-implantitis based on artificial neural network
  192. Clinical significance of the detection of serum IgG4 and IgG4/IgG ratio in patients with thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy
  193. Forecast of pain degree of lumbar disc herniation based on back propagation neural network
  194. SPA-UNet: A liver tumor segmentation network based on fused multi-scale features
  195. Systematic evaluation of clinical efficacy of CYP1B1 gene polymorphism in EGFR mutant non-small cell lung cancer observed by medical image
  196. Rehabilitation effect of intelligent rehabilitation training system on hemiplegic limb spasms after stroke
  197. A novel approach for minimising anti-aliasing effects in EEG data acquisition
  198. ErbB4 promotes M2 activation of macrophages in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
  199. Clinical role of CYP1B1 gene polymorphism in prediction of postoperative chemotherapy efficacy in NSCLC based on individualized health model
  200. Lung nodule segmentation via semi-residual multi-resolution neural networks
  201. Evaluation of brain nerve function in ICU patients with Delirium by deep learning algorithm-based resting state MRI
  202. A data mining technique for detecting malignant mesothelioma cancer using multiple regression analysis
  203. Markov model combined with MR diffusion tensor imaging for predicting the onset of Alzheimer’s disease
  204. Effectiveness of the treatment of depression associated with cancer and neuroimaging changes in depression-related brain regions in patients treated with the mediator-deuterium acupuncture method
  205. Molecular mechanism of colorectal cancer and screening of molecular markers based on bioinformatics analysis
  206. Monitoring and evaluation of anesthesia depth status data based on neuroscience
  207. Exploring the conformational dynamics and thermodynamics of EGFR S768I and G719X + S768I mutations in non-small cell lung cancer: An in silico approaches
  208. Optimised feature selection-driven convolutional neural network using gray level co-occurrence matrix for detection of cervical cancer
  209. Incidence of different pressure patterns of spinal cerebellar ataxia and analysis of imaging and genetic diagnosis
  210. Pathogenic bacteria and treatment resistance in older cardiovascular disease patients with lung infection and risk prediction model
  211. Adoption value of support vector machine algorithm-based computed tomography imaging in the diagnosis of secondary pulmonary fungal infections in patients with malignant hematological disorders
  212. From slides to insights: Harnessing deep learning for prognostic survival prediction in human colorectal cancer histology
  213. Ecology and Environmental Science
  214. Monitoring of hourly carbon dioxide concentration under different land use types in arid ecosystem
  215. Comparing the differences of prokaryotic microbial community between pit walls and bottom from Chinese liquor revealed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing
  216. Effects of cadmium stress on fruits germination and growth of two herbage species
  217. Bamboo charcoal affects soil properties and bacterial community in tea plantations
  218. Optimization of biogas potential using kinetic models, response surface methodology, and instrumental evidence for biodegradation of tannery fleshings during anaerobic digestion
  219. Understory vegetation diversity patterns of Platycladus orientalis and Pinus elliottii communities in Central and Southern China
  220. Studies on macrofungi diversity and discovery of new species of Abortiporus from Baotianman World Biosphere Reserve
  221. Food Science
  222. Effect of berrycactus fruit (Myrtillocactus geometrizans) on glutamate, glutamine, and GABA levels in the frontal cortex of rats fed with a high-fat diet
  223. Guesstimate of thymoquinone diversity in Nigella sativa L. genotypes and elite varieties collected from Indian states using HPTLC technique
  224. Analysis of bacterial community structure of Fuzhuan tea with different processing techniques
  225. Untargeted metabolomics reveals sour jujube kernel benefiting the nutritional value and flavor of Morchella esculenta
  226. Mycobiota in Slovak wine grapes: A case study from the small Carpathians wine region
  227. Elemental analysis of Fadogia ancylantha leaves used as a nutraceutical in Mashonaland West Province, Zimbabwe
  228. Microbiological transglutaminase: Biotechnological application in the food industry
  229. Influence of solvent-free extraction of fish oil from catfish (Clarias magur) heads using a Taguchi orthogonal array design: A qualitative and quantitative approach
  230. Chromatographic analysis of the chemical composition and anticancer activities of Curcuma longa extract cultivated in Palestine
  231. The potential for the use of leghemoglobin and plant ferritin as sources of iron
  232. Investigating the association between dietary patterns and glycemic control among children and adolescents with T1DM
  233. Bioengineering and Biotechnology
  234. Biocompatibility and osteointegration capability of β-TCP manufactured by stereolithography 3D printing: In vitro study
  235. Clinical characteristics and the prognosis of diabetic foot in Tibet: A single center, retrospective study
  236. Agriculture
  237. Biofertilizer and NPSB fertilizer application effects on nodulation and productivity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) at Sodo Zuria, Southern Ethiopia
  238. On correlation between canopy vegetation and growth indexes of maize varieties with different nitrogen efficiencies
  239. Exopolysaccharides from Pseudomonas tolaasii inhibit the growth of Pleurotus ostreatus mycelia
  240. A transcriptomic evaluation of the mechanism of programmed cell death of the replaceable bud in Chinese chestnut
  241. Melatonin enhances salt tolerance in sorghum by modulating photosynthetic performance, osmoregulation, antioxidant defense, and ion homeostasis
  242. Effects of plant density on alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) seed yield in western Heilongjiang areas
  243. Identification of rice leaf diseases and deficiency disorders using a novel DeepBatch technique
  244. Artificial intelligence and internet of things oriented sustainable precision farming: Towards modern agriculture
  245. Animal Sciences
  246. Effect of ketogenic diet on exercise tolerance and transcriptome of gastrocnemius in mice
  247. Combined analysis of mRNA–miRNA from testis tissue in Tibetan sheep with different FecB genotypes
  248. Isolation, identification, and drug resistance of a partially isolated bacterium from the gill of Siniperca chuatsi
  249. Tracking behavioral changes of confined sows from the first mating to the third parity
  250. The sequencing of the key genes and end products in the TLR4 signaling pathway from the kidney of Rana dybowskii exposed to Aeromonas hydrophila
  251. Development of a new candidate vaccine against piglet diarrhea caused by Escherichia coli
  252. Plant Sciences
  253. Crown and diameter structure of pure Pinus massoniana Lamb. forest in Hunan province, China
  254. Genetic evaluation and germplasm identification analysis on ITS2, trnL-F, and psbA-trnH of alfalfa varieties germplasm resources
  255. Tissue culture and rapid propagation technology for Gentiana rhodantha
  256. Effects of cadmium on the synthesis of active ingredients in Salvia miltiorrhiza
  257. Cloning and expression analysis of VrNAC13 gene in mung bean
  258. Chlorate-induced molecular floral transition revealed by transcriptomes
  259. Effects of warming and drought on growth and development of soybean in Hailun region
  260. Effects of different light conditions on transient expression and biomass in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves
  261. Comparative analysis of the rhizosphere microbiome and medicinally active ingredients of Atractylodes lancea from different geographical origins
  262. Distinguish Dianthus species or varieties based on chloroplast genomes
  263. Comparative transcriptomes reveal molecular mechanisms of apple blossoms of different tolerance genotypes to chilling injury
  264. Study on fresh processing key technology and quality influence of Cut Ophiopogonis Radix based on multi-index evaluation
  265. An advanced approach for fig leaf disease detection and classification: Leveraging image processing and enhanced support vector machine methodology
  266. Erratum
  267. Erratum to “Protein Z modulates the metastasis of lung adenocarcinoma cells”
  268. Erratum to “BRCA1 subcellular localization regulated by PI3K signaling pathway in triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells and hormone-sensitive T47D cells”
  269. Retraction
  270. Retraction to “Protocatechuic acid attenuates cerebral aneurysm formation and progression by inhibiting TNF-alpha/Nrf-2/NF-kB-mediated inflammatory mechanisms in experimental rats”
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