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Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films

  • Xiaowei Zhu , Yue Li , Yilun Shi , Lanjie Hou , Guoxian Wang , Zhoukun He EMAIL logo and Xiaorong Lan EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Complex microstructures can be produced from different base materials by combining three-dimensional (3D) printing technology and ink formulations. The surface wettability of the 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), particularly its superhydrophobic property, strongly depends on its physical structure. However, the mechanism underlying the effect of the microporous structure on the mechanical properties is not understood, which seriously constrains the structural–functional integration design of the 3D-printed superhydrophobic porous PDMS. To solve this problem, we studied the influence of the printing parameters on the mechanical properties in the compression and tension directions using a finite element method. The results showed that the load transfer path of the 3D-printed porous PDMS was along the overlapping area of the adjacent filaments. As the filament spacing decreased or the filament diameter increased, the elastic modulus of the porous PDMS was enhanced, improving its resistance to tensile and compressive deformation. A quantitative relationship was established between the relative densities of the porous PDMS films and their relative elastic moduli. This study provides theoretical guidance for the structural–functional integration design of 3D-printed superhydrophobic porous PDMS.

Graphical abstract

This study presents a numerical simulation of the structure–mechanical relationship of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) films with superhydrophobic properties. The influence of the printing parameters (filament spacing and filament diameter) on the mechanical properties was studied in the compression and tension directions using a finite element method. The results showed that the load transfer path of the 3D-printed porous PDMS was along the overlapping area of the adjacent filaments. As the filament spacing decreased or the filament diameter increased, the elastic modulus of the porous PDMS was enhanced, improving its resistance to tensile and compressive deformation.

Keywords: PDMS; 3D printing; mechanical properties

1 Introduction

After billions of years of selection, some plants and animals have evolved functional surfaces with specific wettabilities [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12], including superhydrophobicity and anisotropic surface wettability (ASW), showing a wide range of important applications in self-cleaning surfaces [13,14,15], antifouling [16,17,18,19,20,21], directional water or fog collection or transportation [22,23,24,25], etc. [26,27,28,29,30,31]. For example, the combination of micro- and nanoscale papillae and low surface energy waxes makes lotus leaves superhydrophobic with a water contact angle (WCA) greater than 150°, resulting in strong water repellency. For the ASW surfaces, such as rice leaves and butterfly wings [32,33,34], the static WCAs and dynamic water rolling angles vary in different directions, allowing water droplets to move in only one direction. This special surface wettability is usually attributed to the physical discontinuity and chemical heterogeneity of the biological surfaces, inspiring considerable research interest from both the scientific and industrial communities [35,36].

In recent decades, it has been recognized that the specific surface wettability of biological surfaces is largely dependent on their unique micro- and nanostructures and surface chemistry. Various methods have been developed to create biomimetic surfaces with specific surface wettabilities [37,38,39,40]. For example, dip coating [41], spray coating [42], and chemical or physical etching [43] have been used to create micro- and nanoscale roughness with low surface energies. These methods usually involve multistep processing with limited precision in structural control, resulting in random surface structures, defects, and poor durability on the prepared superhydrophobic surfaces. Moreover, to achieve ASW, additional modulation of the chemical composition or physical structure at the micro- and nanoscales is often required [44,45], which involves complex manufacturing processes and expensive equipment. For example, laser etching has been used to create asymmetric geometric (topographic) structures (e.g., grooves and fibers) and anisotropic wetting surfaces [46,47].

In recent years, 3D printing technologies have attracted increasing attention in constructing specific surfaces and micro- and nanostructures owing to the advantages of flexible design and manufacturing freedom [48,49,50,51,52,53,54]. For direct ink writing (DIW) 3D printing, structural control can be achieved by modulating the ink formulation and printing parameters. In our previous study, the physical structure and surface wettability of the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) film were controlled by regulating the printing parameters (e.g., filament spacing and filament diameter) to produce porous PDMS with superhydrophobic properties and good mechanical stability [2,13]. In addition, the structures of the regular porous PDMS or other thermoplastic elastomers containing hydrophobic silica or other types of nanoparticles were further optimized for various applications [55,56,57]. Adjusting the porous structure of the 3D-printed PDMS not only modulates its superhydrophobic properties but also has a significant impact on its mechanical properties [58,59,60,61].

However, there is a lack of theoretical guidance to correlate the structural parameters with the mechanical properties of the porous PDMS with superhydrophobic performance. Therefore, based on previous experiments, this study presents a quantitative analysis of the influence of structural parameters (filament diameter and filament spacing) on the mechanical properties (compression and tension strengths) of the 3D-printed superhydrophobic porous PDMS using an FEM. This study provides theoretical guidance on the structural design for the preparation of mechanically stable superhydrophobic regularized porous PDMS via 3D printing. The established relationships between structure and mechanical property are also useful for the structure–function integration in designing adaptive robotics, biomaterials, waterproof protection, and directional transport.

2 Methods

2.1 Preparation of 3D-printed porous PDMS

Based on the pre-planned printing path (Figure 1a) [2], the PDMS printing ink (Dow Corning SE1700) was extruded from the nozzle with a typical 150 μm inner diameter in the form of filaments by DIW 3D printing technology. The PDMS printing ink was printed layer by layer to form four-layer porous structural features (Figure 1b). The default 3D printing parameters to design porous PDMS film are summarized in Table 1. Then, the 3D-printed porous PDMS was transferred to an oven and cured at 125°C for 24 h. The structural characteristics of the porous PDMS determine its hydrophobicity and mechanical properties. To analyze the deformation mechanism and internal stress state of the porous PDMS under uniaxial loading, the influence of the printing parameters on the mechanical properties was studied in the compression and tension directions using an FEM.

Figure 1 (a) Scheme and (b) snapshot of the 3D printing process of porous PDMS films.
Figure 1

(a) Scheme and (b) snapshot of the 3D printing process of porous PDMS films.

Table 1

FEM simulation conditions for porous PDMS

Model number Print layers Filament diameter d (mm) Filament spacing/(mm) Porosity φ (%)
Foam-4-0.37-0.4 4 0.37 0.4 10.1
Foam-4-0.37-0.6 0.6 34.4
Foam-4-0.37-0.8 0.8 48.5
Foam-4-0.37-1.0 1.0 57.8
Foam-4-0.37-1.2 1.2 64.3
Foam-4-0.31-0.4 4 0.31 0.4 24.2
Foam-4-0.31-0.6 0.6 47.2
Foam-4-0.31-0.8 0.8 59.5
Foam-4-0.31-1.0 1.0 67.3
Foam-4-0.31-1.2 1.2 72.4
Foam-4-0.25-0.4 4 0.25 0.4 42.3
Foam-4-0.25-0.6 0.6 61.1
Foam-4-0.25-0.8 0.8 70.7
Foam-4-0.25-1.0 1.0 76.5
Foam-4-0.25-1.2 1.2 80.3

2.2 Constitutive model for PDMS

In this study, the mechanical properties of the PDMS matrix materials were characterized based on the Mooney–Rivlin model [62], as shown in equation (1):

(1) U = C 10 ( I 1 − 3 ) + C 01 ( I 2 − 3 ) + 1 D 1 ( J − 1 ) 2 ,

where U is the strain energy of the materials; C 10 and C 01 are the fitted material coefficients, respectively; I 1 and I 2 are the first and second invariants of the strain bias, respectively; J is the elastic volume ratio; and D 1 determines the compressibility of the material.

The fitting of the parameters of the superelastic constitutive model for rubber materials needs to be based on uniaxial tensile and compression tests, biaxial tensile and compression tests, planar tensile and compression tests, and volumetric tensile and compression tests. The more data from the aforementioned tests, the more accurate the model, but considering the cost of the tests, the uniaxial experimental data are often fitted to obtain the parameters of the superelastic constitutive model and the stability of the model in terms of other mechanical behaviors is evaluated based on the finite element analysis program. Because the intrinsic model we obtained was evaluated to have better stability in other mechanical properties, its complex mechanical behavior characteristics can be better restored. Thus, the material properties of PDMS obtained based on the compression test are suitable to be used for the tensile test sample. Therefore, in this study, only the uniaxial compressive behavior of the PDMS block was tested using a universal material testing machine (CTM4304S, Shenzhen Suns Technology Stock Co., LTD, China) at a loading rate of 2 mm/s based on the international standard (ISO 7743-2017). Owing to the stress-softening phenomenon of the PDMS material, the third loading test dataset was selected to characterize its uniaxial compression performance.

Based on the constitutive model, the measured compressive stress–strain data of the PDMS block were fitted using the corresponding parameters (C 10, C 01, and D 1), and their final fitted values were 0.203741993, 0.08319049733, and 0.177210526, respectively. Numerical simulations of the PDMS block compression were first performed (Figure 2), and the experimental results were in good agreement with the simulated data, implying that the model could reflect the mechanical characteristics of the PDMS.

Figure 2 Comparison between experimental and numerical simulation of the compression behaviors of PDMS bulk.
Figure 2

Comparison between experimental and numerical simulation of the compression behaviors of PDMS bulk.

2.3 FEM

Considering that the 3D-printed porous PDMS had a regular structure in the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image, an FEM was constructed to reflect the structural characteristics shown in the SEM image (Figure 3a). The x-y plane was the in-plane orientation of the porous PDMS model (Figure 3b), and the layers of the PDMS filaments, except for the first layer, were cylindrical with six filaments per layer. The z-direction represented the height of the four layers of porous PDMS. The layer height (h, the distance between the center of the filament of adjacent layers) was 0.2 mm. The filaments in the intervening layer were aligned (Figure 3c). Boolean operation was used to remove the overlapping area of the upper and lower layers, and the entire porous PDMS model was considered. The SEM image and FEM of the porous PDMS with a filament diameter (d) of 0.37 mm and a filament spacing (l) of 0.6 mm were compared, and their structural characteristics were relatively consistent (Figure 3d and e) [2]. However, because the filament diameter (d, 0.37 mm) was close to two times the layer height (h, 0.2 mm) of the neighboring print layer, there might be sinking due to the overweight of the PDMS filament, which produced the phenomenon that the spacer layers were connected to the PDMS filament (Figure 3e). Although the actual 3D-printed PDMS films were hardly impossible to match the idealized FEM, the idealized FEM could show the force transfer path and deformation mechanism under compressive and tensile loads more clearly, and these conclusions could provide a reference to understand the force transfer path and deformation mechanism of actual 3D-printed PDMS films.

Figure 3 Comparison of physical structure of 3D-printed porous PDMS: (a) a whole FEM, (b) top-layer, and (c) cross-sectional physical features of an FEM, and (d and e) SEM images of the 3D-printed porous PDMS at different magnifications. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [2], Copyright 2017, Elsevier Ltd.
Figure 3

Comparison of physical structure of 3D-printed porous PDMS: (a) a whole FEM, (b) top-layer, and (c) cross-sectional physical features of an FEM, and (d and e) SEM images of the 3D-printed porous PDMS at different magnifications. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [2], Copyright 2017, Elsevier Ltd.

2.4 Working condition design

To study the influence of structural parameters on the mechanical properties (compression and tension) of 3D-printed superhydrophobic porous PDMS, a finite element simulation model was designed with the filament diameter and spacing as variables. The filament diameters (d) varied from 0.37, 0.31, to 0.25 mm by changing the printing speed from 0.75, 1.00, to 2.00 mm/s, while the spacing of the adjacent filaments was increased from 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, to 1.2 mm. These variables were combined orthogonally to design a geometric model. The layer height (h) was fixed as 0.2 mm. The operating conditions are listed in Table 1. Based on the geometry of the 3D-printed porous PDMS films, the foam porosity (φ) was extracted from the finite element analysis program.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Influence of structural parameters on the compression properties of porous PDMS

The hyperelastic behavior of 3D-printed porous PDMS films under compressive loading was similar to that of traditional foam materials. As shown in Figure 4a, the compressive stress of the porous PDMS increased linearly with the compressive strain until the strain reached 10%. To explore the deformation mechanism of the porous PDMS film at this stage, the stress cloud of the x-z section was obtained for “Foam-4-0.37-0.6” (Figure 4b). The compressive stresses in the z-direction of the 3D-printed PDMS were mainly transferred in a columnar pattern (yellow or green area in Figure 4b) from the top to the bottom along the overlapping area of adjacent layers. The stress values in the overlapping region were significantly higher than those in the non-overlapping region for the porous PDMS model. Thus, the compressive modulus of the elasticity of the porous PDMS films was mainly attributed to the axial deformation mechanism of these columns. As the compressive strain increased to 20%, the internal pores of the porous PDMS film gradually collapsed, and the stress distribution was homogenized, accelerating the stress growth (Figure 4c). At 40% compressive strain, the stress column in the porous films completely disappeared, and this densification state resulted in a rapid increase in the compressive stress.

Figure 4 Compression behaviors of porous PDMS model: (a) compressive stress–strain curve. Stress distributing graph in the x-z section of the model “Foam-4-0.37-0.6” at (b) 5% compressive strain and (c) 20% compressive strain.
Figure 4

Compression behaviors of porous PDMS model: (a) compressive stress–strain curve. Stress distributing graph in the x-z section of the model “Foam-4-0.37-0.6” at (b) 5% compressive strain and (c) 20% compressive strain.

Figure 5 shows the effect of filament spacing on the compression behavior of the porous PDMS with filament diameters of 0.37, 0.31, and 0.25 mm. When the filament diameter (d) was fixed, the resistance to compression deformation gradually increased as the filament spacing (l) decreased. At a specific filament spacing, the resistance to compressive deformation was gradually enhanced with the increase in the filament diameter (d). A larger filament diameter or a smaller filament spacing could decrease the porosity and increase the relative density of the porous PDMS, which is the main reason for the enhancement in its resistance to compressive deformation.

Figure 5 Effect of filament spacing on the compressive behaviors of 3D-printed porous PDMS films with different filament diameters: (a) 0.37 mm, (b) 0.31 mm, and (c) 0.25 mm.
Figure 5

Effect of filament spacing on the compressive behaviors of 3D-printed porous PDMS films with different filament diameters: (a) 0.37 mm, (b) 0.31 mm, and (c) 0.25 mm.

Therefore, by adjusting the diameter and spacing of the filaments, the compressive behavior could be regulated. As shown in Figure 6a, the compressive modulus E* in all FEMs reached a minimum of 0.07 MPa and a maximum of 1.83 MPa. To analyze the modulation mechanism quantitatively, the aforementioned data were fitted based on the relationship between the relative elastic modulus and the relative density of conventional foam materials (equations (2) and (3)) [63]:

(2) ρ ⁎ ρ S = π d 2 4 h l ,

(3) E ⁎ E S = C ρ ⁎ ρ S n ,

where ρ* and ρ S are the density of the porous and solid PDMS film, and C and n are the fitting coefficients, and E S is the elastic modulus of solid PDMS, which is approximately 2.58 MPa.

Figure 6 (a) Effects of the filament diameter and filament spacing on the compressive elastic modulus E*. The histograms within the same color represent similar compressive elastic modulus E*, and (b) relationship between the relative elastic modulus and the relative density of 3D-printed porous PDMS.
Figure 6

(a) Effects of the filament diameter and filament spacing on the compressive elastic modulus E*. The histograms within the same color represent similar compressive elastic modulus E*, and (b) relationship between the relative elastic modulus and the relative density of 3D-printed porous PDMS.

As shown in Figure 6b, the predicted curves are in good agreement with the simulated data, suggesting that the FEMs can provide theoretical guidance for the design of 3D-printed PDMS with superhydrophobic properties in terms of compressive mechanical behavior.

3.2 Influence of structural parameters on the tensile properties of porous PDMS

The uniaxial tensile behavior of 3D-printed porous PDMS films was similar to that of traditional rubber materials. Initially, the tensile stress increased linearly with increasing strain until the strain reached 15% (Figure 7a). To visualize the deformation mechanism of the porous PDMS, the Von-Mises stress cloud was obtained for model “Foam-4-0.37-0.6” at 100% tensile strain (Figure 7b). The internal stresses of the 3D-printed PDMS mainly transferred along the filaments parallel to the direction of the tensile force (green area in Figure 7b). The stress values in this region were significantly higher than those in the filament (blue area in Figure 7b) perpendicular to the direction of the tensile force. Thus, the 3D-printed porous PDMS is a typical orthotropic material, and its linear tensile modulus is mainly attributed to the filaments parallel to the force direction. In addition, stress concentration was observed in the overlapping area of the adjacent layers (red area in Figure 7b), where the stress value was significantly higher than that in the other areas. However, the maximum stress was approximately 4.3 MPa, which was lower than the ultimate tensile stress of PDMS (approximately 17 MPa). Therefore, the 3D-printed porous PDMS has excellent tensile properties for the requirements in typical environments.

Figure 7 Tensile mechanical behaviors of porous PDMS model: (a) tensile stress–strain curve and (b) Von-Mises stress distributing graph of the model “Foam-4-0.37-0.6” at 100% tensile strain.
Figure 7

Tensile mechanical behaviors of porous PDMS model: (a) tensile stress–strain curve and (b) Von-Mises stress distributing graph of the model “Foam-4-0.37-0.6” at 100% tensile strain.

Figure 8 shows the effect of filament spacing on the tensile performance of the porous PDMS with filament diameters of 0.37, 0.31, and 0.25 mm. The resistance to tensile deformation gradually increased as the filament spacing (l) decreased, provided that the diameter of the filament (d) was fixed. With the increase in filament diameter, the resistance to tensile deformation was enhanced when the filament spacing was fixed. Similar to the effects of increasing filament diameter or decreasing filament spacing on improving the resistance to compressive deformation, the adjustment of the printing parameters essentially affects the porosity of the porous PDMS, which, in turn, affects its tensile mechanical properties.

Figure 8 Effect of filament spacing on the tension behaviors of 3D-printed porous PDMS films with different filament diameters: (a) 0.37 mm, (b) 0.31 mm, and (c) 0.25 mm.
Figure 8

Effect of filament spacing on the tension behaviors of 3D-printed porous PDMS films with different filament diameters: (a) 0.37 mm, (b) 0.31 mm, and (c) 0.25 mm.

Therefore, consistent with the previous modulation of the compressive mechanical behavior of 3D-printed PDMS by controlling the porosity characteristic parameters, a similar approach was used to modulate the tensile mechanical behavior. By adjusting the filament spacing and diameter, the tensile behavior of the 3D-printed porous PDMS can be regulated, as shown in Figure 9a. In all FEMs, the tensile modulus E* of the porous PDMS films reached a minimum of 0.13 MPa and a maximum of 0.85 MPa. To analyze this modulation mechanism quantitatively, the aforementioned data were fitted based on equation (3). As shown in Figure 9b, the predicted curves are also in good agreement with the simulated data, confirming that the FEMs can also provide theoretical guidance for the design of 3D-printed PDMS with superhydrophobic properties in terms of tensile mechanical behavior. It is important to point out that although samples are evaluated with only four layers in this study, the increase in the number of printed layers does not change the deformation mechanism of 3D-printed porous PDMS film under compressive and tensile loads in small deformation states, and therefore, the quantitative correlation between elastic modulus and structural features applies to 3D-printed films with more than four layers. However, when under large deformations, especially in compression, an increase in the number of printed layers may cause the structure to be more easily buckled, leading to the collapse of the microstructure.

Figure 9 (a) Effects of the filament diameter and filament spacing on the tensile elastic modulus E*. The histograms within the same color represent similar tensile elastic modulus E*, and (b) relationship between the relative tensile modulus and the relative density of 3D-printed porous PDMS.
Figure 9

(a) Effects of the filament diameter and filament spacing on the tensile elastic modulus E*. The histograms within the same color represent similar tensile elastic modulus E*, and (b) relationship between the relative tensile modulus and the relative density of 3D-printed porous PDMS.

4 Conclusions

This study presents a numerical simulation of the structure–mechanical relationship of 3D-printed porous PDMS films with superhydrophobic properties. The porous films exhibited a columnar force transfer path along the overlapping area of the adjacent filaments, which directly contributed to the compressive elastic modulus of the porous PDMS. Meanwhile, the 3D-printed porous PDMS possessed typical orthogonal anisotropy characteristics. The tensile stress in the PDMS filament along the force direction was significantly higher than that perpendicular to the force direction, and the tensile modulus was mainly attributed to the filament parallel to the force direction. In addition, the uniaxial compression and tensile properties could be controlled by adjusting the filament spacing and diameter. Therefore, a quantitative relationship was established between the relative density of porous PDMS and the relative elastic modulus (tensile and compressive). This study provides theoretical guidance for the structural–functional integration design of 3D-printed superhydrophobic porous PDMS.

  1. Funding information: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51873240), the Henan Provincial Science and Technology Research Project (No. 222102230080), the Henan Provincial Natural Science Foundation Youth Project (No. 232300420313), the Henan Key Laboratory of Grain and Oil Storage Facility and Safety Research Project (No.2023KF09), the Sichuan Science and Technology Program (No. 2022YFS0634), and the Key Research and Development Programs of Luzhou (No. 2022-GYF-12), the Talent Introduction Program of The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University (No. 2022BS02), and the Innovative Leading Talents Program of The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Southwest Medical University (No. 2022LJ02).

  2. Author contributions: Xiaowei Zhu, Zhoukun He, and Xiaorong Lan conceived and designed this study; Xiaowei Zhu, Yue Li, and Zhoukun He prepared the samples and wrote this manuscript; Yilun Shi, Lanjie Hou, Guoxian Wang, and Xiaorong Lan made the finite element analysis and revised this manuscript. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-06-27
Revised: 2023-11-17
Accepted: 2023-12-21
Published Online: 2023-12-31

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0188
Keywords for this article
PDMS; 3D printing; mechanical properties
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
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  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
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  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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