Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
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Maimona Saeed
,
Fatima Bibi
Abstract
Metals with high atomic weights and gravity are considered heavy metals (HMs). Rapid industrialization increases the content of harmful HMs in an ecosystem by affecting soil, water, and living organisms. One growing concern is a buildup of HMs in food crops including vegetables either by irrigation with wastewater containing HMs or from contaminated soil. Consumption of vegetables has potentially serious effects on living organisms. Various physical and chemical strategies are used but such methods have certain limitations. Nanoremediation, a combination of bioremediation and nanotechnology. represents an innovative way for sustainable removal of contaminants such as HMs. Nano-level understanding of cellular and molecular pathways is essential for treating HMs. Although the eco-toxicity of nanotechnology is a recent issue of concern, it is a promising strategy to deal with the pollution of the environment. These strategies can make the vegetables consumable with fewer HMs. Nanoparticles (NPs) are potentially adaptable for both in situ and ex situ HM treatment. This review provides a critical overview of recent nanoremediation technologies and the properties of NPs. Furthermore, considerable valuation of nanoremediation techniques was considered for dealing with contamination with special attention on health and the environment. The review further illustrates the ecological implementation of nanotechnology and provides a strong recommendation for the utilization of nanoremediation to improve the recent situation and justifiable future.
Graphical abstract
1 Sources of heavy metals (HMs) in soil
Due to their widespread use in both industrial and consumer items, including copper wire, lead-based paint, nanomaterials, and more, HMs are considered to be widespread environmental contaminants. According to Hou and Al-Tabbaa [1], O’Connor et al. [2], Zhao et al. [3], and Rascio and Navariizzo [4], HMs have an atomic mass of >20 with a specific gravity of >5 and include arsenic (As), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), and mercury (Hg).
Due to the expansion of industrial zones and agriculture, there is a tremendous population increase, and HM contamination has become a serious threat to the ecosystem as well as food security [5]. HM pollution is undetectable, enduring, and permanent. It also poses a serious hazard to health due to the buildup in the food chain and the degradation of food crops, water bodies, and the atmosphere [6]. Table 1 shows the harmful effects of HMs. For instance, Cd poisoning has a variety of harmful consequences on cellular components, primarily by creating an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants. Numerous malignancies, itai-itai disease, heart attack, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and diabetes have all been linked to Cd poisoning [7].
Sources of HMs and their harmful effects
| HMs | Symbols | Source | Diseases/effects | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lead | Pb | Paints, pesticides, fuel, and pica | Carcinogenic, neurotoxicity, bone and renal damage, and inhibition of heme synthesis | [155] |
| Cadmium | Cd | Paints, pigments, batteries, power stations, and pica | Pulmonary emphysema, hypertension, and skeletal deformation | [12] |
| Chromium | Cr | Manure, steel and tanning industry, and fly ash | Rapid loss of hair | [12] |
| Arsenic | As | Wood preservatives and fungicides | Interferes with ATP synthesis | [156] |
| Copper | Cu | Fertilizers and phosphate rock | Anemia, brain, and renal damage | [12] |
| Zinc | Zn | Fertilizers and some pesticides | Fatigue | [157] |
| Nickel | Ni | Surgical instruments, metal industry, and batteries | Neurotoxic, immunotoxic, liver and lungs damage, and cancer | [158,159] |
| Mercury | Hg | Mining, medical waste, and volcanic eruption | Depression, fatigue, loss of muscle coordination, and ulcers | [160] |
Because of growing public concern about the safety of agricultural products, soil HM pollution is a significant global environmental problem: 500 million ha of land are affected by 500 million locations of soil pollution worldwide [8,9]. Both anthropogenic activities and natural processes contribute HMs to the agro-ecosystem. For instance, Se contamination from edaphological sources was the root cause of the selenium poisonous issue in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Various studies have shown that various natural HM resources are typically of minimal significance when compared to anthropogenic activities [10,11].
The parent substance from which they were formed is one of the main causes of HMs in soils. About 95% of the crust of the Earth is composed of innovative rocks, while only 5% is made up of sedimentary rocks [12]. In general, HMs are abundant in basaltic-origin rocks. Natural HMs contained in rocks can infiltrate the soil environment [13]. Figure 1 shows various sources of HMs in soil.
Illustration showing transport and bioaccumulation of hazardous HMs in different plant parts.
HMs and metalloids can originate from a variety of sources, including industrial processes, the production of electricity, mining, smelting, trash spills, and the combustion and disposal of fossil fuels. Electrical equipment and electrical wastes are also important sources of HMs. The biology and function of urban soils may deteriorate as a result of excessive HM influx. Physicochemical changes in the soil could lead to other environmental issues [14,15,16,17]. Because of the possible hazards and detrimental impacts on soil ecosystems, the buildup of HMs and metalloids in soils is a growing source of worry [18,19,20,21].
2 Sources of HMs in vegetables
HM pollution is a significant environmental issue environmentally. They may enter the food chain after being absorbed by plants, which means that people get exposed to these HMs directly or indirectly [22]. To prevent chronic diseases like cardiovascular diseases, carcinoma, diabetes, and obesity to prevent and treat several micronutrient deficiencies, especially in less developed countries, it is advised to consume at least 400 g of fruit and vegetables each day (avoiding starchy tubers including potatoes) [23]. Most agricultural water needs are met by local wastewater supplies due to the scarcity and unavailability of pure water. Industrial waste water (IWW) from industrial sources, which contains HMs, is one type of such wastewater. As a result, untreated IWW poses serious risks to the long-term viability of the entire system, including the economy, society, and environment. Table 2 shows the HM contamination in soil, water, and vegetables.
HM contamination in agricultural soil, water, vegetables, or crops
| Source of HM contamination | HM species | Contamination | Vegetable/crop | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wastewater treatment plant | Zn, Cu, Pb, and Cd | Soil, water, and crops | Vicia faba, Triticum turgidum, Triticum æstivum, Eruca. sativa, Urtica dioica, Madia sativa, and Malus sylvestris | [158] |
| Soil | Hg | Vegetables | Piper nigrum, Spinacia oleracea, Brassica oleracea, Brassica rapa, Raphanus raphanistrum, Vigna unguiculata and Solnummelongena | [20] |
| Mine affected area | Cu, Pb, As, and Cd | Soil and vegetables | Pharsalus vulgaris, Solanum melongena, Piper nigum, Ipomoea aquatic, Ipomoea bacata, Amaranthus dubious, and Solanum Lycopersicum | [38] |
| Industrial and municipal sewage water | Cd, Pb, Ni, and Zn | Soil and crops | Oryza sativa | [161] |
| Human activities in river area | Cd, Mn, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb | Soil and vegetables | Spinacia oleracea, Lagenaria siceraria, Cucurbita maxima, and Solanum melongena | [124] |
| Fertilizers, pesticides and other farm inputs | Pb, Cd, and Cu | Agricultural soil | — | [34] |
| Urbanization | As, Zn, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb | Soil, water, and vegetables | Solanum lycopersicum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Triticum aestivum, Momordica charantia, and Brassica oleracea | [45] |
Consuming contaminated veggies has an impact on society, causing different health problems and a decline in quality of life in general. Therefore, using untreated water for agricultural purposes has a detrimental impact on the three fundamental pillars of sustainability: environmental, social, and economic [24]. The food chain and soil eventually become contaminated with particulate matter (PM) from industries and automobiles. One significant source of Hg pollution in soil is coal-fired power stations. According to Li and Feng [15], eating large quantities of foods like Lactuca sativa, Amaranthus virus, water spinach, cowpeas, and grains like rice that were cultivated in mercury-polluted sites is bad for human health. Similarly, several powerful source processes, including the use of wastewater for irrigation purposes and sewage sludge as a soil amendment, present a dire situation for the safety of the world’s food supply.
Sludge from various industries including distilleries, electroplating, textile, and leather is frequently seen with huge metal contents of Fe, Mn, Cu, and Cr. Electroplating effluent can have severe consequences such as stunted development, necrosis, chlorosis in leaves, and plant death. According to a study conducted in China, Pb-acid battery manufacturing facilities released metals bound in PM that were later deposited in soil and crops in the agroecosystem. Different HMs can be produced by phosphor gypsum from phosphate fertilizer waste in the soil and in crops. A waste product of the phosphate fertilizer industry called phosphogypsum (PG) has comparatively high amounts of various HMs, including Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, V, and Zn. The goal of the current study was to examine HM pollution in soils and tomatoes as well as to assess any potential health hazards related to consuming vegetables produced in soils that had been treated with PG. The soil was primarily Cd and Cr loaded, while tomatoes had the maximum bioavailability of Pb. The daily intake of metals and health risk index in that study were <1, showing health risks are not very serious. Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, and V were depleted to mildly enriched, whereas Cd was significantly enriched, according to the enrichment factor values [25].
Food crops’ primary source of nutrition is soil, which can be significantly impacted by HMs. HMs have negative effects on soil microbiota through various microbiological processes and soil–microbe interactions. Beneficial soil invertebrates, small and big mammals, and beneficial soil insects (particularly in agriculture) are all impacted. Research has shown that many medicinal plants when grown near smelting areas are found to accumulate HMs in them. Among them, greenhouse vegetables are found to be more affected by high contamination with HMs, including Cd and Mn when compared to open-field vegetables [26]. Table 3 describes the deposition of HMs in vegetables and their impacts.
Accumulation of HMs in different vegetables
| HMs | Vegetables | Impact of HMs on vegetables | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cr, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, and Pb | Potato (Solanum tuberosum), Red onion (Allium cepa), and wild carrots (Daucus carota) | HMs enter into plants mainly via roots from the soil and travel along the food chain | [49] |
| Fe, Cu, Zn, and Pb | Mustard (Brassica campestris), cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata), and spinach (Spinacea Oleracea) | Chlorophyll content and biomass due to the HMs decrease in the vegetables | [160] |
| Cu, Ni, Zn, Cr, Fe, Mn, Co, and Pb | Red onions (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), and eggplant (Solanum melongena) | Observed higher Cu and Zn uptake in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) compared to other vegetables. Zn and Cu form organometallic complexes with organic acids from root exudates, which results in increased plant uptake | [161,162] |
| Cd and Pb | Leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and Bitter lettuce (Lactuca virosa) | Cause damage even at very low concentrations, and healthy plants sometimes may contain the HMs concentrations that are toxic for mammals | [163] |
| Fe, As, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, and Hg | Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), blackberry (Solanum melongena), Tandalja bhaji (Amaranthus tricolor L.), Bathua (Chenopodium album L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), andcoriander (Coriandrum sativum) | HMs are deposited on the surface of vegetables and get absorbed into the different tissues of the vegetables | [64] |
| Fe, Co, Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, and Ni, | Spinach (Spinacea oleracea) | Spinach accumulated maximum amount of Cd, Pb, and Fe in all seasons | [124] |
During fetal development and infancy, exposure to Cd, Pb, and methylmercury compounds is particularly harmful because it irreversibly alters the central nervous system. Lead also damages the immune and reproductive systems, causes kidney and liver malfunctions, and interferes with the metabolism of iron, zinc, and copper. Lead also impairs heme biosynthesis and vitamin D metabolism. In addition to causing bone problems, liver damage, cardiovascular conditions, and disruption of the mineral balance in the body, cadmium is also neurotoxic and carcinogenic. The nervous system, particularly the growing fetal brain, suffers damage from mercury accumulation, which occurs mostly in brain tissue. It results in cardiovascular problems, limb muscle paralysis, hearing, speech, and vision impairments in adults. It also causes cardiovascular diseases, peripheral vascular problems, anemia, and reproductive system dysfunctions in addition to having genotoxic, neurotoxic (hearing difficulties), and carcinogenic effects [27].
According to Sun and Chen [28], there is a considerable danger of HMs in vegetables grown close to former industrial districts. Mahmood and Malik [29] explained that wastewater-irrigated soils are affected in terms of their physical and chemical characteristics, and also cause the uptake of HMs by plants, mainly vegetables. Vegetables planted in effluents collect more HMs than those grown in groundwater, according to earlier research from Pakistan [30,31,32]. Based on their research done in China, Khan et al. [33] likewise came to similar results.
The presence of soil metals causes plant uptake of those metals which are crucial to the metals’ bioavailability. According to various studies [34], the amount of these compounds that accumulate in plants depends on a variety of factors, such as type of soil, pH, humidity, and micronutrient content. Khan et al. [33] connected the soils’ elevated granulometric cadmium content first and foremost to their placement near active traffic corridors. Additionally, they demonstrated that the cadmium level of the examined crops was only very weakly related to the characteristics of the soil. The addition of phosphate in any form is found to have a role in increasing the permeability of As in deeper soil profiles and causing contamination of the groundwater table [35].
Evidence was presented by Wiseman et al. [36] and Bai et al. [37] indicating that soil age is a significant factor in modulating the bioavailability of metals in plants. Due to prolonged discharges of urban and industrial wastewater, older flat wetlands have greater concentrations of HMs. Fe and Mn originate from bedrock, according to a multivariate analysis; however, copper, zinc, cadmium, chromium, nickel, and lead arise from human activity. HM hazardous levels are higher in flat wetlands and regenerated wetlands in an older area observed because of their long history of reclamation compared with lowland wetlands [37]. According to Yang et al. [38], carrots have higher amounts of Cd in their edible sections than those in cucumber, radish, and tomato. Different plant species accumulate Cd in the following order, from highest to lowest: legumes, melons, alliums, roots, solanaceous vegetables, and leafy vegetables are some examples of vegetables.
Plants that are found ideal for phytoremediation have a set of characteristics including rapid growth rates, flourished root systems, more biomass, tolerance against HM concentration, and high metal accumulation capacity [39]. Such hyperaccumulators are found to have high absorption and detoxification capabilities with an effectively increased root-to-shoot transport system, causing such plants to be good at metal tolerance at a high level [40]. In locations with metal contamination, hyperaccumulating plants are those that accumulate greater than 100 mg/kg of cadmium in their shoots. About 500 species are considered to be hyperaccumulators of one or more metals so far. Less than 0.2% of the 300,000 vascular plants in the world’s inventory exhibit hyperaccumulation [41].
Various angiosperm families including Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Lamiaceae are frequently used as hyperaccumulators [42]. An extremophile HM hyperaccumulator model plant of the Brassicaceae family is the most researched plant family in terms of its propensity to collect HMs, notably Zn and Cd. Without any signs of toxicity, leaf Cd values of up to 10,000 mg kg/DW have been observed in some ecotypes of Noccaea caerulescens [43]. When compared to the typical Zn concentration for most plants, which is typically 25–150 mg/kg, can store 4,000 mg/kg zinc [44].
3 Toxicity of HMs in vegetables
With a density of more than 5 g/cm3, metalloids and HMs constitute Earth’s crust’s natural and structural component. Many of them are pollutants that are environmentally persistent and do not degrade. They are initially spread out on the soil’s surface, then taken up by plant roots’ apoplasts, and dispersed more and divided into their edible and inedible components putting the food chain immediately in danger [45,46]. Vegetables can also absorb a very small quantity of HMs through air deposition [47].
Because of the recent changes in agricultural and industrial land usage around the world, HM soil pollution is a serious environmental issue [48,49,50]. For terrestrial ecosystems, soil serves as a crucial supply of nutrients and a crucial source of minerals. One can estimate the extent of soil pollution by the content of HMs enriched in the soil [51]. The ingestion of plants grown in contaminated environments is also one of the exposure routes to HMs, in addition to inhaling polluted material (e.g., soil, water, and sediments) [52,48,50]. The main factors contributing to the rise in HM in agricultural soils include overuse of pesticides, fertilizers, contaminated water, waste, and air pollution deposition [53]. Higher concentrations of HM toxicity in plants may result from growing food crops on polluted soils [54]. HMs eventually join the food chain through bioaccumulation when soil elements disperse and roots absorb them [55]. These metals enter the body after intake of such plants, posing several health hazards [54,56]. Using these plants to prepare food may result in significant illnesses because it has been discovered that these components may migrate between various areas of the plant, such as between shoots and grains and shoots and roots [57]. According to studies, high amounts of HMs can cause cancer, as well as a variety of other illnesses affecting the blood, heart, kidneys, and bones [58]. If too many HMs are consumed through food, the human body’s biochemical and metabolic systems could be affected [59]. HMs may affect metabolic processes, genetic makeup, and embryonic development [60,61]. These metals are detrimental in numerous ways, making them one of the top 20 most dangerous compounds according to the US Environmental Protection Agency and the Agency for Toxic Compounds and Disease Registry [62,63].
For instance, a lot of As reaches agricultural fields and water sources through natural mechanisms including leaching from minerals and rocks rich in As, and anthropogenic activity-related inputs may make the levels much worse [51]. One relevant criterion for evaluating risks to human health worldwide is the metal and metalloid transfer factor from soil to plant. Risks to human health are intimately related to eating food crops that have been contaminated with metals [64]. Through consumption, potentially harmful metalloids and poisonous metals accumulated in rice kernels, water, and soil enter the human body. Basmati rice is highly valued for its superior cooking quality and tremendous commercial potential on a national and worldwide level. The eleventh-largest producer of rice is Pakistan and the fourth-largest exporter [65]. We must evaluate the number of elements in the basmati rice cultivar to aid in our understanding of the effects and potential risks to the general public’s health. In urban and peri-urban developing countries, wastewater is commonly used for irrigation in diluted, treated, and untreated forms [66]. However, using untreated or only partially treated water for a prolonged period causes HM deposition in soil. Using wastewater for crop irrigation has numerous advantages in addition to reducing water pollution, conserving nutrients and water, and supplying organic matter and nutrients to the soil [67]. However, using this water for crops has significant drawbacks, such as groundwater contamination, the development of hazardous microbes, and the buildup of HMs [68]. Although metal levels in water are minimal, plants and soil are proven to have high concentrations of metals [69,70,71,72]. As a result, using irrigation water from industrial and municipal waste sources may result in the buildup of HMs in soil and plants [73].
HM contamination is a severe environmental issue since it is hazardous to humans, wildlife, and agriculture [74,75,76]. Although HMs are necessary micronutrients and act as cofactors for many metabolic enzymes, most plants turn deadly when their concentrations in soil surpass a particular threshold [77]. HMs are significant contaminants that are present in vegetable tissues and surfaces [78]. Long-term consumption of these dangerous quantities may interfere with a variety of biochemical and biological functions in the human body [79]. Ahmed and Slima [74] stated that although the human body needs trace amounts of HMs such as copper, zinc, cobalt, and iron, larger concentrations are harmful to people. Several HMs, such as cadmium, As, mercury, and lead, are not recognized to be beneficial to human health despite the possibility that their accumulations could result in serious sickness or early death. Because leaves absorb HMs, plants, especially leafy vegetables, collect greater amounts of pollutants when grown in contaminated water than when grown in unrestricted water [80,81]. While some crops, like radish, are sensitive to sewage water, leafy vegetables like spinach, cauliflower, and cabbage grow very well in them [79]. HMs accumulate in vegetables utilizing sewage water for irrigation, posing serious risks to both human and animal health [82]. This problem is extremely concerning in areas where untreated sewage water is used to grow vegetables for longer periods. HM bioaccumulation, especially in food products, is extremely harmful to human health [83]. These metals enter the body mostly by ingestion and inhalation, with the former being the predominant way that people are exposed to them [84,85].
4 Transport mechanism of HMs in vegetables
HM contamination is viewed as a significant source of pollution and a potential risk to the environment and human health all over the world. These issues have garnered a lot of attention, particularly in developing nations [86]. Toxic metals may enter the environment as a result of both natural (volcanic eruptions, weathering, parent rock erosions, air deposition, etc.) and human-made activities (use of agro-chemicals, sewage disposal, mining, manufacturing, combustion of fossil fuels, compost application, and green manure) [87,88]. These sources have the potential to contaminate soil and crops in high amounts, which could have a multitude of negative effects [89]. For example, since both necessary and non-essential materials, especially HMs, have the potential to be fatal to living organisms, they have distinct effects on eco-toxicology [90]. Some HMs, such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn), are essential for the metabolic processes of both plants and animals, whereas others, such as chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni), are toxic to both plants and animals as well as to humans, even in small doses. Therefore, hazards to human health are present when there is an excessive buildup of HMs in soil and plants [33,91]. Due to their persistence and lengthy residence durations in soils, farmlands and crops in the area have had long-lasting effects from HMs like Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, and Mn [25,92]. Furthermore, the widespread presence of HMs alters the properties of agricultural soil and hinders crop production and soil activities [93]. Contamination of the food chain is one of the primary environmental routes for human exposure to HMs that may cause health issues. Root uptake from soil and soil solution is the primary mechanism by which the roots of vegetables absorb HMs [94]. Figure 1 shows the mechanism of HM transport in vegetables. Vegetables absorb metals from soil, air, and water, making HM bioaccumulation in edible parts of food crops a key source of pollutants in the human food chain [95]. Only a few of the numerous ways that HMs can enter the human body include ingestion of soil that has been directly contaminated with HMs, inadvertent direct ingestion of HM-contaminated soil, and inhalation of soil dust [96].
5 Conventional methods to treat HMs
The basic aim of the remediation method is to find a way to keep the ecosystem protected from harmful effects. The remediation method is always linked with a reduction of metal availability along with a decline in risk for a long time. The success of the remediation method depends on the following steps such as initial screening of methods, study of a contaminated site, finding out the best method for remediation, the layout of the remediation method, evaluation of the efficiency of the process, and reduction in contaminants [9]. In situ and ex situ techniques can be used for remediation. Both methods have various advantages and limitations as well. Ex situ method is considered to be the best method for remediation as it is cost-effective and easy to handle but it produces a huge amount of waste products that need major handling before their discharge. However, in situ methods cause less disturbance of the site, are used for a broad range of contaminants, are cheap, and decrease the risk of contamination spread [97]. According to the mode of application, remediation techniques are divided into three categories (Figure 2) and are discussed in the following sections.
Schematic representation of soil remediation methods.
5.1 Physical method
The remediation method based on physical amendments of soil is included in this category. Physical approach based on washing, excavation of soil, and capping of contaminated site.
5.1.1 Washing of soil
This is an easy method, where a solution is used to wash the polluted site from solid to aqueous solution. This is done by adding a dilute form of surfactants, acids, and bases. Washing steps consist of the removal of contaminants using massive soil, aqueous mixture cleaning of sediments, and the removal of contaminants from aqueous solution by chemical processes. The efficiency of the process can be increased by the addition of a few additives based on the physical and chemical nature of polluted sediments. Such additions must be effective and suitable for various treatments. Examples of additives are organic acid (ascorbic acid and oxalic acid), inorganic acid (nitric acid and sulfuric acid), and surfactants [98]. Because of its flexible chelating activity, EDTA is one of the most effective supplements for the removal of HMs, even though EDTA’s adverse effects on the environment and poor degradability have reduced its widespread use. With this cleaning treatment, sediment is proved to be less contaminated but not completely free from contaminants. Therefore, the success of this method depends on the quantification of several contaminants treated, which must be equal to the site-specific action limit. Instead of being deemed pollutant-free after cleaning, the sediment is regarded as pollutant-depleted. For this method to be effective, the quantity of pollutants treated must be quantified to be equal to the site-specific action limit. Such a technique works best for contaminants that have little affinity for sediments and coarse-grained sediments [63].
5.1.2 Capping
This is a cheap and non-intrusive technique for the removal of contaminants. The method is based on a reduction in solubility, movement, and amount of HM soil infiltration [98]. It often operates in the shallow marine phase. Typically, it is used in sub-aqueous environments. Apatite and sand are combined in a certain proportion and used to cover the polluted soil. The cap is made up of a base layer that holds the weight of the cap, an isolation layer that isolates pollutants from sedimentary rocks, a filter layer for the base layer’s safety, and an armor layer that prevents the filter and base layer from eroding. Capping can be done in two ways, active (reactively) and inactive (passively). The active method is based on the use of a cap with a spotless and impartial compound that acts as a mechanical bridge between contaminated sediment and the environment. The emission of hazardous metals has been linked to passive techniques and based on the use of reactive material resulted reduction in toxicity, mobility, and inaccessibility of pollutants in soil. Since the capping material can be wiped away, this method is not ideal for shallow water, marshes, or water bodies with high water flows [99].
5.1.3 Soil excavation
This method is based on the physical removal of contaminants from soil. Numerous ways are used to carry out this approach. It may be categorized into three methods: (i) Dirt removal and replacement with fresh soil to replace the polluted sediment. Such a process is very suitable for polluted sites of a minor scale. (ii) The extensive removal of contaminated soils for HM deterioration. (iii) Imports of fresh soil and addition to polluted soil to minimize the presence of HMs. This method is not cost-effective and can be used for only small area contamination [100].
5.2 Chemical method
This method is based on the use of various chemicals, principles, and reactions for the degradation of contaminants. Basic processes of immobilization, solidification, electrokinetics, and vitrification are used.
5.2.1 Immobilization
This process, which can be employed both ex situ and in situ, stagnates HMs. It frequently employs organic and inorganic chemicals to lower the transport, reactivity, and accessibility of HMs in the soil. The main aim of such a method is to change the availability of metals into a stabilized geochemistry phase, with the mobility of chemicals. It is done with a collective method of adsorption, precipitation, and complexation. Amendment stabilization depends upon the physical, chemical, and biological properties of HM, sediment, remediation method, remediation time, and assessment way. The very usual elements utilized for immobilization are phosphates, aluminum salts, materials with iron, mineral-containing mixtures, and silico-calcium reagents. Biochar, wood chips, turf, manure, sawdust, and sewage sludge are used as organic reagents for immobilization. A mixture of organic and inorganic amendments can be used for the stabilization of contaminated sediments [101].
5.2.2 Solidification
It is a method based on the use of amendments of contaminants with solid material to impose physical stability. The process of solidification is pollutants encapsulation in a solid matrix which may be fly ash, thermoplastic binders, and cement. Contaminated sediment is mixed with a binding agent along with auger spin to convert soil into a solid medium during the in situ method. The HM stabilization is based on chemical reactions that decrease their movement in the environment. The encapsulated metals cannot escape as the solid block is not permeable to water. Several types of salts may be utilized as stabilizing agents in soil in in situ or ex situ. Many types of waste materials have been documented for their implementation in contaminated sediments. The use of waste materials such as eggshells, lime-based agents, and cockle shells is an environmentally friendly approach [100]. However, the contaminants extraction is not complete. After a long time, the process of weathering can reduce the stability of the matrix so it results in the leaching of pollutants. Therefore, this method is considered to be the least applicable for remediation. Such a method is based on the amount of pollutants, temperature, and water content. Such factors affect the contaminants and solid material binding, and it reduces the integrity of solid material.
5.2.3 Vitrification
This is a stabilization-based method of remediation. It needs a more thermal energy range of 1,400–2,000°C in pollutant soil for extraction of organic substances. It is attained by amendment of contaminants with the glass-forming precursor, heating it till the formation of a liquid solution. In both water vapor and exhaust systems, pyrolysis products are extracted [101]. Shapeless homogenous glass is obtained after cooling the solution. The contaminants can be stable with encapsulation and chemical bonding with the solid matrix. Electrodes can be transferred to the polluted site directly during the in situ method. This method is effective but complicated and not cost-effective.
5.2.4 Electrokinetic remediation
This method is based on the application of electric current to the moist contaminated soil for the mobilization of metal ions towards the anode or cathode. The contaminants are moved towards the cathode or anode with fluid, charged chemical movements, charged particle mobilization, and chemical reaction process [90]. After remediation, the electrodes containing pollutants can be treated with many methods for HMs. Such a technique is suitable for clay soil with HMs in the form of ions due to electric field and electric conductivity. To stimulate the effectiveness of this method, chelating substances like EDTA, succinic acid, citric acid, and nitrile acetic acid are used. A systematic explanation of this method is shown in Figure 3.
Schematic of the electrokinetic remediation technique.
5.3 Biological remediation
Bioremediation is based on the conversion of HMs in the polluted soil into less hazardous forms. Such a method is based on the use of biological materials like plants and microbes for degradation, extraction, or check of toxic pollutants from contaminated soil. Bioremediation is an environmentally responsive and cost-friendly method for the remediation of HMs compared to physical and chemical techniques which are costly and least effective, particularly for sediments contaminated with less metal concentration along with the production of large quantities of hazardous mud. The basic aim of the bioremediation method is to enhance a suitable environment for plants or soil microbes in polluted areas by providing a favorable growth environment. Therefore, they might flourish with probable capability and release enzymes as secondary metabolites for reducing the movement of toxic metals by breaking the bond and releasing energy which can be used by microbes as a nutrient source. Many studies reported that the total conversions of several HMs with microorganisms are 20, 22, 31, and 27% for Co, Pb, Cd, and Cr, respectively [102]. Bioremediation techniques are assisted with many methods like bioleaching, bioventing, bioreactor, composting, biofiltration, bioaugmentation, and biostimulation. Currently, earthworms can also be considered to be a potential candidate for bioremediation of contaminated soil [103]. Therefore, many activities of microorganisms can be explored for deterioration, conversion, or extraction of HMs in polluted soil [104]. Generally, bioremediation can be accomplished by using microbes such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and plants, or maybe both in combination.
5.3.1 Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is based on the utilization of natural or genetically modified plants for the treatment of contaminants from water and soil. This method is best for pollutants present in the rhizosphere and in a wide area of the earth. Phytoremediation primarily focuses on degradation of contaminants with secondary metabolites or with adsorption by roots and their storage in plant parts. Plant properties for storage and tolerance of contaminants are based on their use for phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is based on phytostabilization, hemofiltration, phytovolatilization, phytodegradation, and phytoextraction (Figure 4). They are based on a biochemical process that involves the absorption of HMs through roots from soil or water and moved to harvest parts of the plant. Hyperaccumulators can accumulate 100–1,000 times more as compared to non-accumulators without producing any harmful effects. This technique involves three main steps: (i) the growth of favorable plants in the polluted soil, (ii) harvesting of plants containing metals, and (iii) treatment to increase economic importance after harvesting [105]. Most of the hyperaccumulators belong to the family Poaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Violaceae, and Cryophylaceae [104].
Schematic representation of different strategies involved in phytormediation.
Phytofiltration is a remediation technique based on utilization of plant roots for a polluted environment. It can be done in the following ways: the use of roots (rhizofiltration), shoots (caulofiltration), and seedlings (blastofiltration) [106].
Phytostimulation is based on the stimulation of rhizospheric conditions for the increase in the microbe’s activity. It is used for the extraction of organic pollutants from the soil. Addition of biostimulants such as biochar stimulates the degradation of contaminants by enhancing microbes’ activity [107].
Phytostabilization involves a decrease in the movement and availability of HMs in soil with stabilization of pollutants in the vicinity of plant roots. It is used to decrease the availability and movements of HMs with absorption, complexation, reducing metal ions, and precipitation. The effectiveness of this method can be stimulated by changes in organic matter and the pH of the soil [104].
The method used for the degradation of organic matter into less toxic substances with enzymes or secondary metabolites produced by plants is known as phytodegradation. Most enzymes such as dehalogenases and nitroreductases are utilized with plants for the breakdown of organic substances. Such enzymes work at specific temperatures and pH. Such a method, called biodegradation, might be very effective along with the inoculation of microbes in polluted soil [108].
5.3.2 Microbial remediation
Microorganisms in the soil can absorb or adsorb HMs, modifying their chemical composition and reducing their stability, accessibility, and transportation. One of two techniques, immobilization or mobilization, can be used to perform this microbe-based remediation technique. These processes are carried out by mechanisms like bio-precipitation, biosorption, biomagnification, bioavailability, bioleaching, biodegradation, and biotransformation (Figure 5). Common microbial species used in remediation techniques include Bacillus, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Rhodotorula, and Candida utilis [109].
Various strategies involved in bacterial remediation of HM-contaminated soil.
Microbes can either absorb or adsorb inorganic pollutants onto the surface of the cell or inside the cell by a process known as biosorption. Adsorption takes place on the cell’s surface, whereas absorption affects the total volume of the substance. Precipitation, the creation of a steady structure with organic ligands, and redox reaction are a few of the mechanisms that play a role in biosorption. The structure of functional groups and HMs on the outer surface of the cell is formed and then it can be taken into a cell by the process of adsorption. HMs are bound to the outer region by electrostatic contact, complexation, and exchange of ions during adsorption. Jin et al. [110] found that microbes undertake adsorption more frequently than absorption
The process of bioleaching, which involves microbial activity, involves complexation, biological dissolution, or bio-oxidation of HMs in polluted soil. Leptospirillum ferrooxidans and Thiobacillus are the most well-known microorganisms for bioleaching. Low molecular organic acids and other secretions are produced by a variety of metabolic processes in microorganisms.
These organic acids have proven to be excellent at dissolving hazardous HMs and soil particles. The process of bioaccumulation involves the agglomeration of pollutants in the microorganism, where metal is sequestered and toxins are concentrated [107].
The active transport of the siderophore in microbial cells for chelation of hazardous metals is a component of bioassimilation of HMs. When bacteria exist in soil with iron deficiency, siderophores are biomolecules that are created. Such compounds which are particularly iron (Fe(iii)) chelators, are then taken up by various uptake proteins and enter into bacteria. According to numerous investigations, even siderophores that combine with other metals can still be detected by uptake proteins and transported into microbial cells [108].
A technique called bioprecipitation reduces the movement and inaccessibility of HMs in soil by immobilizing them. Transforming dissolved HMs into insoluble hydroxides, carbonates, sulfides, and phosphates is a necessary step in this process. Saeed et al. [111] observed the remediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil with biochar immobilized with PGPR.
HMs undergo biotransformation, modifying their chemical makeup that affects their poisonousness, inaccessibility, and movement. This approach involves converting HMs from their soluble form into an insoluble form by methylating, reducing, dealkylating, and oxidizing them [91].
The geography of the contamination site, the nature of the contaminants, the intended remedy, the method’s preparedness for implementation, the available time, the cost-effectiveness, public acceptance, and the unique soil remediation project are the main factors determining the suitability of these distinct procedures. The use of chemicals for the cleanup of heavily metal-contaminated soil particles, along with phytoremediation for more pollutant extraction, has been experimentally shown to be more effective than using a single approach alone [9].
5.3.3 Vermiremediation
The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil are remarkably affected by earthworms and play a significant role in potential toxic elements cycling in soil. Earthworms have particular detoxification systems to tolerate a particular level of pollutants in soil based on the production of metallothionein proteins, cytochrome P450 enzymes, and antioxidants [112]. Different types of pollutants can accumulate in earthworms by the absorption of soil water or by digesting the soil particles and organic components. Recently, many findings from research revealed that combining both earthworms and plants or microbes are promising strategy to remediate contaminated soil. One of the studies reported that earthworms can enhance the Cd uptake by vetiver roots up to 57% along with accumulation in plant stems and leaves. Researchers concluded that a combination of microbes, earthworms, and plants significantly removed Cd from polluted soil due to their synergistic action [113]. Similarly, Azhar-ud-din et al. [114] reported that earthworms increase the absorption and translocation of Se up to 4% by Phaseolus vulgaris. In addition to metal availability and fractions distribution changes, the enhanced biological activities of soil after vermiremediation are also considered to be effective traits for remediation with microbes, plants, and earthworms.
6 Nanoremediation of soils with HM contamination
Detoxifying HM pollutants in soil with nanoremediation is both economical and environmentally friendly [115]. Adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, and the involvement of microorganisms (nano bioremediation) are all examples of technical processes used in nanoremediation to immobilize HMs [116]. Due to their high surface, and capacity to change physical characteristics and chemical composition, nanomaterials have recently become increasingly attractive for soil remediation. Different types of nanomaterials have been used most frequently in the nanoremediation of soil contaminated with HMs (Figure 6). Nanoremediation is a cost-effective technique for the breakdown of pollutant compounds, ultimately improving soil quality and reducing pollution. By breaking down contaminants in the soil, the process may be able to eradicate, retain, or reduce the amount of pollutants present [117]. Nanoremediation implies the use of microbes to target pollutants that are adsorbed, degraded, or modified owing to the unique physicochemical properties of the NPs, which also act as catalysts and help to reduce the activation energy required for breaking down the compounds [118]. The nanoremediation process has been explored and studied, and the most exploited NPs are carbon- and metal-based. Polymeric NPs in the form of nanocapsules or nanospheres are also exceptional in the elimination of persistent pesticide compounds and long-chain hydrocarbons. However, in the case of HMs, the challenge is entirely different as they are non-biodegradable, as well as very prone to entering biological systems and food chains.
Types of nanomaterials used for removal of HMs.
Nanoparticles (NPs) are reported to have been applied in combination simultaneously or sequentially with specific microbes and the results have been convincing [118]. They could help to speed up the elimination of HMs by acting as nanocarriers of microbes or microbial biosorbents. A pictorial diagram that represents the mechanism of NPs in the process of nanoremediation is depicted in Figure 7. The mechanism based on the first stage includes adsorption, dissolution, absorption, and chemical catalysis of photocatalytic reactions [119]. The second stage includes biotransformation, biocides, bioaccumulation, and biostimulation [120].
Mechanism of NP action for remediation of HMs.
6.1 Metal and metal-based nanomaterials
Metal NPs have garnered a lot of attention recently for their potential to remove and immobilize pollutants from soil and groundwater. Research was conducted to remove zinc, nickel, and cadmium from soil with SiO2 NPs was one approach to solving this issue. The findings indicated that for calcareous and non-calcareous soils, respectively, the highest reduction of Cd occurred at 3% SiO2 (56.1%) and 1% Al2O3. Silver NPs synthesized from Melissa officinalis have an active biocontrol effect against infectious bacterial strains [121].
Zero-valent iron is one of the most often used technologies because of its ability to remove polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine pesticides, and chlorinated organic solvents via oxidation–reduction transformation techniques and sequestration [122,123]. With nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI), numerous metals have been rectified, with high cleansing percentages [124]. Baragaño et al. [115] compared the efficacy of nGoethite and nZVI for soil remediation. The outcome revealed that the decrease was 89.5% for a 2% nZVI dose. By employing nZVI to treat the polluted soil, the overall level of soil phytotoxicity was decreased while having no detrimental effects on the soil’s properties. According to the results, nGoethite and zero-valent iron are both potential nanomaterials for the immobilization of As.
6.2 Nanocomposites and magnetic nanomaterials
Due to their simplicity in magnetic separation and distinctive metal-ion adsorption, magnetic NPs (MNPs) have recently attracted interest in environmental remediation. Fan et al. [125] investigated novel MNPs for non-magnetic HM remediation of polluted soil. Chelation and magnetic force-assisted separation served as the removal method. According to the findings, Cd was removed at 84.9% and Pb removed at 72.2%, respectively. The results also showed that while the use of MNPs did not influence the chemical composition of the soil, the organic content of the soil hindered the removal of any leftover HMs [125]. In a previous investigation, Qiao et al. [126] investigated the efficacy of sodium carboxymethylcellulose composite-stabilized iron phosphate NPs supported by biochar for Cd remediation from polluted soil. According to the findings, Cd was reduced by 81.3% after 25 days. These results indicate that the examined composite may improve Cd immobilization in soil by lowering bioaccessibility and leachability. Recycling of waste materials leads to be production of nanocomposites of graphene material that can be used as an energy source [127]. Nanotechnology is used to improve the quality of nanocomposites which act as renewable energy sources [128].
6.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials
The large surface area, high microporosity, and ecologically friendly nature of carbonaceous NPs are only a few of their distinctive qualities [129]. Recently, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have received a lot of attention from researchers because of their exceptional capabilities, particularly their adsorption properties since CNTs have a great propensity to be connected to the functional groups of pollutants [130]. CNTs can be divided into single- and multi-walled varieties. Pb2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ can all be removed by CNTs.
Cheng et al. [131] examined the ability of modified carbon black NPs to the immobilization of HMs in contaminated soil remedied by plant–microbe combination remediation. In the soil that had both petroleum and Ni contamination, the amount of petroleum degradation increased by 65%, but in soil that had both petroleum and Cd contamination, it increased by 50%. Additionally, the results demonstrated that utilizing MNCB in Cd- and Ni-contaminated soil could greatly reduce the availability of HMs, improving plant growth. Matos et al. [132] studied the effects of CNTs in the remediation of soil, specifically to immobilize HM ions. The results showed that the application of a small quantity of CNTs considerably improves the adsorption capacity, which increases the immobilization of HMs.
6.4 Nano-remediation in plants under HM stress
It has been shown that HM stress affects the plant’s morphology, physiology, and biochemistry. To reduce the HM stress in plants, several methods are used. For example, lowering the amount of bioavailable HM in the soil [133], controlling plant expression of HM transport genes [134], boosting plant antioxidant systems’ capacity, and enhancing physiological processes [135]. Different types of NPs and their role against HMs in various plant species are shown in Table 4.
Function of diverse NP forms in preventing HM toxicity in distinct plant species
| Plant | Type of NPs | NP concentrations | Method | Details | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brassica napus | Se | 1.5–12.5 mg kg−1 | Foliar | Boosted the biomass, SOD activity, and GSH-Px activities, while large doses increased Cd buildup in grains | [144] |
| Wheat | Zinc oxide | 100 mg kg−1 | Soil | Increased photosynthetic capacity, improved soil moisture conditions, and reduced Cd uptake by plants from the soil during drought stress | [164] |
| Wheat | Iron oxide | 100 mg kg−1 | Soil | Enhanced the wheat growth, nutritional content, and activity of antioxidant enzymes while decreased the uptake of Cd in the roots (38.7%) and shoots (72.1%) | [165] |
| Maize | Titanium dioxide | 250 mg L−1 | Foliar | Foliar treatment raised the Cd level from 15.2 to 17.8% in maize plant shoots | [147] |
| Rice | ZnO | 100 mg L−1 | Hydroponic | Reduced the concentrations of Cd (61.8, 26.3%) and As (39.5, 60.2%) in the roots and shoots | [151] |
| Tomato | Iron oxide | 100 mg L−1 | Soil | Significantly enhanced the amount of carotenoids and chlorophyll and decreased the amount of Cr in plants | [166] |
| Coriander | Si | 1.5 mM | Foliar | Increased the growth of plant and decreased Pb content by 7 and 14%, respectively, in the roots and shoots | [167] |
| Rice | Se | 0.5–2.5 mg kg−1 | Soil | The buildup of Cd in grains and leaves as well as the exchangeable Cd in the soil were reduced; the biomass, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll were increased | [168] |
6.4.1 Effects of metal-based NPs on the HM stress in plants
6.4.1.1 Cerium dioxide
The ability of CeO2 NPs to minimize stress is mostly attributable to the dangling bonds of Ce3+ and Ce4+ on the surface, which could lessen oxidative stress imposed on by HM and scavenge the ROS [136]. Positively charged NPs were less effective than negatively charged NPs at accumulating in chloroplasts and reducing ROS in Arabidopsis leaf mesophyll cells. This process was controlled by the Ce3+/Ce4+ ratio. In hydroponically grown rice (CdCl2 50 _M), foliar treatment of CeO2 NPs significantly enhanced the antioxidant defense system and reduced Cd buildup [137]. According to Wang et al. [138], in hydroponic conditions, CeO2 NPs (100 mg/L) had no impact on the accumulation of As(iii) and As(v) in rice. As was already mentioned, several incongruent studies have been documented, and further research is required to comprehend the alleviation mechanisms.
6.4.1.2 Iron
Iron (Fe) is a crucial element for the growth and development of humans, animals, and plants. Due to their distinct structure and electrical characteristics, iron NPs (Fe NPs) are incredibly effective adsorbents. The main ways that nano Fe works to alleviate the HM stress include the adsorption of HM, serving as a necessary component, encouraging the production of a root surface iron layer, and activating the defence system [139]. It has been demonstrated that nZVI increases antioxidants in plant leaves and stimulates plant development by decreasing the formation of HM in sunflowers [140]. According to Hussain et al. [141], applying Fe2O3 NPs to wheat under Cd stress boosted the activity of antioxidant enzymes, increased dry weight, and decreased the rate of leaf electrolyte leakage.
The growth of the soybean plant was greatly aided by the application of both arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) and ZnO NPs. The activity of the antioxidant enzyme was elevated in wheat leaves after the application of zinc oxide NPs [142]. According to Ali et al. [143], the combination of foliar spraying ZnO NPs and soil application of biochar had a stronger effect on reducing Cd stress than either of these treatments employed alone. This implies that a promising strategy for reducing plant HM may involve combining the application of NPs with other components. Hussain et al. [141] delivered ZnO NPs to Cd-stressed wheat via foliar spray and soil application at different concentrations (25, 50, and 100 mg/L), and discovered that both methods increased the growth, photosynthetic rate, and grain yield of wheat. Similarly, ZnO NPs and Zn2+ both dramatically decreased the amount of As in rice roots and shoots [144]. Fe NPs enhance the absorption of nutrients and decrease the accumulation of Cd in tomato plants under Cd stress [144].
6.4.1.3 Titanium dioxide NPs (TiO2 NPs)
Due to their widespread usage in pigments, coatings, and cosmetics as well as their great stability, TiO2 NPs are the most manufactured NPs in the world [145]. According to several research studies, using TiO2 NPs can lessen plants’ oxidative stress. Singh and Lee [146] claim that incorporating TiO2 NPs into the soil increased the physiological characteristics and photosynthesis of soybeans, significantly lowering the toxicity of Cd to the plants. To cultivate maize, Cd-contaminated soil was first amended with TiO2 NPs by mixing them into the soil and applying them topically. The findings demonstrated that foliar TiO2 NP application prevented Cd uptake by maize and increased biomass but soil application increased Cd uptake by maize and significantly reduced biomass. Titanium NPs can effectively enhance the germination of Petroselinum crispum and Foeniculum vulgare [147].
6.4.2 Effects of non-metallic based NPs on HM stress in plants
6.4.2.1 Selenium
Selenium (Se) regulates the activity of antioxidant enzymes in plants. According to Huang et al. [148], the production of an iron layer on the root surface may be responsible for the inhibitory impact of Se on rice’s ability to absorb Cd. Se substantially decreased Cd deposition in rice and increased the development of an iron coating on the root surface. Shengrong [149] discovered that the plants’ biomass, chlorophyll content, and SOD, all increased after foliar application of Se NPs to Chinese cabbage plants under Cd stress, while the plants’ Cd content and MDA of the leaves decreased. Foliar application of Se NPs can considerably lower the amount of Cd in grains while still maintaining safety, making it more useful in actual production. Selenium NPs induce resistance against spot blotch disease in wheat and also promote the growth of wheat. Evaluation of selenium NPs in inducing disease resistance against spot blotch disease and promoting growth in wheat under biotic stress need to be done.
6.4.2.2 Silicon (Si)
The second most prevalent element is Si. According to several studies, Si can be used to increase plants’ resilience to abiotic stress [150]. By activating the defense mechanisms to enhance the scavenging of ROS, Si lowers the stress brought on by HM [151], functioning as a source of nutrients and promoting the formation of HM-chelated structural protection agents and regulating HM transport gene expression [134]. Si NP treatments enhanced wheat development while reducing the effects of drought and Cd stress [152]. Hussain et al. [153] found that foliar application of Si NPs greatly reduced the accumulation of Cd in grains. Application of Si NPs in pea seedlings enhances the activity of ascorbate peroxidase and superoxide dismutase, decrease oxidative damage under Cr stress.
6.4.2.3 Hydroxyapatite (HAP)
To lower the harm that HM causes to plants, the soil’s HM ions and the calcium ions on the surface of HAP might interact. It has been demonstrated that HAP of various particle sizes may restore HM-contaminated soil. For instance, different sizes of HAP raised the pH of the soil and reduced the amount of CaCl2-extractable, exchangeable Cu and Cd [145,154]. This suggests that while NPs may be able to lower the amount of HM in some parts, they may also be able to raise it. Therefore, more research is still needed to understand potential ecological dangers and causes.
7 Conclusion and future perspective
The intensive discharge of contaminants into the environment causes harmful effects on vegetables, which either directly or indirectly affects human beings. A particular effect was noted on the endocrine system leading to infertility, diabetes mellitus, and disturbed homeostasis. Various physical and chemical techniques are used for the remediation of HMs but these methods have certain limitations. Bioremediation approaches like phytoremediation are also used for the remediation of HMs but variable climatic conditions, slow degradation, and phytotoxic effect restrict its use at large scale. Therefore, there is a need to find a new approach for the sustainable removal of HMs. Nanoremediation is one of the effective methods for large scale, quick cleanup, and maximum reduction in contaminants. Different NPs are used for this purpose. The feasibility of this method in field conditions is one of the important constraints in the success of nanoremediation. Therefore, more studies are required to explore the use of biologically derived NPs for the treatment of HMs and their integrity in the remediation of HMs at industrial and commercial levels.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Deanship of Scientific Research at Umm Al-Qura University for supporting this work by Grant Code: 22UQU4350073DSR17.
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Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.
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Author contributions: Maimona Saeed: idea and writing original draft. Noshin Ilyas: conceptualization and supervision. Fatima Bibi: Investigation and methodology. Sumera Shabir: formal analysis and curation. Sabiha Mehmood: review and editing. Nosheen Akhtar: editing and writing. Iftikhar Ali: data analysis and curation. Sami Bawazeer: review and editing. Abdel Rahman Al Tawaha: figures and illustration. Sayed M Eldin: fund acquisition, review and editing. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
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Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
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Articles in the same Issue
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- Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
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- Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
- Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
- Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
- Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
- Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
- Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
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- Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
- Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
- Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
- Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
- Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
- Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
- Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
- Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
- Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
- NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
- Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
- Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
- Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
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- Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
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- Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
- Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
- Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
- 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
- Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
- Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
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- Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
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- High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
- High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
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Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
- Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
- Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
- Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
- Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
- High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
- Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
- Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
- Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
- Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
- Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
- Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
- Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
- Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
- Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
- Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
- Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
- Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
- Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
- Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
- Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
- Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
- Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
- Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
- Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
- NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
- Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
- Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
- Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
- Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
- Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
- Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
- Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
- Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
- Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
- Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
- Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
- Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
- Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
- Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
- 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
- Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
- Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
- Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
- Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
- Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
- Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
- Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
- Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
- Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
- Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
- Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
- Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
- High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
- High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
- Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
- Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
- Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
- A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
- Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
- Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
- Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
- A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
- Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
- Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
- Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
- Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
- In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
- Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
- Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
- Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
- Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
- A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
- Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
- Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
- In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
- Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
- Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
- Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
- Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
- Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
- Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
- Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
- Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
- Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
- Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
- Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
- Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
- Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
- Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
- Review Articles
- Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
- Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
- Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
- Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
- Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
- Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
- A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
- Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
- Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
- Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
- Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
- Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
- Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
- Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
- TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
- Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
- Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
- Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
- Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
- Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
- Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
- Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
- An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
- Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
- Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
- Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
- Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
- Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
- Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
- Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
- Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
- Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
- Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
- A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
- Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
- Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
- Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
- Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
- Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
- Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
- Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
- Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
- Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
- Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
- An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
- A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
- A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
- Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
- Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
- Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
- Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
- Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
- Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
- Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
- Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
- Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
- The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
- Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
- Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
- Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
