Home A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
Article Open Access

A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19

  • Yonrapach Areerob , Suresh Sagadevan and Won-Chun Oh EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: February 28, 2023
Download Article (PDF)
Become an author with De Gruyter Brill
Submit Manuscript Author Information
Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

COVID-19 is a contagious syndrome caused by SARS Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that requires rapid diagnostic testing to identify and manage in the affected persons, characterize epidemiology, and promptly make public health decisions and manage the virus present in the affected person and promptly make public health decisions by characterizing the epidemiology. Technical problems, especially contamination occurring during manual real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), can result in false-positive NAAT results. In some cases, RNA detection technology and antigen testing are alternatives to RT-PCR. Sequencing is vital for tracking the SARS-CoV-2 genome’s evolution, while antibody testing is beneficial for epidemiology. SARS-CoV-2 testing can be made safer, faster, and easier without losing accuracy. Continued technological advancements, including smartphone integration, will help in the current epidemic and prepare for the next. Nanotechnology-enabled progress in the health sector has aided disease and pandemic management at an early stage. These nanotechnology-based analytical tools can be used to quickly diagnose COVID-19. The SPOT system is used to diagnose the coronavirus quickly, sensibly, accurately, and with portability. The SPOT assay consists of RT-LAMP, followed by pfAgo-based target sequence detection. In addition, SPOT system was used to detect both positive and negative SARS-CoV-2 samples. This combination of speed, precision, sensitivity, and mobility will allow for cost-effective and high-volume COVID-19 testing.

Keywords: SPOT; COVID-19; clinical saliva; virus-spike; rapid

1 Introduction

Coronaviruses have been recently emerged as a major health threat worldwide, resulting in an enormous human morbidity. It harmed everything from the global economy to people’s social life [1–5]. The COVID-19 epidemic was initially characterized by mayhem, abandonment, and fear [6]. However, it has spread all over the world at an incredible rate, affecting millions of people and increasing death rates in a very short period [6,7]. People began to notice and take preventive steps when most countries were obliged to localize their cities [8]. Corona is a deadly viral disease caused by the virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), similar to that of bat coronavirus, the pangolin virus [9]. SARS-CoV-2 evolves as it spreads, replicates, and mutates to become more adaptive and deadly [10]. It has preoccupied doctors, scientists, politicians, and communities worldwide [11]. COVID-19 is the third most significant coronavirus transferred from animals to humans in the past two decades [12], with a greater worldwide effect than the preceding epidemics in 2003 (SARS-CoV), 2012−2015, and 2020 (MERS). Patients suffering from SARS-CoV and MERS were observed to be weaker and less transportable in their areas, but in the case of SARS-CoV-2, reproduction was found in large numbers [13–16]. SARS-CoV-2 was first detected in China, globally affecting America, South Asia, and Europe. At the end of March 2021, there were over 125 million confirmed cases and over 2.7 million mortalities, representing a worldwide death rate of 2.19% [17]. By February 21, 2021, the number of Americans died in COVID-19 had exceeded the number of Americans killed in WWII and the Korean and Vietnamese wars combined [18]. Testing capacity, public health resources, and epidemiology have been used against the COVID-19 outbreak. It has been organized in South Korea and Taiwan through large-scale testing, contact tracing, and public health interventions [19–21]. However, resource constraints in certain areas and the lack of external validation of novel diagnostic tests make containment and mitigation difficult [22]. Symptoms, non-specific test indicators, and imaging may all reveal COVID-positive results without clear proof [23]. The most common symptoms after infection include fever, persistent cough, headache, cold, tasteless, odorless, and breathing issues [24–30].

To enhance their implementation, COVID-19 diagnostic techniques are divided into two classes: clinical and in vitro [31]. NAATs, serologic antibodies, and antigen-based assays are in vitro diagnostics applicable in clinical and public health, as well as in epidemiologic contexts [32] for those with symptoms involving the risk of living due to coronavirus, as well as frontline workers [33]. Non-symptomatic individuals are not presently prioritized for testing but may be used for monitoring and municipal programs [33,34]. Direct molecular diagnostic testing using SARS-CoV-2 sequencing is crucial for identifying affected people. They rush to develop and authorize tests to determine the immune response to the disease started as lockdown measures began to bite. Antibody testing may also help for understanding the dynamics of the reaction to immunological viruses. The applicability and diagnostic efficacy of COVID-19 methodologies is critical during this pandemic. Many industries consider these examinations a prerequisite for resuming clinical engagement. This study aimed to offer a summary of the present methods for the observation of SARS-CoV-2, highlighting the difficulties with serological testing and guiding doctors on the tests.

The quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) test is used in the identification of the coronavirus in the laboratory, and it takes only one day to obtain the results [35,36]. Owing to the exceptional sensitivity of RT-LAMP, separating the amplification and detection processes increases the contamination risk. Most significantly, scaling-up COVID-19 examinations need skilled workers and specialized technologies. One study described a SPOT system for COVID-19 as having the features of sensitivity, accuracy, and quick portability. An Argonaut protein from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furious (PfAgo) was combined with RT-LAMP to precisely recognize and cleave target DNA at 95°C [37,38]. The safety and invasive nature of saliva make it as a suitable specimen for the self-detection of COVID-19 [39–41]. Detecting PfAgo needs a minimum of two orders of particular cleavages, giving the SPOT method by reducing the testing time to 3–5 min. Finally, 104 clinical saliva samples were tested for sensitivity and accuracy [42]. This allowed for more effective treatment and faster isolation, resulting in disease reduction. Many diagnostic centers have features that analyze the genetic cause of the COVID virus in specimens, as well as particular antiviral antibodies in blood/serum.

Molecular biology and nanotechnology-based analytical tools have been identified as the promising diagnostic tools for the screening and detection of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical biology during this pandemic [43–45]. The advantages of diagnostic methods based on nano-biosensors include reproducibility, mass production suitability, enzyme placement suitability, miniaturization, low cost, no need for calibration, reduced power consumption owing to voltage reduction, high signal-to-noise ratios, rapidity, and label-free recognition [46,47,48].

A review of the literature revealed that very few review articles [49–54] have described the developed diagnostic tools for COVID-19 diagnosis. Furthermore, only few reports have shown that nanomaterials can be successfully integrated with molecular biology and optical spectroscopic techniques for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 with high specificity and sensitivity, which is useful for the effective diagnosis of COVID-19 [55].

Therefore, this review reflects the current state of coronavirus detection technology in terms of detection methods, targets, detection limits, range, sensitivity, and assay time. Also, this article summarizes the challenges of traditional technologies and newly emerging biosensors, such as the COVID-19 detection kit based on nanotechnology, optically enhanced technology, and electrochemical, smart, and wearable-enabled nano-biosensors.

2 Clinical diagnostics

COVID-19 is now diagnosed through RNA assays using RT-PCR. According to the reports, the coronavirus majorly affects the lower respiratory system in which viral RNA was found in nasal and pharyngeal swabs [56,57]. Nasal swabs exhibited a positive rate of 53.6–73.3%, and throat swabs had a low positive rate of 8 days post-disease onset, notably in samples from mild cases [58]. A significant incorrect-negative rate of PCR identification is caused by viral colonization of the lower respiratory system with the assortment of various samples. ELISA is an assay used to identify antibodies, such as IgM and IgG, with a high capacity and low specimen requirements compared to RNA-based assays [59]. Furthermore, the N protein in coronaviruses produced through viral infection has a high potential for immunogenicity (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Schematic structure of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus.
Figure 1

Schematic structure of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus.

Initial COVID-19 diagnosis involves symptoms and a history of exposure. The SARS-CoV-2 incubation period is approximately 2 weeks following acquaintance for approximately 4–5 days [60]. The CDC lists 11 COVID-19 symptoms: cold, fever, muscular pain, dysentery, tasteless, and odorless [37]. Variable CT scan results include numerous bilateral ground-glass opacities in the peripheral lower lung zones [60]. Radiographs may not indicate COVID-19 abnormalities [61,62]. Non-specific laboratory biomarkers, such as radiography, may help diagnose COVID-19. Reliance on readily accessible markers had widespread early in the epidemic [60]. S/N proteins are being battered as impending antigens for COVID-19 serodiagnosis, comparable to the existing S/N protein-based diagnostic techniques for identifying SARS [63].

3 Detection method

3.1 Specimen and nucleic acid preparation from saliva

Three types of specimens were studied to assess SPOT performance: IVT-generated RNA template, IDT-produced SARS-CoV-2 DNA fragments as IVT templates, and synthetic gene fragment PCR using T7 promoter forward primer. The PCR product was then utilized as a pattern for the 4 h IVT reaction at 37°C. RNA was purified after DNase I treatment and added to the collected human saliva. Spiked-irradiated SARS-CoV-2 samples were processed with Quick Extract DNA Extraction Solution for 5 min at 95°C, through which the clinical saliva samples in a 1:1 ratio. The Division of Research Safety in the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign authorized the clinical trial research IBC-4609.

3.2 Design and construction of the SPOT device

For COVID-19 diagnosis, the SPOT device was used, consisting of a portable instrument with sensitivity, quick and accurate evaluation, and a high battery source. The device has a three-dimensional printed cover and an internal assembly with accurate temperature control using RT-LAMP [37,64]. Saliva samples have been widely used for the identification of COVID-19 due to safe and non-invasive in nature. A saliva sample is good for rapid self-identification of a viral infection. Therefore, a prototype portable apparatus for sample pretreatment, testing, and fluorescence output quantification was built by establishing a SPOT system for the simultaneous detection of 104 saliva samples (Figure 2) [42]. This 3D-printed prototype gadget has a copper heat block covered in a nichrome wire to adjust the temperature. After pretreatment or detection reactions, an inbuilt fan quickly cooled the sample capillary. LED, photodiodes, and a microcontroller-equipped motherboard were installed to manage the temperature and fluorescence. The front of the gadget features power, start and reset buttons, and an LCD screen to show the results. The SPOT device prototype was compared with commercial devices for temperature control and fluorescence measurements. The SPOT device and a thermocycler were used to test the heating module’s accuracy and stability, and to compare SPOT and qPCR fluorescence readouts showing that the SPOT device can conduct the SPOT test as well as a commercial thermocycler [42] suitable for reproducing qPCR fluorescent readings.

Figure 2 SPOT assay optimization and validation: (a) LOD with RNA, (b) multiplexity of the test, and (c) LAMP response is affected by PfAgo detection. (d) The top chamber (yellow liquid represents the RT-LAMP reaction) is separated from the bottom chamber [42].
Figure 2

SPOT assay optimization and validation: (a) LOD with RNA, (b) multiplexity of the test, and (c) LAMP response is affected by PfAgo detection. (d) The top chamber (yellow liquid represents the RT-LAMP reaction) is separated from the bottom chamber [42].

PfAgo’s unique multiplexing capability increases SPOT’s specificity and accuracy. Non-specific LAMP amplification increases the number of false positives and precludes it as an analytical test. Multiplexing may boost the detection specificity and allow testing for numerous viruses and bacteria in a single response. The SPOT system included a portable battery-powered testing instrument. The expenditure for 10,000 devices would be less than $78. SPOT testing results may be sent to a laptop or Android phone via tethering to enable test–trace–isolate protocols. It has a vital part in implementing the fast equipment as convenient for current viral diseases, which allows quick diagnosis with minimum liquid handling and without the need of trained people. The SPOT technology might allow quick, cost-effective, and minimum economic commitment extended for testing and provide a major tool to battle the COVID-19 epidemic. Linking SPOT to the Internet might improve global pandemic control, telemedicine, and decentralized testing. This multifunctional equipment can be used to screen SNPs and other diseases.

3.3 Establishing colorimetric RT-LAMP assay sensitivity

Zhang et al. [65] and Yu et al. [66] recently presented several primer sets for RT-LAMP-based detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA, which were then verified using in vitro-translated RNA. Dao Thi et al. [67] designed and also verified two basic groups for various RNA regions of the SARS-CoV-2 genome, the N-A set for the N gene and the 1a-A set for the open reading frame. The color changes from red to yellow in Figure 3(a) indicates that the N gene oligonucleotide set can identify 100 IVT RNA molecules [67]. The reaction was performed at 65°C for 1 h. The negative control turned yellowish at time intervals greater than 30–35 min (Figure 3(a)) [67]. This was due to the RT-well-known LAMP problem of spurious amplification products [68]. The results clearly showed dissimilar banding patterns by gel electrophoresis (Figure 3(b)) [67].

Figure 3 (a) SARS-CoV-2 N gene IVT RNA molecules and (b) RT-LAMP reaction product (2.5% agarose) [67].
Figure 3

(a) SARS-CoV-2 N gene IVT RNA molecules and (b) RT-LAMP reaction product (2.5% agarose) [67].

4 Fabrication and characterization of the biosensing device

Biosensing devices based on field-effect transistor (FET) have various benefits over other diagnostic approaches, along with the capacity of highly sensitive power and rapid readings with a few analytes [69,70]. Some medical equipment has potential applications in FET-based biosensors. Graphene is organized with carbon atoms exposed on the surfaces with the properties of high carrier mobility and strong conductivity in a wide range [71–75]. Figure 4(a), depicts the aqueous solution-gated FET system. Figure 4(b) displays the COVID-19 FET sensor as a function of gate voltage (V G) over a range from 0 to −1.5 V in steps of −0.3 V [75]. I DS negatively increased as V G negatively increased, corresponding to the predicted behavior of a p-type semiconductor [49]. Figure 4(c) shows the characteristic curves of current–voltage (I–V) scanning a range of −0.1 to +0.1 V, indicating that dI/dV was reduced after PBASE functionalization and antibody immobilization [75]. This slope difference indicates the SARS of the 2-spike antibody. An aqueous solution-gated FET was prepared to determine whether the sensor could convert an electrical signal by employing a graphene channel conjugated to the antibody, and the FET was coated with a PBS (pH 7.4) solution as the electrolyte to maintain an effective gating effect. After each adjustment, the graphene FET transfer curves were obtained (Figure 4(d)) [75]. Owing to the p-doping effect of pyrene, PBASE functionalization caused a positive shift. The negative shift in the transfer curve suggests the antibody’s positively charged N-doped graphene following immobilization [75].

Figure 4 (a) Schematic diagram of COVID-19 FET sensor, (b) I DS–V DS output curves, (c) current–voltage (I–V) characteristics, and (d) measurement of transfer curves [75].
Figure 4

(a) Schematic diagram of COVID-19 FET sensor, (b) I DS–V DS output curves, (c) current–voltage (I–V) characteristics, and (d) measurement of transfer curves [75].

Finally, the clinical samples were used to test the detection capabilities of the COVID-19 FET sensor (Figure 5). To this end, the samples are collected and kept nasopharyngeal swab specimens from the affected and unaffected individuals. Then measured the baseline signal and confirmed nasopharyngeal swab samples from healthy participants before inserting the covid-affected patient samples [76]. The sensor could easily distinguish the samples (Figure 5(a)). Furthermore, the FET sensor responded to patient samples diluted to 1:1 × 105 (242 copies/mL) (Figure 5(b)) [75].

Figure 5 (a) Signals from the sensor the samples and (b) real-time response of sensor [75].
Figure 5

(a) Signals from the sensor the samples and (b) real-time response of sensor [75].

To assess the COVID-19 FET sensor, its dynamic response to the spike protein must be measured. First, the spike protein limit of detection (LOD) must be assessed. The LOD of the FET sensor was 1 fg/mL for the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in PBS, much lower than that of ELISA [75]. The graphene-based device without SARS-CoV-2 spike protein conjugation showed no signal variation with different sample concentrations. The control experiment shows that SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is necessary for antigen binding. The COVID-19 FET sensor was then tested for SARS-CoV-2 detection by heating inactivated SARS-CoV-2 in cultivated cells. Figure 6(a) shows the sensor responded to 1 fg/mL of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in PBS. The COVID-19 FET sensor did not show any response to MERS-CoV spike proteins (Figure 6b), indicating high sensitivity. Therefore, the FET sensor could successfully detect SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen proteins at a concentration of 100 fg/mL (Figure 6c) [75]. COVID-19 patients and normal participants’ nasopharyngeal swabs were preserved in the UTM. Before adding patient samples, the baseline signal was determined using nasopharyngeal swabs from normal participants. Therefore, the result shows that the COVID-19 FET sensor effectively differentiated the patient and normal samples.

Figure 6 Schematic diagram for detection of SARS-CoV-2 cultured virus. (a) Real-time response of COVID-19 FET toward SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein in PBS; (b) Selective response of COVID-19 FET sensor toward target SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein and MERS-CoV protein; and (c) Real-time response of COVID-19 FET toward SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein in UTM [75].
Figure 6

Schematic diagram for detection of SARS-CoV-2 cultured virus. (a) Real-time response of COVID-19 FET toward SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein in PBS; (b) Selective response of COVID-19 FET sensor toward target SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein and MERS-CoV protein; and (c) Real-time response of COVID-19 FET toward SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein in UTM [75].

5 Ultrastructural analysis of SARS-CoV-2 interactions

Caldas et al. [77] showed the surface interface of coronavirus with Vero cells using HR-SEM. The internal structure of the infected cells and viral particle distribution were analyzed for 48 h after infection under both conditions. They observed the morphology of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells with surface projections to determine whether there were any changes on the surface (SP). No significant changes in cell shape were observed at 2 hpi, but cell shape increased in infected cells (Figure 7(a–c)) [77]. No viral particles or projections of clinging were observed (Figure 7(d)). Comparison of mock and infected cells (MOI of 0.1) at 48 h post-infection to show the presence of viral particles adhering to the smooth cell surface and the SP, in Figure 7(e and f) shows the details [77].

Figure 7 Discrete increment of the SP with mocked and infected cells of (a–f) [77].
Figure 7

Discrete increment of the SP with mocked and infected cells of (a–f) [77].

6 Fabrication of graphene-based sensing devices

Sensors are devices that detect differences in their surroundings while transmitting information to other devices, yielding a readable result [78]. Biosensor [79–81] helps in identifying the chemical compounds before combining the organic element with a physicochemical indicator that serves by detecting and diagnosing many ailments, including the current pandemic COVID-19 [82]. A schematic representation of nano-sensor-based graphene is shown in Figure 8 [83].

Figure 8 Different ways of using nanosensors (graphene) [83].
Figure 8

Different ways of using nanosensors (graphene) [83].

Graphene-based biosensing devices provide several advantages over other symptomatic methods, including the capacity to create extremely sensitive and brief estimations [84–86]. Because of its excellent features, such as strong electronic conductivity, high carrier mobility, and a vast zone, it is considered as a remarkable fabric at several detection stages [73,74,87]. There are two techniques for using nanomaterials to combat viruses. Virus-neutralizing external stimuli are an option. The proximity of the COVID-19 spike-counteracting agent to the graphene surface was developed by Fatema et al. [88]. Figure 9 shows the C–V and I–V plots for the graphene nanocomposite Escherichia coli from 0.2 to +0.2 V [88]. After PBASE functionalization and immobilization of the counteracting agent on the graphene channel, the slopes (dI/dV) were reduced. As a result, the proposed sensor case makes the COVID-19 spike counteracting agent more conceivable.

Figure 9 Graphene quaternary nanocomposite-based sensor and C–V–I–V curve [88].
Figure 9

Graphene quaternary nanocomposite-based sensor and C–V–I–V curve [88].

The COVID-affected surface is enclosed in glycosylated S proteins by the host cell receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 and mediates viral cell entry [89]. TM protease serine 2, a type 2 TM serine protease, stimulates the virus into the cell via the S protein when it is attached to the receptor. In the host cell, viral RNA is duplicated, and structural proteins are produced, assembled, and packed, followed by the release of viral particles [90–93]. The changes occurring as a function of COVID-19 antigen protein concentration were described by plotting as shown in Figure 10 [88]. Furthermore, graphene-based COVID-19 proposed sensor; the sensor system is working in real-time in droplet transmission conditions or with sample drops obtained from cases, as shown in Figure 11 [88].

Figure 10 (a) Schematic presentation for the COVID-19 viral antigen, (b) proposed binding mechanism, and (c) adenine ring [88].
Figure 10

(a) Schematic presentation for the COVID-19 viral antigen, (b) proposed binding mechanism, and (c) adenine ring [88].

Figure 11 Graphene-based COVID-19 proposed sensor; the sensor system is working in real-time in droplet transmission conditions or with sample drops obtained from cases [88].
Figure 11

Graphene-based COVID-19 proposed sensor; the sensor system is working in real-time in droplet transmission conditions or with sample drops obtained from cases [88].

7 Wearable COV-19 biosensors

Coronaviruses can be detected using digital wearable sensor devices such as fitness bands and smart watches with many other features, and they have been used by most of the population for self-awareness of health and fitness [94–100]. Fitbit detects the heart rate for better public health management. The RADAR-base is a health-related mobile device controlled by numerous sensors [101]. RADAR-based technology has been utilized to detect multiple sclerosis in the central nervous system [102]. Advanced technology plays a prime role in many ways during the pandemic period, making life more comfortable and normal [103–105]. Germany provided a technique for collecting health data in a digital format. This can reduce health issues and allow earlier disease detection [106]. Figures 12 and 13 depict a schematic illustration of the operation of a smart band (Vital 3.0) [83].

Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation (Vital 3.0) [83].
Figure 12

Diagrammatic representation (Vital 3.0) [83].

Figure 13 Schematic detailing of a smartphone application [83].
Figure 13

Schematic detailing of a smartphone application [83].

Wang et al. [107] demonstrate graphene-based FET biosensor detecting cytokines in human biofluids in a sensitive, consistent, and time-resolved manner. The biosensor, which is based on an ultrathin substrate, provides excellent stability and used to fabricate the biosensor (Figure 14) [107]. The results show that the aptameric GFET biosensor is capable of very sensitive detection of TNF-α and IFN-γ, with detection limits of 2.75 and 2.89 pM, respectively. Furthermore, consistent sensing responses allow for the time-resolved monitoring of TNF-α in artificial tears under various tensile pressures. As a result, this biosensor can be employed in wearable smart devices with many benefits in monitoring the physical health used in large numbers and anticipating the onset of ailments.

Figure 14 (a) Schematic of the GFET biosensor, (b) human wrist and (c) artificial eyeball, and (d) a stretchable biosensor can be stretched with the activity of the human body [107].
Figure 14

(a) Schematic of the GFET biosensor, (b) human wrist and (c) artificial eyeball, and (d) a stretchable biosensor can be stretched with the activity of the human body [107].

They also demonstrated a biosensor installed in a handmade diaphragm chamber for cytokine detection, which could be used in wearable applications (Figure 15(b)) [107]. To replicate the human eyeball, the diaphragm is a stretchable membrane that is manipulated to grow or shrink by pumping air into the chamber (Figure 15(c)). The biosensor was stretched to a high extent (100% tensile strain) as a result of diaphragm deflection, setting as a pattern in the large deformation of the wearable device for cytokine detection in the human body (Figure 15(d)) [107]. The sensing response to TNF-α was sensitive and consistent with the test on a flat surface (Figure 15(a)), and the signal loss for the biosensor under the two tensile strains was less than 10% at the same concentration [107]. Overall, the findings show that the manufactured biosensor has a good chance of being integrated into wearable devices for cytokine monitoring in bodily fluids.

Figure 15 Time-resolved measurement of cytokines. (a) Real-time monitoring of TNF-α protein and control protein (IFN-γ and IL-002) in artificial tears. (b) Photograph showing the biosensor stretched by the inflated diaphragm chamber. Real-time monitoring of TNF-α using the biosensor at (c) 0% and (d) 120% tensile strain [107].
Figure 15

Time-resolved measurement of cytokines. (a) Real-time monitoring of TNF-α protein and control protein (IFN-γ and IL-002) in artificial tears. (b) Photograph showing the biosensor stretched by the inflated diaphragm chamber. Real-time monitoring of TNF-α using the biosensor at (c) 0% and (d) 120% tensile strain [107].

8 Development of colorimetric sensors based on gold nanoparticles for SARS-CoV-2

Rodriguez Daz et al. [108] proposed a colorimetric sensor using gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) that can identify the coding for the RdRp, E, and S proteins of SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, to improve the sensitivity of the system to identify high and medium viral loads (≥103–104 viral RNA copies/μL) in patient samples, an easy and economical amplification technique was used. It takes 2.5 h to complete the entire process (amplification and detection). The colorimetric sensor was based on gold nanoparticles (Au NPs), as shown in Figure 16 [108].

Figure 16 Colorimetric sensor based on gold nanoparticles [108].
Figure 16

Colorimetric sensor based on gold nanoparticles [108].

RT-qPCR assay is the gold standard approach for SARS-CoV-2 identification [109,110]. Different workflows have been proposed [111,112], with the Drosten lab [113] being the most widely utilized in Europe [114]. The first step in their approach was to identify all SARS-related viruses by focusing on sections of the E gene that are shared by all members of the Sarbecovirus subgenus. They recommend in finding the R gene sequence, specific for SARS-CoV-2 if the test is positive [113]. Genetic alterations can also be employed as screening indicators for specific variants of concern, such as Omicron, in multiplex RT-PCR tests with a negative or much weaker positive S-gene result (“S-gene dropout”) and positive results for other targets [115]. Au NPs were prepared using the Turkevich method [116] and functionalized with cholesterol-modified oligonucleotides via thiol-Au linkages for the sensor. However, when the target is present, the oligonucleotides unfurl owing to target-loop hybridization, and the cholesterol units are exposed to the aqueous media. Because of the instability, aggregation, and precipitation of Au NPs, the hue of the solution changes owing to the hydrophobic nature of cholesterol molecules (Figure 17) [108].

Figure 17 Schematic representation of the sensor [108].
Figure 17

Schematic representation of the sensor [108].

9 Saliva-based COVID-19 detection

In the face of uncontrolled COVID-19 outbreaks, there is a lack of diagnostic testing capacity for jeopardizing disease control. The gold standard for virus detection using PCR tests has failed to accurately depict the pandemic status during an urgent outbreak because of its long duration. Therefore, a fast screening method is required to assist in preventing the spread of COVID-19 in areas where vaccines are yet to be widely implemented. As illustrated in Figure 18 [117], the custom-designed BioFET platform includes a disposable sensor stick, a portable reader (CC&C Technologies, Taiwan) with a Bluetooth function, and two custom-written UIs for Microsoft on one of the electrodes (of each sensor). An input gate voltage (V G) was applied and an output V G was detected at the gate terminal of the FET via the other electrode (of each sensor).

Figure 18 Schematic illustration of a saliva-based COVID-19 antigen test using an electrical double layer (EDL)-gated field-effect transistor biosensor (BioFET) [117].
Figure 18

Schematic illustration of a saliva-based COVID-19 antigen test using an electrical double layer (EDL)-gated field-effect transistor biosensor (BioFET) [117].

10 Real-time detection of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA

Alafeef et al. [118] reported a graphene-based electrochemical biosensor system for coronavirus detection. Biosensors are initiated by incorporating a suitable pattern of thiol-modified antisense oligonucleotides (ssDNA) [119], which improves the analytical performance of the assay for solitary ssDNA. In comparison to ssDNA alone with no AuNP conjugation, the sensitivity of the electrochemical assay was improved by using thiol-modified ssDNA-capped Au NPs on top of the gold electrode. The sensor response was tested against RNA samples derived from Vero cells infected with SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV RNA, which served as negative controls. The capacity of the sensor chip to distinguish positive COVID-19 samples from negative samples has tested using 48 clinical samples, and the results were compared to an FDA-approved gold-standard SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic technique (LabGun COVID-19 RT-PCR diagnostic kit). This proved the differentiation of the test results with the accuracy and sensitivity of the coronavirus as shown in Figure 19 [118].

Figure 19 Schematic representation of the operation principle of the COVID-19 electrochemical sensing platform (a) the infected samples will be collected from the nasal swab or saliva of the patients under observation; (b) the viral SARS-CoV-2 RNA will be extracted; (c) the viral RNA will be added on top of the graphene-ssDNA-AuNP platform; (d) incubation of 5 min; and (e) the digital electrochemical output will be recorded [118].
Figure 19

Schematic representation of the operation principle of the COVID-19 electrochemical sensing platform (a) the infected samples will be collected from the nasal swab or saliva of the patients under observation; (b) the viral SARS-CoV-2 RNA will be extracted; (c) the viral RNA will be added on top of the graphene-ssDNA-AuNP platform; (d) incubation of 5 min; and (e) the digital electrochemical output will be recorded [118].

Graphene-based biosensors can detect surface changes and provide an ideal detection environment for ultrasensitive, low-noise locations. A graphene-based biosensing device equipped with a COVID-19 spike counteracting agent for use in COVID-19 sensing is presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Graphene-based nanocomposites for COVID-19 sensing

S. no. Materials Important findings Applications Ref.
1 Graphene composites FET biosensors made of graphene can detect changes in their surroundings with low noise and high sensitivity. Thus, graphene-based FET devices are extremely appealing in immunological testing FET-based biosensors [73,74]
2 Graphene composites Graphene-based biosensing device functionalized with a SARS-CoV-2 spike antibody (COVID-19 FET sensor) for use in coronavirus detection COVID-19 FET sensor [75]
The COVID-19 FET sensor is sensitive and selective for SARS-CoV-2 spike antigen. The responsiveness of the FET sensor to UTM antigens was assessed
Fitting each data point revealed the normalized sensitivity of the COVID-19 FET sensor as a function of SARS-CoV-2 antigen protein concentration. Its main purpose is real-time SARS-CoV-2 virus detection
3 Graphene composites Clinical decision-making, point-of-care testing, on-site localization, and sensitive immunological determination Graphene-based biosensors [86]
4 Graphene composites The sensor’s LOD was determined by its response to 0.2 μL of COVID-19 spike protein in PBS. The results showed that the graphene nanocomposite-based sensor could detect COVID-19 spike antigen proteins at concentrations as low as 0.1 μL Graphene-based COVID-19 sensor [88]
5 Graphene composites Graphene-based FET biosensor detecting cytokines in human biofluids in a sensitive, consistent, and time-resolved manner. GFET biosensor can be stretched with the activity of the human body Wearable COV-19 biosensors [107]
6 Gold nanoparticles The examination of alternative sizes of nanoparticles, oligonucleotide sequences, and buffers is part of the system’s optimization (dubbed “the sensor”). It has remained steady for months with no discernible decline in activity, permitting coronavirus sequences to be detected by the naked eye within 15 min. This could help to detect coronavirus infection more easily with limited tools Colorimetric sensors [108]
7 Saliva-based COVID-19 detection The Bluetooth-enabled reader directed the information to the connected devices, which presented simultaneous results for subsequent studies. Specificity was tested using different antigens, and the results showed that MERS-CoV, Influenza A virus, and Influenza B virus have low cross-reactivity This portable device features a Bluetooth connection and user-friendly interfaces that are fully compatible with digital health, potentially resulting in an on-site turnaround, effective management, and proactive responses from medical doctors and frontline health workers [117]
8 Graphene composites The results showed that the SARS-CoV-2 specific output signal could be acquired in less than 5 min after the RNA samples were incubated, with a sensitivity of 231 (copies/μL)−1 and a limit of detection of 6.9 copies/μL Graphene-based electrochemical biosensor system for coronavirus detection [118]

11 Challenges for patient-friendly COVID-19 biosensors

The characteristic features of portable biosensors need to be improved to deliver findings that are equivalent to those of centralized laboratories. The common challenges for COVID-19 biosensors are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Common challenges for patient-friendly COVID-19 biosensors

No Challenges Ref.
1 The use of IgG/IgM test strips in newer commercial diagnostic kits has helped minimize assay time [120]
2 Sensitivity enhancement measures, such as fluidic control approaches, processing enzyme-based signal improvement, and sample concentration, should be introduced into biosensors to improve their detection sensitivity [121–123]
To detection sensitivity, multiplexing capabilities are important for increasing assay productivity [124]
3 Combining IgG/IgM and nucleic acid testing, in particular, could enable the detection of all the phases of COVID-19 infection, resulting in accuracy; a single biosensor was used as the simplest method for the detection of the pathogen, antibodies, and COVID-19 [125]
4 Integrating a microneedle for sensing fewer blood samples might simplify the biosensor while simultaneously reducing patient’s worry and stress. Because samples may be obtained with a single push of a button, this self-contained biosensor requires very little training for operation [126]
5 For blood testing, new point-of-care (POC) biosensors for screening the coronavirus in saliva should be developed [127]

12 Conclusion and future perspectives

Fast and timely detection is most important to avoid the health risks particularly observed in COVID-19 where there is no particular COVID-19 vaccine or therapy to protect people from the spread of the virus. This article concludes with the following results, COVID-19 clinical and in vitro diagnostic techniques are outlined, and in vitro diagnostics’ basics and development areas are provided. The best diagnostic procedure relies on patient presentation, timing of the illness course, laboratory infrastructure, accessible treatment choices, public health requirements, and research goals. The RT-PCR test helps to observe the antibody and antigen-based test for a COVID-19 confirmation test. Antibody tests are generally used for epidemiological reasons owing to delayed seroconversion; however, antigen-based assays may be used to identify highly infectious individuals early in the illness course to limit future transmission. Early diagnosis is important for patient treatment and epidemic control; hence, rapid, scalable, and accurate POC tests should be developed. Multiplexed POC assays that can detect various diseases should be prioritized. During the COVID-19 pandemic, sensitive and rapid biosensing instruments are required. A COVID-19 FET sensor was developed using SARS-CoV-2 spike antibodies attached to graphene. In clinical samples, the sensor detected SARS-CoV-2 antigen, buffer, transport media, and cultured SARS-CoV-2. Functionalized graphene-based sensor technology detects SARS-CoV-2 in clinical samples quickly and easily. This method can also be used to diagnose other viral infections. Future research should focus on producing portable biosensors that do not require any special equipment. Integrating moveable charging devices (such as batteries) will also improve assay functionality, particularly for nucleic acid tests that are used for amplification by a driven heater. Advances in science and technology have played a vital role in tracking and monitoring data and results regarding the health conditions of patients for diagnosis and treatment.

tel: +82-41-660-1337

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Hiscott J, Alexandridi M, Muscolini M, Tassone E, Palermo E, Soultsioti M, et al. The global impact of the coronavirus pandemic. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020;53:1–9.10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.05.010Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[2] Sarkodie SA, Owusu PA. Global assessment of environment, health and economic impact of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Environ Dev Sustain. 2021;23:5005–15.10.1007/s10668-020-00801-2Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[3] Gorain B, Choudhury H, Molugulu N, Athawale RB, Kesharwani P. Fighting strategies against the novel coronavirus pandemic: impact on global economy. Front Public Health. 2020;8:606129.10.3389/fpubh.2020.606129Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[4] Bhat BA, Khan S, Manzoor S, Niyaz A, Tak H, Anees S, et al. A study on impact of COVID-19 lockdown on psychological health, economy and social life of people in Kashmir. Int J Sci Healthc Res. 2020;5:36–46.Search in Google Scholar

[5] Isaifan R. The dramatic impact of coronavirus outbreak on air quality: has it saved as much as it has killed so far? Glob J Environ Sci Manag. 2020;6:275–88.Search in Google Scholar

[6] Wei Z-Y, Qiao R, Chen J, Huang J, Wu H, Wang W-J, et al. The influence of pre-existing hypertension on coronavirus disease 2019 patients. Epidemiol Infect. 2021;149:e4.10.1017/S0950268820003118Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[7] Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen YM, Wang W, Song ZG, et al. A new coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 2020;579:265–9.10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[8] Baig M, Jameel T, Alzahrani SH, Mirza AA, Gazzaz ZJ, Ahmad T, et al. Predictors of misconceptions, knowledge, attitudes, and practices of COVID-19 pandemic among a sample of Saudi population. PLoS One. 2020;15(12):e0243526.10.1371/journal.pone.0243526Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[9] Andersen KG, Rambaut A, Lipkin WI, Holmes EC, Garry RF. The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Med. 2020;26(4):450–2.10.1038/s41591-020-0820-9Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[10] Aleem A, AB AS, Slenker AK. Emerging Variants of SARS-CoV-2 and Novel Therapeutics Against Coronavirus (COVID-19); 2021.Search in Google Scholar

[11] Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. The species severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(4):536–44.10.1038/s41564-020-0695-zSearch in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[12] Wu F, Zhao S, Yu B, Chen YM, Wang W, Song ZG. A novel coronavirus associated with human respiratory disease in China. Nature. 2020;579(7798):265–9.10.1038/s41586-020-2008-3Search in Google Scholar

[13] Wu Z, Harrich D, Li Z, Hu D, Li D. The unique features of SARS-CoV-2 transmission: comparison with SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and 2009 H1N1 pandemic influenza virus. Rev Med Virol. 2021;31(2):e2171.10.1002/rmv.2171Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[14] Rasmussen AL, Popescu SV. SARS-CoV-2 transmission without symptoms. Science. 2021;371(6535):1206–7.10.1126/science.abf9569Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[15] Petrosillo N, Viceconte G, Ergonul O, Ippolito G, Petersen E. COVID-19, SARS, and MERS: are they closely related. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26(6):729–34.10.1016/j.cmi.2020.03.026Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[16] Mahase E. Covid-19: School staff testing positive for antibodies rose to around 15% in December. BMJ. 2021;372:n598.10.1136/bmj.n598Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[17] Higgins TS, Wu AW, Ting JY. SARS-CoV-2 nasopharyngeal swab testing—false-negative results from a pervasive anatomical misconception. JAMA Otolaryngol–Head Neck Surg. 2020;146(11):993–4.10.1001/jamaoto.2020.2946Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[18] Tahamtan A, Ardebili A. Real-time RT-PCR in COVID-19 detection: issues affecting the results. Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2020;20(5):453–4.10.1080/14737159.2020.1757437Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[19] Moreno-Contreras J, Espinoza MA, Sandoval-Jaime C, Cantú-Cuevas MA, Barón-Olivares H, Ortiz-Orozco OD, et al. Saliva sampling and its direct lysis, an excellent option to increase the number of SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic tests in settings with supply shortages. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(10):e01659–20.10.1128/JCM.01659-20Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[20] Yee R, Truong TT, Pannaraj PS, Eubanks N, Gai E, Jumarang J, et al. Saliva is a promising alternative specimen for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in children and adults. J Clin Microbiol. 2021;59(2):e02686–20.10.1128/JCM.02686-20Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[21] Teo AKJ, Choudhury Y, Tan IB, Cher CY, Chew SH, Wan ZY, et al. Saliva is more sensitive than nasopharyngeal or nasal swabs for diagnosis of asymptomatic and mild COVID-19 infection. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):1–8.10.1038/s41598-021-82787-zSearch in Google Scholar

[22] He R, Wang L, Wang F, Li W, Liu Y, Li A, et al. Pyrococcus furiosus Argonaute-mediated nucleic acid detection. Chem Commun. 2019;55(88):13219–22.10.1039/C9CC07339FSearch in Google Scholar

[23] Xun G, Liu Q, Chong Y, Li Z, Guo X, Li Y, et al. The stepwise endonuclease activity of a thermophilic Argonaute protein. bioRxiv. 2019;821280.10.1101/821280Search in Google Scholar

[24] Rodríguez-Rey R, Garrido-Hernansaiz H, Collado S. Psychological impact and associated factors during the initial stage of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic among the general population in Spain. Front Psychol. 2020;11:1540.10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01540Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[25] Gupta MD, Girish M, Yadav G, Shankar A, Yadav R. Coronavirus disease 2019 and the cardiovascular system: impacts and implications. Indian Heart J. 2020;72:1–6.10.1016/j.ihj.2020.03.006Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[26] Giannis D, Geropoulos G, Matenoglou E, Moris D. Impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on healthcare workers: beyond the risk of exposure. Postgrad Med J. 2021;97:326–8.10.1136/postgradmedj-2020-137988Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[27] Rahman T, Khandakar A, Hoque ME, Ibtehaz N, Kashem SB, Masud R, et al. Development and validation of an early scoring system for prediction of disease severity in COVID-19 using complete blood count parameters. IEEE Access. 2021;9:120422–41.10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3105321Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[28] Sohrabi C, Alsafi Z, O’neill N, Khan M, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A, et al. World Health Organization declares global emergency: a review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Int J Surg. 2020;76:71–6.10.1016/j.ijsu.2020.02.034Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[29] Sabino-Silva R, Jardim ACG, Siqueira WL. Coronavirus COVID-19 impacts to dentistry and potential salivary diagnosis. Clin Oral Investig. 2020;24:1619–21.10.1007/s00784-020-03248-xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[30] Shereen MA, Khan S, Kazmi A, Bashir N, Siddique R. COVID-19 infection: origin, transmission, and characteristics of human coronaviruses. J Adv Res. 2020;24:91–8.10.1016/j.jare.2020.03.005Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[31] To KKW, Tsang OTY, Leung WS, Tam AR, Wu TC, Lung DC, et al. Temporal profiles of viral load in posterior oropharyngeal saliva samples and serum antibody responses during infection by SARS-CoV-2: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(5):565–74.10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30196-1Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[32] To KKW, Tsang OTY, Yip CCY, Chan KH, Wu TC, Chan JMC, et al. Consistent detection of 2019 novel coronavirus in saliva. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(15):841–3.10.1093/cid/ciaa149Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[33] Ranoa DRE, Holland RL, Alnaji FG, Green KJ, Wang L, Brooke CB. Saliva-based molecular testing for SARS-CoV-2 that bypasses RNA extraction. bioRxiv. 2020. 2020.06. 18.159434. View Article.10.1101/2020.06.18.159434Search in Google Scholar

[34] Balboni A, Gallina L, Palladini A, Prosperi S, Battilani M. A real-time PCR assay for bat SARS-like coronavirus detection and its application to Italian greater horseshoe bat faecal sample surveys. Sci World J. 2012;2012:989514.10.1100/2012/989514Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[35] Enosawa M, Kageyama S, Sawai K, Watanabe K, Notomi T, Onoe S, et al. Use of loop-mediated isothermal amplification of the IS 900 sequence for rapid detection of cultured Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(9):4359–65.10.1128/JCM.41.9.4359-4365.2003Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[36] Notomi T, Okayama H, Masubuchi H, Yonekawa T, Watanabe K, Amino N, et al. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2000;28(12):e63.10.1093/nar/28.12.e63Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[37] Swarts DC, Hegge JW, Hinojo I, Shiimori M, Ellis MA, Dumrongkulraksa J, et al. Argonaute of the archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus is a DNA-guided nuclease that targets cognate DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2015;43(10):5120–9.10.1093/nar/gkv415Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[38] Zhao H. Programmable DNA-guided artificial restriction enzymes: discovery, engineering, and applications in “Enzyme Engineering XXIV”, Pierre Monsan, ECI Symposium Series. New York, USA: Engineering Conferences International; 2017. https://dc.engconfintl.org/enzyme_xxiv/177.Search in Google Scholar

[39] Kojima N, Turner F, Slepnev V, Bacelar A, Deming L, Kodeboyina S, et al. Self-collected oral fluid and nasal swabs demonstrate comparable sensitivity to clinician collected nasopharyngeal swabs for COVID-19 detection. MedRxIV. 2020.10.1101/2020.04.11.20062372Search in Google Scholar

[40] Wyllie AL, Fournier J, Casanovas-Massana A, Campbell M, Tokuyama M, Vijayakumar P, et al. Saliva is more sensitive for SARS-CoV-2 detection in COVID-19 patients than nasopharyngeal swabs. MedRxiv. 202010.1101/2020.04.16.20067835Search in Google Scholar

[41] Vogels CB, Watkins AE, Harden CA, Brackney DE, Shafer J, Wang J, et al. SalivaDirect: a simplified and flexible platform to enhance SARS-CoV-2 testing capacity. Med. 2021;2(3):263–80.10.1016/j.medj.2020.12.010Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[42] Xun G, Lane ST, Petrov VA, Pepa BE, Zhao H. A rapid, accurate, scalable, and portable testing system for COVID-19 diagnosis. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):1–9.10.1038/s41467-021-23185-xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[43] Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, et al.; China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020 Feb 20;382(8):727–33. 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[44] Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020 Mar;579(7798):270–3. 10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[45] Surti PV, Kim MW, Tu Phan LM, Kailasa SK, Mungray AK, Park JP, et al. Progress on dot-blot assay as a promising analytical tool: detection from molecules to cells. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2022;157:116736.10.1016/j.trac.2022.116736Search in Google Scholar

[46] Sharifi M, Hosseinali SH, Hossein Alizadeh R, Hasan A, Attar F, Salihi A, et al. Plasmonic and chiroplasmonic nanobiosensors based on gold nanoparticles. Talanta. 2020;212:120782.10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120782Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[47] Sharifi M, Avadi MR, Attar F, Dashtestani F, Ghorchian H, Rezayat SM, et al. Cancer diagnosis using nanomaterials based electrochemical nanobiosensors. Biosens Bioelectron. 2018;126:773–84.10.1016/j.bios.2018.11.026Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[48] Sharifi M, Hasan A, Attar F, Taghizadeh A, Falahati M. Development of point-of-care nanobiosensors for breast cancers diagnosis. Talanta. 2020;217:121091.10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121091Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[49] Shen M, Zhou Y, Ye J, Al-Maskri AA, Kang Y, Zeng S, et al. Recent advances and perspectives of nucleic acid detection for coronavirus. J Pharm Anal. 2020;10(2):97–101.10.1016/j.jpha.2020.02.010Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[50] Kang S, Peng W, Zhu Y, Lu S, Zhou M, Lin W, et al. Recent progress in understanding 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) associated with human respiratory disease: detection, mechanisms and treatment. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020;55(5):105950.10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105950Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[51] Udugama B, Kadhiresan P, Kozlowski HN, Malekjahani A, Osborne M, Li V, et al. Diagnosing COVID-19: the disease and tools for detection. ACS Nano. 2020;14(4):3822–35.10.1021/acsnano.0c02624Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[52] Chen Q, He Z, Mao F, Pei H, Cao H, Liu X. Diagnostic technologies for COVID-19: a review. RSC Adv. 2020;10(58):35257–64.10.1039/D0RA06445ASearch in Google Scholar

[53] Medhi R, Srinoi P, Ngo N, Tran HV, Lee TR. Nanoparticle-based strategies to combat COVID-19. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2020;3(9):8557–80.10.1021/acsanm.0c01978Search in Google Scholar

[54] Soler M, Estevez MC, Cardenosa-Rubio M, Astua A, Lechuga LM. How nanophotonic label-free biosensors can contribute to rapid and massive diagnostics of respiratory virus infections: COVID-19 case. ACS Sens. 2020;5(9):2663–78.10.1021/acssensors.0c01180Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[55] Kailasa SK, Mehta VN, Koduru JR, Basu H, Singhal RK, Murthy Z, Park TJ. An overview of molecular biology and nanotechnology based analytical methods for the detection of SARS-CoV-2: promising biotools for the rapid diagnosis of COVID-19. Analyst. 2021;146(5):1489–513.10.1039/D0AN01528HSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

[56] Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020;395:497–506.10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[57] Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579:270–3.10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[58] Yang Y, Yang M, Shen C, Wang F, Yuan J, Li J, et al. Evaluating the accuracy of different respiratory specimens in the laboratory diagnosis and monitoring the viral shedding of 2019-nCoV infections. medRxiv. 202010.1101/2020.02.11.20021493Search in Google Scholar

[59] Chan PK, To WK, Liu, Ng EY, Tam TK, Sung JS, Lacroix JJ, et al. Evaluation of a peptide-based enzyme immunoassay for anti-SARS coronavirus IgG antibody. J Med Virol. 2004;74:517–20.10.1002/jmv.20207Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[60] Mardian Y, Kosasih H, Karyana M, Neal A, Lau CY. Review of current COVID-19 diagnostics and opportunities for further development. Front Med. 2021;8:562.10.3389/fmed.2021.615099Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[61] Choi Y, Kang J, Jariwala D, Kang MS, Marks TJ, Hersam MC, et al. Low-voltage complementary electronics from ion-gel-gated vertical van der waals heterostructures. Adv Mater. 2016;28:3742–8.10.1002/adma.201506450Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[62] Teng F, Hu K, Ouyang W, Fang X. Photoelectric detectors based on inorganic p-type semiconductor materials. Adv Mater. 2018;30:1706262.10.1002/adma.201706262Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[63] Liu W, Liu L, Kou G, Zheng Y, Ding Y, Ni W, et al. Evaluation of nucleocapsid and spike protein-based ELISAs for detecting antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58:e00461–20.10.1101/2020.03.16.20035014Search in Google Scholar

[64] Enghiad B, Zhao H. Programmable DNA-guided artificial restriction enzymes. ACS Synth Biol. 2017;6:752–7.10.1021/acssynbio.6b00324Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[65] Zhang Y, Odiwuor N, Xiong J, Sun L, Nyaruaba RO, Wei H, et al. Rapid molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus RNA using colorimetric LAMP. medRxiv. preprint 2020. 10.1101/2020.02.26.20028373.Search in Google Scholar

[66] Yu L, Wu S, Hao X, Dong X, Mao L, Pelechano V, et al. Rapid detection of COVID-19 coronavirus using a reverse transcriptional loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) diagnostic platform. Clin Chem. 2020;66:975–7.10.1093/clinchem/hvaa102Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[67] Dao Thi VL, Herbst K, Boerner K, Meurer M, Kremer LP, Kirrmaier D, et al. A colorimetric RT-LAMP assay and LAMP-sequencing for detecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA in clinical samples. Sci Transl Med. 2020;12:1–13. 10.1126/scitranslmed.abc7075.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[68] Gadkar VJ, Goldfarb DM, Gantt S, Tilley PAG. Real-time detection and monitoring of loop mediated amplification (LAMP) reaction using self-quenching and de-quenching fluorogenic probes. Sci Rep. 2018;8:5548.10.1038/s41598-018-23930-1Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[69] Janissen R, Sahoo PK, Santos CA, da Silva AM, von Zuben AAG, Souto DEP, et al. InP nanowire biosensor with tailored biofunctionalization: ultrasensitive and highly selective disease biomarker detection. Nano Lett. 2017;17:5938–49.10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b01803Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[70] Liu J, Chen X, Wang Q, Xiao M, Zhong D, Sun W, et al. Ultrasensitive monolayer MoS2 field-effect transistor based DNA sensors for screening of down syndrome. Nano Lett. 2019;19:1437–44.10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b03818Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[71] Cooper DR, D’Anjou B, Ghattamaneni N, Harack B, Hilke M, Horth A, et al. Experimental review of graphene. ISRN Condens Matter Phys. 2012;2012:501686–56.10.5402/2012/501686Search in Google Scholar

[72] Geim AK, Novoselov KS. The rise of graphene. Nat Mater. 2007;6:183–91.10.1142/9789814287005_0002Search in Google Scholar

[73] Lei YM, Xiao MM, Li YT, Xu L, Zhang H, Zhang ZY, et al. Detection of heart failure-related biomarker in whole blood with graphene field effect transistor biosensor. Biosens Bioelectron. 2017;91:1–7.10.1016/j.bios.2016.12.018Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[74] Zhou L, Mao H, Wu C, Tang L, Wu Z, Sun H, et al. Label-free graphene biosensor targeting cancer molecules based on non-covalent modification. Biosens Bioelectron. 2017;87:701–7.10.1016/j.bios.2016.09.025Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[75] Seo G, Lee G, Kim MJ, Baek SH, Choi M, Ku KB, et al. Rapid detection of COVID-19 causative virus (SARS-CoV-2) in human nasopharyngeal swab specimens using field-effect transistor-based biosensor. ACS Nano. 2020;14(4):5135–42.10.1021/acsnano.0c02823Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[76] Jung YJ, Park G-S, Moon JH, Ku K, Beak S-H, Kim S, et al. Comparative analysis of primer-probe sets for the laboratory confirmation of SARS-CoV-2. BioRixv. 2020. 10.1101/2020.02.25.964775. (accessed 2020-04-15).Search in Google Scholar

[77] Caldas, LA, Carneiro FA, Higa LM, Monteiro FL, da Silva GP, da Costa LJ, et al. Ultrastructural analysis of SARS-CoV-2 interactions with the host cell via high resolution scanning electron microscopy. Sci Rep. 2020;10:16099.10.1038/s41598-020-73162-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[78] Turner A, Karube I, Wilson GS. Biosensors: fundamentals and applications. Japan: Oxford University Press; 1987.10.1016/S0003-2670(00)85361-1Search in Google Scholar

[79] Dincer C, Bruch R, Costa-Rama E, Fernández Abedul MT, Merkoçi A, Manz A, et al. Disposable sensors in diagnostics, food, and environmental monitoring. Adv Mater. 2019;31(30):1806739.10.1002/adma.201806739Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[80] Kaur H, Shorie M. Nanomaterial based aptasensors for clinical and environmental diagnostic applications. Nanoscale Adv. 2019;1(6):2123–38.10.1039/C9NA00153KSearch in Google Scholar

[81] Hierlemann A, Brand O, Hagleitner C, Baltes H. Microfabrication techniques for chemical/biosensors. Proc IEEE. 2003;91(6):839–63.10.1109/JPROC.2003.813583Search in Google Scholar

[82] Cui F, Zhou HS. Diagnostic methods and potential portable biosensors for coronavirus disease 2019. Biosens Bioelectron. 2020;165:112349.10.1016/j.bios.2020.112349Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[83] Behera S, Rana G, Satapathy S, Mohanty M, Pradhan S, Panda MK, et al. Biosensors in diagnosing COVID-19 and recent development. Sens Int. 2020;1:100054.10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100054Search in Google Scholar

[84] Goldsmith BR, Locascio L, Gao Y, Lerner M, Walker A, Lerner J, et al. Digital biosensing by foundry-fabricated graphene sensors. Sci Rep. 2019;9:1.10.1038/s41598-019-38700-wSearch in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[85] Hwang MT, Heiranian M, Kim Y, You S, Leem J, Taqieddin A, et al. Ultrasensitive detection of nucleic acids using deformed graphene channel field effect biosensors. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1.10.1038/s41467-020-15330-9Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[86] Cooper DR, D’Anjou B, Ghattamaneni N, Harack B, Hilke M, Horth A, et al. Experimental review of graphene. Int Sch Res Not. 2012;2012:56–6.10.5402/2012/501686Search in Google Scholar

[87] Geim AK, Novoselov KS. The rise of graphene. J Nanosci Nanotechnol Nat. 2010;6:11–9.10.1142/9789814287005_0002Search in Google Scholar

[88] Fatema KN, Sagadevan S, Cho JY, Jang WK, Oh WC. Graphene-based nanocomposite using new modeling molecular dynamic simulations for proposed neutralizing mechanism and real-time sensing of COVID-19. Nanotechnol Rev. 2022;11:1555–69.10.1515/ntrev-2022-0093Search in Google Scholar

[89] Chan JF, Kok KH, Zhu Z, Chu H, To KK, Yuan S, et al. Genomic characterization of the 2019 novel human-pathogenic coronavirus isolated from a patient with atypical pneumonia after visiting Wuhan. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9:221–36.10.1080/22221751.2020.1719902Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[90] Liu J, Liao X, Qian S, Yuan J, Wang F, Liu Y, et al. Community transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26:1320–3.10.3201/eid2606.200239Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[91] Litman GW, Rast JP, Shamblott MJ, Haire RN, Hulst M, Roess W, et al. Phylogenetic diversification of immunoglobulin genes and the antibody repertoire. Mol Biol Evol. 1993;10:60–72.Search in Google Scholar

[92] Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V. Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5:562–9.10.1038/s41564-020-0688-ySearch in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[93] Fehr AR, Perlman S. Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Coronaviruses. 2015;1282:1–23.10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[94] Seshadri DR, Davies EV, Harlow ER, Hsu JJ, Knighton SC, Walker TA, et al. Wearable sensors for COVID-19: a call to action to harness our digital infrastructure for remote patient monitoring and virtual assessments. Front Digital Health. 2020;2:8. 10.3389/fdgth.2020.00008.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[95] Emily C. The importance of respiratory rate tracking during the COVID-19 pandemic frontiers. 2020;1:4. https://www.whoop.com/thelocker/respiratory-rate-tracking-coronavirus/.Search in Google Scholar

[96] Massaroni C, Nicolò A, Schena E, Sacchetti M. Remote respiratory monitoring in the time of COVID-19. Front Physiol. 2020;11:635. 10.3389/fphys.2020.00635.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[97] Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 2020;323(13):1239–42. 10.1001/jama.2020.2648.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[98] Ke G, Xu Z, Zhang J, Bian J, Liu TY. DeepGBM: a deep learning framework distilled by GBDT for online prediction tasks. In Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining; 2020. p. 384–94. 10.1145/3292500.3330858.Search in Google Scholar

[99] Purohit B, Kumar A, Mahato K, Chandra P. Smartphone-assisted personalized diagnostic devices and wearable sensors. Curr Opin Biomed Eng. 2020;13:42–50.10.1016/j.cobme.2019.08.015Search in Google Scholar

[100] Ranjan Y, Rashid Z, Stewart C, Conde P, Begale M, Verbeeck D, et al. RADAR-base: open source mobile health platform for collecting, monitoring, and analyzing data using sensors, wearables, and mobile devices. JMIR mHealth uHealth. 2019;7(8):11734.10.2196/11734Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[101] Stewart CL, Rashid Z, Ranjan Y, Sun S, Dobson RJ, Folarin AA. RADAR-base: major depressive disorder and epilepsy case studies. In Proceedings of the ACM International Joint Conference and International Symposium on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing and Wearable Computers; 2018. p. 1735–43. 10.1145/3267305.3267540.Search in Google Scholar

[102] Sun S, Folarin A, Ranjan Y, Rashid Z, Conde P, Cummins N, et al., Using Smartphones and Wearable Devices to Monitor Behavioural Changes during COVID-19; 2020 arXiv preprint arXiv: 2004.14331.10.2196/19992Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[103] Guan WJ, Ni ZY, Hu Y. Clinical charactaristics of corona virus disesease 2019 in China. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(18):1708–20.10.1056/NEJMoa2002032Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[104] Prompetchara E, Ketloy C, Palaga T. Immune responses in COVID-19 and potential vaccines: lessons learned from SARS and MERS epidemic. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2020;38(1):1–9. 10.12932/AP-200220-0772.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[105] Hodge N. Germany’s dual approach to data regulation under the GDPR, 2020, 3, 2. https://www.complianceweek.com/data-privacy/germanys-dual-approach-to-data-regulation-under-the-gdpr/28386.article.Search in Google Scholar

[106] Gui Q, Lawson T, Shan S, Yan L, Liu Y. The application of whole cell-based biosensors for use in environmental analysis and in medical diagnostics. Sensors. 2017;17(7):1623. 10.3390/s17071623.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[107] Wang Z, Hao Z, Yu S, Huang C, Pan Y, Zhao X. A wearable and deformable graphene-based affinity nanosensor for monitoring of cytokines in biofluids. Nanomaterials. 2020;10:1503. 10.3390/nano10081503.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[108] Rodríguez Díaz C, Lafuente-Gómez N, Coutinho C, Pardo D, Alarcón-Iniesta H, López-Valls M, et al. Development of colorimetric sensors based on gold nanoparticles for SARS-CoV-2 RdRp, E and S genes detection. Talanta. 2022;243:123393.10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123393Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[109] Nalla AK, Casto AM, Huang MLW, Perchetti GA, Sampoleo R, Shrestha L, et al. Comparative performance of SARS-CoV-2 detection assays using seven different primer-probe sets and one assay kit. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(6):1–6. 10.1128/JCM.00557-20.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[110] Sethuraman N, Jeremiah SS, Ryo A. Interpreting diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2. JAMA. 2020;323(22):2249–51. 10.1001/jama.2020.8259.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[111] Chu DKW, Pan Y, Cheng SMS, Hui KPY, Krishnan P, Liu Y, et al. Molecular diagnosis of a novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) causing an outbreak of pneumonia. Clin Chem. 2020;7:1–7. 10.1093/clinchem/hvaa029.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[112] Chan JFW, Yip CCY, To KKW, Tang THC, Wong SCY, Leung KH, et al. Improved molecular diagnosis of COVID-19 by the novel, highly sensitive and specific COVID19-RdRP/Hel real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay validated in vitro and with clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(5):1–10. 10.1128/JCM.00310-20.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[113] Corman VM, Landt O, Kaiser M, Molenkamp R, Meijer A, Chu DKW, et al. Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR. Euro Surveill. 2020;25(3):1–8. 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.3.2000045.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[114] Reusken CBEM, Broberg EK, Haagmans B, Meijer A, Corman VM, Papa A, et al. and on behalf of EVD-LabNet and ERLI-Net. Laboratory readiness and response for novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in expert laboratories in 30 EU/EEA countries, January 2020. Euro Surveill. 2020;25(6):1–6. 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.6.2000082.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[115] Korukluoglu G, Kolukirik M, Bayrakdar F, Ozgumus GG, Altas AB, Cosgun Y, et al. 40 minutes RT-qPCR assay for screening Spike N501Y and HV69-70del mutations. bioRxiv. 2021. 10.1101/2021.01.26.428302.Search in Google Scholar

[116] Ghosh D, Sarkar D, Girigoswami A, Chattopadhyay N. A fully standardized method of synthesis of gold nanoparticles of desired dimension in the range 15 nm- 60 nm. J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 2011;11(2):1141–6. 10.1166/jnn.2011.3090.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[117] Chen P-H, Huang CC, Wu CC, Chen PH, Tripathi A, Wang YL. Saliva-based COVID-19 detection: a rapid antigen test of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein using an electrical-double-layer gated field-effect transistor-based biosensing system. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2022;357:131415.10.1016/j.snb.2022.131415Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[118] Alafeef M, Dighe K, Moitra P, Pan D. Rapid, ultrasensitive, and quantitative detection of SARS-CoV-2 using antisense oligonucleotides directed electrochemical biosensor chip. ACS Nano. 2020;14:acsnano.0c06392–17045. 10.1021/acsnano.0c06392.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[119] Moitra P, Alafeef M, Dighe K, Frieman MB, Pan D. Selective naked-eye detection of SARS-CoV-2 mediated by N gene targeted antisense oligonucleotide capped plasmonic nanoparticles. ACS Nano. 2020;14:7617–27. 10.1021/acsnano.0c03822.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[120] Hoffman T, Nissen K, Krambrich J, Rönnberg B, Akaberi D, Esmaeilzadeh M, et al. Evaluation of a COVID-19 IgM and IgG rapid test; an efficient tool for assessment of past exposure to SARS-CoV-2. Infect Ecol Epidemiol. 2020;10:1754538. 10.1080/20008686.2020.1754538.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[121] Choi JR, Liu Z, Hu J, Tang R, Gong Y, Feng S, et al. Polydimethylsiloxane-paper hybrid lateral flow assay for highly sensitive point-of-care nucleic acid testing. Anal Chem. 2016;88:6254–64. 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b00195.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[122] Gao X, Xu L-P, Wu T, Wen Y, Ma X, Zhang X. An enzymeamplified lateral flow strip biosensor for visual detection of MicroRNA-224. Talanta. 2016;146:648–54. 10.1016/j.talanta.2015.06.060.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[123] Tang R, Yang H, Choi JR, Gong Y, Hu J, Feng S, et al. Improved sensitivity of lateral flow assay using paper-based sample concentration technique. Talanta. 2016;152:269–76. 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.02.017.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[124] Li J, Macdonald J. Multiplexed lateral flow biosensors: technological advances for radically improving point-of-care diagnoses. Biosens Bioelectron. 2016;83:177–92. 10.1016/j.bios.2016.04.021.Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[125] Choi JR, Yong KW, Tang R, Gong Y, Wen T, Li F, et al. Advances and challenges of fully integrated paper-based pointof- care nucleic acid testing. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2017;93:37–50. 10.1016/j.trac.2017.05.007.Search in Google Scholar

[126] Blicharz TM, Gong P, Bunner BM, Chu LL, Leonard KM, Wakefield JA, et al. Microneedle-based device for the one-step painless collection of capillary blood samples. Nat Biomed Eng. 2018;2:151–7.10.1038/s41551-018-0194-1Search in Google Scholar PubMed

[127] Aro K, Wei F, Wong DT, Tu M. Saliva liquid biopsy for point-ofcare applications. Front Public Health. 2017;5:77.10.3389/fpubh.2017.00077Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Received: 2022-09-12
Revised: 2022-12-28
Accepted: 2023-01-11
Published Online: 2023-02-28

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0513
Keywords for this article
SPOT; COVID-19; clinical saliva; virus-spike; rapid
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
Sign up now to receive a 20% welcome discount
Institutional Access
How does access work?
Have an idea on how to improve our website?
Please write us.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Downloaded on 11.9.2025 from https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0513/html
Scroll to top button