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High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal

  • Xiangyu Xu , Linyue Li , Sheng Yu , Siao Zhu , Hannah M. Johnson , Yunlei Zhou , Fei Gao , Linfang Wang , Zhoulu Wang , Yutong Wu , Xiang Liu EMAIL logo , Yi Zhang EMAIL logo and Shan Jiang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: October 12, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Biomass-derived porous carbon displays a great potential for lithium–selenium (Li–Se) batteries owing to its green resource and inherent structural advantages, which can effectively restrict the shuttle effect of Se cathode. Peanut meal, by-product of the extraction of peanut oil, is a promising precursor for N-doped porous carbon. However, peanut meal is difficult to be activated in solution due to its high hydrophobicity. Thus, non-reports have been available for peanut meal-derived porous carbon used as Li–Se battery cathode host. In this work, we have innovatively proposed a very simple method of activating peanut meal by directly physically grinding the activator with the peanut meal and then annealing it to convert it into nitrogen-doped three-dimensional porous carbon (N-PC) with rich nanoscale pore size structures, which is then used as the Se host for Li–Se batteries. The N-PC shows a high specific surface area of 938.872 m2 g−1. The Se/N-PC composite cathode delivers a specific capacity of 461.4 mA h g−1 for 250 cycles at 0.2 C, corresponding to a high-capacity retention of 97.2%. Moreover, the Se/N-PC composite maintains a high capacity over 340.1 mA h g−1 after 1,000 cycles at a high current density of 2 C. Our work effectively resolves the hydrophobic biomass activation problem and manufactures abundant and low-cost Se host for Li–Se batteries.

Keywords: biomass; lithium–selenium batteries; porous carbon; cathode; cycling performance

1 Introduction

The electric vehicles desire high energy density, long life cycle, and low-cost rechargeable batteries. Today’s lithium-ion batteries are becoming increasingly difficult to meet these demands. It is critical to develop novel electrode materials with high energy density [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]. Selenium (Se) is considered to be a promising cathode material because of its higher-volume energy density (2,528 W h L−1) [11,12]. However, its practical application is restricted by three major challenges. First of all, in ether-based electrolyte, the intermediate polyselenides (Li2Se x , x > 4) during cycling are easily dissolved into the electrolyte, which cause the shuttle effect, leading to side reactions and poor cycling performance [13]. Furthermore, the enormous volume expansion of Se cathode during charging and discharging processes results in the electrode structure destruction and capacity loss [14]. Finally, the electrical conductivity of Se is not high, which causes sluggish reaction kinetics of Se and poor rate performance [15].

To overcome the aforementioned issues, numerous strategies have been adopted. Porous carbon is the widely used Se host material due to the high specific surface area and electrical conductivity, which can effectively restrict the shuttle effect of Se cathode and enhance the electrical conductivity of Se [16,17,18,19]. Various carbon materials prepared using nanotechnology, such as CMK-3 [20], graphene [21], and carbon spheres [22], are frequently used as good building blocks to architect fibrous carbon substrates. For instance, Yang et al. [20] prepared ordered mesoporous carbon (CMK-3) materials using the template method and attached selenium to CMK-3 materials by the melt-diffusion method. Stronger Se–C bonds confine the selenium molecules in the mesopore, thus improving the stability. The Se/CMK-3 cathode shows a specific capacity of 335 mA h g−1 at 0.1 C. However, the preparation of porous carbon substrates using the template method is complex, and the reagents used are environmentally hazardous and costly. In contrast, biomass carbon materials have significant advantages. Bio-inspired material, an abundant, renewable, and sustainable green resource, is the excellent precursor for porous carbon materials [23,24,25]. The biomass-derived carbon has many advantages. The biomass has natural ordered porous structure, which enables the biomass-derived porous carbon to possess high specific surface area [26,27]. Moreover, hierarchical biomass-derived porous carbon composed of hard carbon has stable structure and high strength, which shows excellent cycling performance [28]. The inherent N, S, P, and O elements in biomass can be uniformly doped in biomass-derived carbon during the carbonization process, which significantly improves the electrochemical performance of biomass-derived porous carbon.

Up until now, many biomasses have been reported as precursors for porous carbons in energy storage application. For instance, Deng et al. [12] reported porous nitrogen-doped carbon (HPNC) from water hyacinth activated by KOH solution and calcined at 750°C. The Se/HPNC cathode maintains a high capacity of 410 mA h g−1 at 1.0 C after 500 cycles. Peanut meal is a type of biomass material that is by-product of peanut oil processing. In recent years, several million tons of peanut meal waste is created per annum [29], which is a promising precursor for N-doped porous carbon. However, peanut meal is difficult to be activated in solution due to its high hydrophobicity. Thus, non-reports have been available for peanut meal-derived porous carbon used as a cathode host in Li–Se batteries.

Herein, we develop a grinding activating/annealing method to converse peanut meal to an N-doped three-dimensional porous carbon (N-PC), which is then used as the Se host for Li–Se batteries. We used environmentally friendly ZnCl2 instead of KOH as an activation agent. In order to overcome the unmixed problem of peanut meal in the activation solution system, the peanut meal and ZnCl2 powder were ground to obtain a uniform activated mixture. Then, the mixture was calcined at high temperature to obtain N-PC. The N not only enhances the electrical conductivity of porous carbon but also possesses an adsorption effect on Se. Thus, the Se/N-PC composite delivers a specific capacity of 461.4 mA h g−1 for 200 cycles at 0.2 C, corresponding to a high capacity retention of 97.2%. Moreover, the Se/N-PC composite maintains a high capacity of 340.1 mA h g−1 after 1,000 cycles at a high current density of 2 C. Our work may open a door to resolve the hydrophobic biomass activation problem and fabricate other biomass-derived porous carbon for various applications.

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials

All chemicals were provided by Sigma-Aldrich. Conductive carbon black was purchased from Sinopharm Group. Aluminum foil was purchased from Shenzhen Kejing Co. Ltd. Lithium foil was purchased from Shenzhen Baker Energy Technology Co. Ltd. Diaphragm (Celgard 2400) was purchased from Celgard, USA. Peanut meal was purchased from www.taobao.com.

2.2 Preparation of N-PC and Se/N-PC

The peanut meal was dried in a vacuum oven at 70°C for 12 h. The dried peanut meal was mixed with the activator (ZnCl2) in a ratio of 1:2; then, it was put into a mortar and ground for 15 min to make the peanut meal and the activator fully mixed. The mixed samples were placed in a tube furnace and heated to 800°C at a heating rate of 2°C min−1 under a nitrogen atmosphere for 2 h to obtain a black product. The black product was immersed in 1 M hydrochloric acid solution and stirred for 2 h, then washed with deionized water until the solution became neutral, and dried at 70°C for 12 h to finally obtain N-PC. As a comparison, N-doped carbon (N-C) was prepared from peanut meal activated by ZnCl2 solution and calcined at 800°C for 2 h.

Se powder was loaded in N-PC by the melt infiltration method. The commercial Se powder and N-PC were fully ground in a mortar at a ratio of 1:1. The mixture was then kept at 270℃ for 12 h in an argon atmosphere in a tubular furnace, and finally, the Se/N-PC composite was obtained. The synthesis process of Se/N-PC is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of Se/N-PC.
Figure 1

Schematic illustration of the synthesis process of Se/N-PC.

2.3 Structural characterization

X-ray diffraction (XRD, Rigaku-Rint-2000, Cu-Ka ray as radiation source, working voltage of 40 KV, scanning speed of 5° min−1, step size of 0.02°) was used to study the phase composition and unit cell of the material parameters. The vibrational energy levels and functional groups of the molecules in the samples were investigated using Raman spectroscopy (WTTEC-Alpha-300M, wavelength 632 nm). X-ray spectroscopy (XPS, Thermal-VG Multilab-2000, Al-Ka radiation source) was used to analyze the elemental composition and chemical state of the sample surface. Scanning electron microscope (SEM, JEOL-JSM-7800F) and transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEOL-JEM-2100) were used to study the microscopic morphology and crystal structure of the samples. Thermogravimetric analysis (TG, Mettler-Toledo, temperature range from 25 to 800°C, heating rate of 10°C min−1) was used to determine the content of different components of the complex. The specific surface area and pore size distribution of the samples were tested by a specific surface area tester (Tristar-II-3020) based on Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH), and Horvath–Kawazoe theories, respectively.

2.4 Electrochemical measurements

About 80 wt% active material, 10 wt% Super-P, and 10 wt% polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) binder were mixed in 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone to form a slurry, which was then uniformly coated on foam nickel and dried at 80°C for 12 h as the cathode of the battery, and the Se loading of each pole piece is about 1.0 mg cm−2. Celgard 2500 was used as the separator, 1 M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate and diethyl carbonate (1:1 by volume), containing 5% fluoroethylene carbonate additive as the electrolyte, and pure lithium foil as the counter electrode. CR2025 assembled button cell for electrochemical experiments. Cyclic voltammetry (CV, CHI 660E, Shanghai Chenhua Electrochemical Workstation) was used to measure the equipped cells with a scan rate of 0.02 mV s−1 and a voltage range of 1.0–3.0 V. In the battery test system (LAND, CT2001A), the constant current charge–discharge and cycle performance of the coin-type battery in the potential range of 0.01–3 V were tested. Electrochemical impedance (EIS) measurements were performed in the frequency range 10−2–105 Hz with an amplitude of 5 mV.

3 Results and discussion

We used the ZnCl2 solution immersion method and direct mixed grinding method to activate peanut meal (Figure 2a and b). In order to prove the grinding activating validity, the morphologies of N-C and N-PC were studied by SEM. The peanut meal-derived carbon without activating shows an irregular particle structure (Figure S1) in which no pores were observed. The N-C shows a similar morphology to peanut meal-derived carbon without activating (Figure 2c and d). Peanut meal is a by-product of peanut oil processing, which enables peanut meal high hydrophobicity, so that peanut meal could not be activated in the activation solution system; thus, N-C shows a block morphology. Figure 2e shows the N2 adsorption/desorption isotherm of N-C. The specific surface area of N-C is only 65.4 m2 g−1, confirming the particle structure. In contrast, the N-PC shows a three-dimensional interconnected porous structure (Figure 2f and g). Figure 2h shows the N2 adsorption/desorption isotherm of N-PC. It can be seen that the N2 adsorption/desorption isotherm of N-PC belongs to a typical type Ⅳ isotherm, which indicates that the N-PC is mainly dominated by micropores. There is an obvious hysteresis loop in the pressure range of 0.3–1.0, which indicates that there are also mesopores in N-PC. The specific surface area of N-PC is calculated to be 938.872 m2 g−1. The pore volume is 0.528 cm3 g−1. BJH analysis shows that the pore size of N-PC ranges from 1 to 10 nm. SEM and BET results prove that the grinding activating/annealing method is effective to converse the hydrophobic peanut meal to porous carbon. The three-dimensional amorphous interconnected porous structure of N-PC provides abundant Se storage sites, and the rich mesoporous structure facilitates the lithium ion/electrolyte transport, which gives Se/N-PC cathode materials excellent electrochemical properties.

Figure 2 Synthesis diagram of N-C (a) and N-PC (b); morphological characterizations of N-C and N-PC: SEM images of N-C (c and d), N-PC (f and g); N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms of the N-C (e), N-PC (h), and the inset of panel (e) and (h) shows the pore size distribution of N-C and N-PC, respectively.
Figure 2

Synthesis diagram of N-C (a) and N-PC (b); morphological characterizations of N-C and N-PC: SEM images of N-C (c and d), N-PC (f and g); N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms of the N-C (e), N-PC (h), and the inset of panel (e) and (h) shows the pore size distribution of N-C and N-PC, respectively.

In view of the extremely high specific surface area and abundant pore structure of N-PC, we compounded commercial selenium powder into N-PC by the melt infiltration method to synthesize Se/N-PC. The Se/N-PC are characterized by XRD, and the results are shown in Figure 3a. N-PC shows a broad peak at 25°, indicating an amorphous phase [30,31]. The XRD curve of Se/N-PC composite is similar to that of N-PC. No characteristic trigonal peaks of Se are observed because the Se is completely immersed in the pores of N-PC [32]. The Raman spectra of N-PC and Se/N-PC are shown in Figure 3b. Both Raman spectra have two distinct peaks around 1,350 and 1,580 cm−1, corresponding to typical D band (≈1,350 cm−1) and G band (≈1,580 cm−1), which belong to disordered carbon and graphitic carbon [33,34,35]. The intensity ratio of D peak to G peak (I D/I G) effectively characterizes the degree of graphitization [36]. By calculation, the I D/I G ratio of N-PC and Se/N-PC is 0.993 and 1.011, respectively, indicating that Se/N-PC has a higher degree of graphitization, which is due to the extended sp2 C–C bond after Se is bonded to carbon. No obvious lattice fringes can be seen in the high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) image of N-PC (Figure 3c), which indicates that N-PC is amorphous, consistent with XRD results. In addition, the HRTEM image clearly shows the microporous structure of N-PC, as shown in the area marked by the red dotted line in the figure. As shown in the SEM image of Se/N-PC (Figure 3d and e), no agglomeration of selenium was found on the surface of N-PC; however, the electronic differential system (EDS) image (Figure 3h) showed that elemental Se was uniformly dispersed in N-PC, and thus, selenium has been uniformly dispersed into the pore structure of N-PC. EDS images (Figure 3f and j) show the uniform distribution of C, Se, O, and N, further confirming the uniform distribution of Se and N in Se/N-PC. TG result (Figure S2) shows that the content of Se in Se/N-PC is 53.78%. Furthermore, we can see that the TG curves of Se/N-PC show two phases, 300–420 and 420–510°C, corresponding to the weight loss of selenium in the mesopores and selenium in the micropores, respectively, which is due to the difference in the energy required to evaporate selenium in the mesopores and selenium in the micropores. More selenium was lost in the higher temperature range, suggesting that selenium nanoparticles are mainly stored in the microporous structure of N-PC. The porous structure of N-PC provides abundant sites for Se, and thus, Se can be embedded in N-PC, which inhibits the aggregation of selenium and alleviates the volume expansion of selenium.

Figure 3 Characterizations of N-PC and Se/N-PC: (a) XRD patterns, (b) Raman spectrum; (c) HRTEM image of N-PC; (d and e) SEM images of Se/N-PC; and SEM image (f) and elemental mapping (g–j) of Se/N-PC.
Figure 3

Characterizations of N-PC and Se/N-PC: (a) XRD patterns, (b) Raman spectrum; (c) HRTEM image of N-PC; (d and e) SEM images of Se/N-PC; and SEM image (f) and elemental mapping (g–j) of Se/N-PC.

The elemental composition and the chemical state of N-PC and Se/N-PC were further analyzed by XPS. As shown in Figure 4a, C, N, and O are presented in both Se/N-PC and N-PC. For Se/N-PC, Se is also observed in the Se/N-PC spectrum. Figure 4b–e shows the high-resolution XPS patterns of C 1s, N 1s, Se 3d, and O 1s for Se/N-PC, respectively. As shown in the high-resolution XPS spectrum of C 1s (Figure 4b), the peak can be deconvoluted into three peaks that correspond to Sp2 hybrid graphite (284.9 eV), C–O/C–N (286.2 eV), C═O/C═N (287.8 eV), and O–C═O (289.85 eV) bonds [37], respectively. The N 1s spectrum (Figure 4c) shows the pyridine-N peak (398.43 eV), pyrrole-N peak (399.93 eV), and graphitized-N peak (401.03 eV); pyridine nitrogen and pyrrole nitrogen increase the conductivity of carbon matrix and improve the affinity of nonpolar carbon atoms for polar Se and Li2Se, enhancing the stability and cycling performance significantly [38]. In addition, the peak at 407.21 eV can be attributed to the N–Se bond [39]. Figure 4d shows the high-resolution XPS spectrum of Se 3d for Se/N-PC. Two peaks at 55.33 and 56.13 eV correspond to Se 3d5/2 and Se 3d3/2. It is worth noting that the obvious wide peaks at 58.33 and 59.08 eV are attributed to the Se–N bond and Se–C bond [40], respectively, indicating that there is a strong chemical bond between the N-PC host and Se, which improves the cycling stability of Se/N-PC [41]. Oxygen (Figure 4e) content may arise from physical/chemical adsorption of oxygen/moisture from atmosphere during the synthesis and/or due to HCl wash [38]. The presence of the Se–C bond is very effective in inhibiting the aggregation of selenium within the carbon matrix, improving the capacity utilization of selenium.

Figure 4 (a) Survey spectra of N-PC and Se/N-PC; XPS spectra of the Se/N-PC: (b) C 1s, (c) N 1s, (d) Se 3d, and (e) O 1s.
Figure 4

(a) Survey spectra of N-PC and Se/N-PC; XPS spectra of the Se/N-PC: (b) C 1s, (c) N 1s, (d) Se 3d, and (e) O 1s.

The electrochemical performance of Se/N-PC was tested by using a coin cell, which is composed of Se/N-PC as cathode and lithium foil as anode. CV tests were first performed to study the Li+ storage mechanism. Figure 5a displays the CV curves of N-PC/Se electrode and the 0.1 mV s−1 scanning rate at 0.2–1.5 V. It can be seen that Se/N-PC has only one pair of redox peaks, which corresponds to the insertion of Li+ and the formation of Li2Se as well as the extraction process of Li+ In the first cycle, cathodic scan of Se cathode demonstrates two reduction peaks at 2.37 and 1.64 V, corresponding to the conversion of cyclic Se8 into a chainlike (linear) Se n molecule that reduces further to form Li2Se [38,42,43]. The corresponding anodic scan consists of one strong oxidation peak at 2.03 V that signifies the single-step conversion of Li2Se into a chainlike Se n molecule [44]. The peak at 1.64 V in the first cycle increases to 1.78 V in the subsequent cycles, which may be due to the electrochemical activation process of the cathode [45]. In the subsequent cycles, the curves show a high coincidence, indicating a high electrochemical reversibility for Se/N-PC. Figure 5b displays the cycling performance of Se/N-PC at a current density of 0.2 C, and the capacity calculation was made based on the amount of Se in the composite cathode (1 C rate = 675 mA g−1). A high stable specific capacity of 461.4 mA h g−1 after 250 cycles is obtained. At a current density of 0.2 C, the voltage profiles of Se/N-PC composites are representatively depicted in Figure 5c. Each discharging curve shows a stable voltage plateau that is attributed to the reduction of Se to Li2Se, which coincides well with the CV results. In addition, after 250 cycles, it can be seen that the charge–discharge curves overlap, and the capacity decay rate is only 2.8%. As shown in the SEM images of Se/N-PC electrode after 250 cycles (Figure 6), the surface of the electrode after cycling is still flat, and its porous structure has not been damaged, further verifying its excellent cycle stability. Figure 5d shows the rate performance of Se/N-PC. It can be seen that when the current densities are 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, and 2 C, Se/N-PC delivers reversible specific capacities of 532.6, 434.7, 381, 334.4, and 283.1 mA h g−1, respectively. When the current density returned to 0.2 C, the specific capacity recovered to 458.6 mA h g−1, which indicating a good rate performance. Moreover, Se/N-PC composite possesses a high Coulombic efficiency at both low rate and high rate from the galvanostatic discharge–charge profiles of the Se/N-PC at different current densities (Figure S3). The excellent rate performance is attributed to the abundant pores in N-PC and the high electrical conductivity of N-PC. Figure 5e displays the long-term cycling performance of Se/N-PC at a high current density of 2 C. A high reversible specific capacity of 340.1 mA h g−1 is maintained after 1,000 cycles, corresponding to a high capacity retention of 98.49%. The coulombic efficiency is retaining around 100%, suggesting excellent stability and rate performance. However, the Se/N-C only possesses a reversible specific capacity of 60.7 mA h g−1 after 950 cycles, corresponding to a capacity retention of 45.68% (Figure 5e). In addition, the Coulombic efficiency of Se/N-PC has been maintained at 100%, while Se/N-C is very unstable, further proving that the ultra-high specific surface area and rich pore structure of Se/N-PC endow it with excellent cycle stability. The excellent electrochemical performance of N-PC makes it an advantage in materials that have been reported as selenium hosts (Table S1).

Figure 5 Electrochemical characterization of the Se/N-PC cathode: (a) CV curves at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1, (b) cycling performance (0.2 C), (c) galvanostatic charge–discharge profiles (0.2 C), (d) rate capabilities, and (e) long-term cyclability of Se/N-PC and Se/N-C at 2.0 C.
Figure 5

Electrochemical characterization of the Se/N-PC cathode: (a) CV curves at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s−1, (b) cycling performance (0.2 C), (c) galvanostatic charge–discharge profiles (0.2 C), (d) rate capabilities, and (e) long-term cyclability of Se/N-PC and Se/N-C at 2.0 C.

Figure 6 SEM images of Se/N-PC electrode after 250 cycles: (a) 10 μm, (b) 5 μm and (c) 500 nm.
Figure 6

SEM images of Se/N-PC electrode after 250 cycles: (a) 10 μm, (b) 5 μm and (c) 500 nm.

To deeply analyze Li+ storage kinetics for Se/N-PC cathode, we performed CV measurements at different scan rates from 0.2 to 1.0 mV s−1, as shown in Figure 7a. In all CV curves, one reduction peak (peak 1) and one oxidation peak (peak 2) were observed. Moreover, the shapes of these peaks were similar. As the scanning rate increases, the reduction peak shifts to lower voltage, while the oxidation peak shifts to higher voltage. The shift may be attributed to diffusion-controlled reactions and concentration polarization. According to the following equations [46],

(1) i = a v b ( 0.5 < b < 1 ) ,

(2) Log i = b Log v + Log a ,

where i and v are the peak current (mA) and scan rate (mV s−1), respectively. And a and b are the adjustable coefficients. The b is between 0.5 and 1.0. When b is close to 0.5, the electrochemical reaction is controlled by intercalation process. When b is close to 1.0, the electrochemical reaction is dominated by pseudocapacitive contributions [47]. The b values of peak 1 and peak 2 are 0.57 and 0.64 (Figure 7b), meaning that the lithium storage mechanism is dominated mainly by the diffusion behavior. The proportion of different capacity contributions can be analyzed according to the following equation [48]:

(3) i ( V ) = k 1 v + k 2 v 1 / 2 .

Figure 7 Electrochemical kinetics mechanism: (a) CV curves at different scan rates from 0.2 to 1.0 mV s−1; (b) log (scan rate) vs log (current) plot, as fitted from CV curves; (c) bar chart showing the contribution ratio of pseudocapacitive at different scan rates; and (d) AC impedance spectra of the Se/N-PC electrode after various discharge–charge cycles (frequency range of 10−2–105 Hz).
Figure 7

Electrochemical kinetics mechanism: (a) CV curves at different scan rates from 0.2 to 1.0 mV s−1; (b) log (scan rate) vs log (current) plot, as fitted from CV curves; (c) bar chart showing the contribution ratio of pseudocapacitive at different scan rates; and (d) AC impedance spectra of the Se/N-PC electrode after various discharge–charge cycles (frequency range of 10−2–105 Hz).

By calculating both coefficients, k 1 and k 2, the contributions of intercalation process and pseudocapacitive contributions can be distinguished. As shown in Figure 7c, the Se/N-PC electrode exhibits a 47% pseudocapacitive contribution at a scan rate of 0.2 mV s−1. It increases from 47 to 67% with the scan rate increasing from 0.2 to 1.0 mV s−1. The high proportion of pseudocapacitive contribution indicates the fast reaction kinetics of Se/N-PC in Li–Se batteries battery. In addition, we also performed EIS analysis, as shown in Figure 7d. After 50 cycles, the electrochemical transfer impedance (R ct) is significantly decreased compared with that before cycling [42,49]. Moreover, the impedance did not significantly change after 150 cycles, indicating that Se/N-PC cathode has excellent cycling stability.

4 Conclusion

In conclusion, to avoid that the peanut meal, which is rich in oils and fats, cannot be fully infiltrated with the activator in the aqueous solution of activator, we used a very simple physical grinding method to fully mix the activator directly with the peanut meal powder and obtained nitrogen-doped 3D porous carbon by high-temperature annealing in an inert atmosphere. Then, the Se/N-PC cathode composite was fabricated by the melt infiltration method. The three-dimensional interconnected nanoscale porous structure of N-PC provides abundant pores for Se. Moreover, the N doping enhances the adsorption of Se and alleviates the loss of Se, improving the utilization of Se. Therefore, the Se/N-PC composite cathode retains a specific capacity of 461.4 mA h g−1 for 250 cycles at 0.2 C with a high capacity retention of 97.2%. Even at a high current density of 2 C, the Se/N-PC composite maintains a high capacity over 340.1 mA h g−1 after 1,000 cycles. Our work provides some insights into the application of hydrophobic-biomass precursor-derived carbon materials for energy storage devices.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Project (Grant No. 2020YFE0100100), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52105575), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. QTZX23063), the Proof of Concept Foundation of Xidian University Hangzhou Institute of Technology (Grant No. GNYZ2023YL0302), the Aeronautical Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 2022Z073081001), and the National Undergraduate Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program (202210291063Z).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-05-02
Revised: 2023-09-07
Accepted: 2023-09-12
Published Online: 2023-10-12

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0130
Keywords for this article
biomass; lithium–selenium batteries; porous carbon; cathode; cycling performance
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
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  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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