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Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites

  • Jianbin Li , Zhifang Zhang EMAIL logo , Jiyang Fu EMAIL logo , Zhihong Liang , David Hui and Karthik Ram Ramakrishnan
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), with their high strength, modulus, and large aspect ratio, have emerged as a frontrunner in nano-reinforcements. In this study, CNT films (CNTFs) were inserted between carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) prepregs and were cured together to form interleaved composite laminates. The influence of CNTF interleaves on the flexural and interlaminar properties of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) laminates is investigated. Three different types of FRP specimens were tested, namely, 0CNTs-CFRP, 2CNTs-CFRP, and 4CNTs-CFRP. The surface and internal damage characteristics and mechanism of CNTF were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy and computed tomography testing methods. The results showed that the flexural strength of 0° CNTs-CFRP beams increased by 3.79 and 14.34% for 2CNTs-CFRP and 4CNTs-CFRP, respectively, while the flexural modulus increased by 7.33 and 13.76%, respectively. It was also found that the damage area and overall deformation after impact with the energy of 5 J was reduced in the CNTF interleaved composite beams. This work has confirmed that the mechanical properties of FRP laminates can be improved by conveniently inserting CNTF during stacking prepregs in the manufacturing process. However, there is a reduction in the flexure after impact properties of the CNTF-CFRP composites, suggesting that the interface between CNTF and FRP layers should be optimized for high residual strength.

Keywords: fiber reinforced polymer composites; low velocity impact; carbon nanotubes film; residual flexural strength

Abbreviations

CAI

compressive strength after impact

CFRP

carbon fiber-reinforced polymer

CNTs-FRP

carbon nanotubes enhanced fiber-reinforced polymer

CNTs

carbon nanotubes

CNTBP

CNT buckypaper

CNTF

carbon nanotubes film

CT

computed tomography scan

ENF

end notched flexure test

FAI

flexural strength after impact

FI

flexural Impact

FRP

fiber reinforced polymer

GIC

mode I interlaminar fracture toughness

GIIC

mode II interlaminar fracture toughness

ILSS

interlaminar shear strength

LF

longitudinal flexure

LVI

low velocity impact

SBS

short beam shear test

SEM

scanning electron microscope

TF

transverse flexure

0CNTS-CFRP

CFRP without inserting CNT film

2CNTs-CFRP

2-layer CNT films reinforced CFRP

4CNTs-CFRP

4-layer CNT films reinforced CFRP

1 Introduction

Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have been widely used in many fields, such as aerospace structures, construction, and automotive manufacturing, because of their excellent specific strength, stiffness, and high corrosion and fatigue resistance. However, FRP composites are likely to suffer impact damage; for instance, in a vehicle collision, the composite body structure is subjected to significant impact and bending loads. Such impacts can cause damage that can compromise the structure’s integrity, leading to loss of functionality, reduced service life, or even catastrophic failure. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the performance of FRP composite materials under the loading related to bending and impact [1,2,3]. The composite matrix is much weaker than the fiber, and cracks and delamination damage are likely to occur in the FRP materials under extreme loading conditions [4,5]. One way to improve impact damage resistance is to change the composition of the composite material. It can be done using different fibers, resins, or additives that enhance the material’s strength and toughness. There have been many methods developed to enhance the interlaminar fracture toughness of composite structures, such as 3D-weaving [6], Z-pinning [7], nanomaterials toughening [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16], and interlaminar particle strengthening [17,18,19,20,21,22]. Adding nano-reinforcements such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and other nanomaterials to the composite material has improved its toughness and ability to resist damage [23,24,25,26].

CNTs are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms and have a high aspect ratio and a large surface area, which can improve interfacial bonding between the matrix and the reinforcement fibers and improve composites’ in-plane properties [27]. The high strength and stiffness of CNTs also mean that when cracks occur in CNTs-FRP composites, fracture energy can be absorbed through the fracture and pulled out of CNTs, thus slowing down the crack propagation. This improvement in the fracture toughness of FRP structure by adding CNTs provides an effective solution for enhancing composite materials. Additionally, the CNTs can also be applied in structural health monitoring to detect invisible damages [28].

The methods for integrating CNTs into FRP at different scales include dispersion in the matrix, growth onto the fiber, prepreg modification, and film insertion [29]. It has been reported that obtaining uniform dispersion of CNTs in the matrix can be challenging, and inserting CNT films (CNTF) provides a promising alternative for introducing CNTs in composites. While there have been many studies on improving the mechanical properties, especially flexural properties, and interlaminar strengthening by integrating CNTs into FRP [30,31,32,33,34,35,36], there is limited literature on the effect of CNTF. Li et al. [37] manufactured CNTF by floating catalyst chemical vapor deposition (FCCVD) method and used them as interlayer modification materials in CNTs-CFRP composites. The end notched flexure test (ENF) test confirmed that the mode II interlaminar fracture toughness (GIIC) of the CNTs-CFRP increased by 94%. Sánchez et al. [38] manufactured CNTs-CFRP with different concentrations and surface treatment conditions by Vacuum Assisted Resin Infusion Molding. It confirmed that the flexural strength and modulus of the CNTs-CFRP were improved through the short beam shear (SBS test). Shin and Kim [39] manufactured reinforced CFRP by laying the CNT buckypaper (CNTBP) between CFRP prepregs. The double cantilever beam and ENF tests confirmed that the interlaminar fracture toughness of CNTs-CFRP was improved, with the GIIC of CNTs-CFRP increased by 45.9%. Cheng et al. [40] introduced the CNTBP into fractured sites of [0°]16 and [0°/90°]4S composite laminates and explored how the CNTBP affected the flexural properties of the laminates at 25, −15, and −55°C by using three-point bending test. Compared to the base [0°]16 and [0°/90°]4S laminates at the same temperature, improvements of the flexural strengths in the order of 4.0–15.3% and 6.5–31.0% were, respectively, obtained from the CNTBP reinforced laminates. Significantly the lower the temperature, the higher the strength improvement. Ou et al. [41] confirmed a correlation between interlaminar reinforcement and the balance between cohesive/adhesive failure mode at the interlayer region by using the SBS test to evaluate CFRP laminates reinforced with CNTs. By observing the microstructure of the damaged fracture, it was confirmed that CNTs played a bridging role between the fiber and the matrix. Xin et al. [17] manufactured CFRP laminated by inserting CNTF between the prepregs and studied their LVI properties. It is seen that the impact damage area of CNTs-CFRP specimens has reduced by 11–39% after impacts at different energy levels. Computerized tomography (CT) scan and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations confirmed that CNTs played a bridging and pulling role in the materials and can enhance the adhesion between the fiber and matrix. Koirala et al. [42] prepared the CNTF reinforced CFRP specimens, and results show that with a weight fraction of only 0.016%, the CNTF can enhance the flexural strength by 49%, interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) by 30%, and mode I interlaminar fracture toughness (GIC) by 30%.

The post-damage performance of composite materials is usually evaluated using compression after impact (CAI) testing [43,44]. CAI tests are crucial for composites as they simulate real-world scenarios where materials may experience impact damage. By assessing a composite’s post-impact compressive strength, these tests help engineers ensure the structural reliability and safety of composite components. An alternative method to study the residual damage performance of composites after impact is the flexure after impact (FAI). Flexure testing can help identify and visualize the extent and nature of the damage in the composite material. By subjecting the damaged specimen to a bending load, any delamination, fiber breaks, or matrix cracks within the material become more evident. This allows for a more accurate assessment of the damage incurred and aids in understanding the failure mechanisms. Because FAI reduces the effect of clamping the sample during testing and is adaptable to different sample sizes, it can also evaluate the flexural strength properties of the samples, not just the compressive properties [43,44]. There have been few works of literature on FAI for performance evaluation of composites in recent years but FAI has not been studied as extensively as CAI [45,46,47].

In this work, three types of CFRP samples, 0CNTs-CFRP (CFRP without CNTF), 2CNTs-CFRP (CFRP inserted with two layers of CNTF), 4CNTs-CFRP (CFRP inserted with four layers of CNTF) are manufactured, and the flexural properties before and after impact are studied. The specimens’ damage characteristics and failure mechanism were analyzed through SEM and CT observation. The results and conclusions provide an idea for future research to focus on CNTs-CFRP composites and offer a reference for the expected enhancement of material properties by inserting the CNTF in FRP laminated structures.

2 Sample preparation and experimental methodology

2.1 Sample preparation

CFRP specimens were manufactured by carbon fiber/epoxy prepregs TC-33(T300) from Formosa Plastics. The fiber orientation of the laminates was 0° or 90° and was manufactured from 16 layers of unidirectional prepregs. CNTFs were prepared by the FCCVD method from JCNANO Technology Co., LTD, China. The configurations of the composite specimens, as shown in Figure 1, include three types: 0CNTs-CFRP (CNT0 for short), 2CNTs-CFRP (CNT2), and 4CNTs-CFRP (CNT4). The CNTs-CFRP containing two layers of CNTF (CNT2) had the CNT interleave layer between the 2nd and 3rd layers and the 14th and 15th layers of the laminate layup. For the CNTs-CFRP composites containing four layers of CNTF, the interleaves were also laid between layers 6 and 7 and between 10 and 11 in addition to those in CNT2.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of three types of specimens: (a) CFRP (CNT0); (b) CFRP with 2 CNTF (CNT2); and (c) CFRP with 4 CNTF (CNT4).
Figure 1

Schematic diagram of three types of specimens: (a) CFRP (CNT0); (b) CFRP with 2 CNTF (CNT2); and (c) CFRP with 4 CNTF (CNT4).

The SEM observed the bonding interface of CNTF and CFRP layers, as shown in Figure 2. The samples for flexural testing were cut to dimensions of 90 mm × 20 mm according to ASTM D7264, which is used for flexural properties of polymer matrix composite materials including flexural strength and modulus. The detailed parameters of the specimens are shown in Table 1. The [0]16 samples were used for longitudinal flexure, while the transverse flexural properties were measured using [90]16 samples. Among the 0° samples, 18 were divided half-half for testing three-point bending capacity before and after impact.

Figure 2 Microstructure of the combination of CNTF and carbon fiber prepreg from the SEM.
Figure 2

Microstructure of the combination of CNTF and carbon fiber prepreg from the SEM.

Table 1

Dimensions and layup of specimens

Name of the specimen Number of specimens Number and method of layers Nominal length × width (mm) Average thickness (mm) Span (mm)
CNT0-SBS 3 [0]16 20 × 5 1.830 8
CNT2-SBS 3 1.926
CNT4-SBS 3 1.974
CNT0-LF 3 [0]16 90 × 20 1.830 60
CNT2-LF 3 1.926
CNT4-LF 3 1.974
CNT0-TF 3 [90]16 90 × 20 1.846 60
CNT2-TF 3 1.976
CNT4-TF 3 1.974
CNT0-FI 3 [0]16 90 × 20 1.830 60
CNT2-FI 3 1.926
CNT4-FI 3 1.974

CNTX-: represents different kinds of specimens, where X represents the number of CNTF added.

CNTX-aa: represents different test configurations, where SBS means Short Beam Shear test, LF means longitudinal flexure, FI means flexural impact, and TF means transverse flexure.

CNTF positions: For the CNT2 specimens, two layers of CNTF are laid between prepreg layer 2 and layer 3, and between prepreg layer 14 and layer 15; for the CNT4 specimens, on the basis of laying two layers of CNTF, the corresponding laying positions: Between prepreg layer 6 and layer 7, between prepreg layer 10 and layer 11. More details can be seen in Figure 1.

2.2 Experimental methodology

2.2.1 SBS test

The SBS test is a three-point flexure method to determine the ILSS properties of a material such as laminated CFRP. SBS tests have been conducted to study the influence of CNTF interleaves on the shear properties. Figure 3(a) presents a schematic view of the test. The experiment involves loading a beam specimen in bending to fail in shear mode. To reach this failure mode, according to the ASTM D2344/D2344M, the span, the adaptable distance between the two lower supports, must have a length (s) equal to four times the thickness of the specimen (h). Figure 3(b) and (c) show the experimental setup. In our tests, the thickness of specimens is 2 mm. So, a span of 8 mm was chosen (giving an aspect ratio of 4:1). Unidirectional composite samples with fiber orientation of 0° were used to study the material’s inherent properties. Nine tests were conducted to maximize good results: three with each specimen type (CNT0, CNT2, CNT4) and dimensions of 20 mm × 5 mm × 2 mm. As the loading member is lowered, the top plies of a laminate will experience compression while the bottom plies will experience tension. Consequently, the center of the laminate experiences a shearing stress during bending. An Imetrum camera with a video extensometer allowed for extracting experimental data (time, loading force, and displacement of the load). The central load was applied with a constant rate of crosshead displacement of 0.05 mm/s.

Figure 3 (a) Schematic diagram of short beam shear test [48], (b) experimental setup of SBS, and (c) specimens on fixture for SBS test.
Figure 3

(a) Schematic diagram of short beam shear test [48], (b) experimental setup of SBS, and (c) specimens on fixture for SBS test.

ILSS describes the shear strength between plies, which means the resistance of the composite to delamination under shear forces parallel to the layers of the laminate, and thereby the adhesive interface [49]. Besides informing on the shear response under loading conditions, investigations on matrix and interface behavior could be provided by examining the damaged sample visually or with a microscope to see the location of delamination, matrix, and fiber breakages. For laminated composites, the ILSS can be calculated from the maximum load observed during the test as follows:

(1) ILSS = 0.75 × F max h × b ,

where F max is the maximum compressive load (N), h is the thickness (m), and b is the width (m) of the measured specimen.

It is relatively simple to perform because it is quick and requires small composite samples. The load needs to be well clamped and not misaligned with the center of the composite, which could alter the plies in another failure mode.

2.2.2 Three-point bending test

Three-point bending tests on 0° and 90° unidirectional laminated specimens were performed to analyze the flexural properties of the specimens. In the longitudinal direction, the three-point bending test measures the composite material’s flexural strength and modulus in the fibers’ direction. It is essential because the fibers contribute significantly to the strength and stiffness of the composite material. In the transverse direction, the three-point bending test measures the composite material’s flexural strength and modulus perpendicular to the fibers’ direction. It is also important because the properties of the composite material in this direction can be significantly different from those in the longitudinal direction. The three-point bending was conducted according to the test standard ASTM D7264. The experimental instrument used for three-point bending was Zwick universal mechanical testing machine, as shown in Figure 4. Semicircle fixed loading head was used in all tests, and displacement control was adopted for applying to load. The test span was 60 mm, and the loading speed was 1 mm/min. When the sudden drop value of loading exceeded 40%, the specimens were considered failed, the test stopped, and the specimens were unloaded.

Figure 4 Schematic diagram of three-point bending test and three-point bending setup.
Figure 4

Schematic diagram of three-point bending test and three-point bending setup.

Additionally, low-velocity impact tests were conducted on a 0° unidirectional laminated beam to study the effect of impact damage on the residual flexural strength. A schematic of the experimental procedure for the impact test and FAI test is shown in Figure 5. The low-velocity impact test was conducted at 5 J impact energy based on ASTM D7136 standard. The weight of the impactor was 5.82 kg, and the diameter was 16 mm. In order to fix specimens, a fixture was designed to clamp the samples in the central space of the chamber in the impact machine. The fixture was made of three rectangular steel plates stacked together (150 mm × 100 mm × 2 mm) with a hole in the center of 40 mm diameter. An optical sensor on the impactor guided rail was used to obtain the final velocity before impact, and anti-secondary impact devices on both sides of the weight box were applied to prevent repeated impact on the specimens.

Figure 5 The experimental process of flexural strength testing after impact (FAI).
Figure 5

The experimental process of flexural strength testing after impact (FAI).

CT scan was performed on the specimens after impact to observe the internal damage appearance. The scanned region of samples was 20 mm × 20 mm × 2 mm, and the scanning precision was 20 μm. Finally, the FAI test was conducted on the specimens with impact damage. The macroscopic fracture appearance of the specimens was investigated by optical microscope and SEM to analyze the failure mode of the composite specimens. After impact, the fracture surface in the specimens was observed by Leica 3D optic microscope, which was used for macro appearance. In contrast, Zeiss Gemini Sigma 300/VP SEM was used to capture micro-scale images of the damaged areas.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Interlaminar properties of CFRP with and without CNTF

Figure 6 shows the results through the impact load (a) and displacement (b) evolution graphs based on the mean curves of each specimen type. It can be seen that the increase in CNTF provides a rise in the maximum load accepted by the sample and a slight decrease in the penetration of the impactor inside the composite. Then, the average leading force measured for the different specimens permitted the comparison of the ILSS between CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4 samples.

Figure 6 Comparison of (a) load and (b) displacement time histories for SBS test of CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4 composites. (a) SBS-comparison of the impact load evolution between specimens. (b) SBS-comparison of the displacement evolution between specimens.
Figure 6

Comparison of (a) load and (b) displacement time histories for SBS test of CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4 composites. (a) SBS-comparison of the impact load evolution between specimens. (b) SBS-comparison of the displacement evolution between specimens.

Figure 7 compares the average ILSS for the composites with and without the CNT interleaves. A marginal rise in the ILSS is noticed with the reinforcement of CNTF. The most crucial mechanism for this improvement involves the mechanical connection of CNTs with epoxy crosslinks and the fiber surface, especially in the interlaminar region. This process creates a micromechanical lock between the polymer and fiber surfaces, reducing fiber slippage during the SBS test. Another mechanism involves the formation of Vander Waals bonds between the matrix and nanoparticle surfaces, resulting in increased ILSS when carbon-based nanoparticles are added. Chemical interaction also occurs through the formation of chemical bonds between epoxy and CNT molecules, further enhancing slip resistance between fiber surfaces and the polymer matrix. These mechanisms collectively contribute to the enhanced ILSS in CNTF interleaved composites. However, it is interesting to note that the improvement in the ILSS for even the CNT4 sample is less than 10% and lower than the 25–33% reported in the literature for other types of nano-reinforcements [50]. It is also important to note that the SBS test method is reported to produce conservative estimates of the ILSS, and the results should be interpreted with caution.

Figure 7 Influence of CNTs on the ILSS.
Figure 7

Influence of CNTs on the ILSS.

Finally, SEM was used to study the side surface of the impacted specimens to identify the type of damage and their locations on the sample. Figure 8(a) and (b) show a cross-section of a CNT0 sample, while Figure 9(a)–(c) present a cross-section of a CNT2 sample. The presence of delamination between the different plies is evident in the SEM image. The delamination lengths are significant and spread throughout the thickness of the composite.

Figure 8 SEM observations of a cross-section of a CNT0 sample after the SBS test in 2 mm (a) and 200 μm (b) scales.
Figure 8

SEM observations of a cross-section of a CNT0 sample after the SBS test in 2 mm (a) and 200 μm (b) scales.

Figure 9 SEM observations of a cross-section of a CNT2 sample after a SBS test in 2 mm (a), 1 mm (b), and 200 µm (c) scales.
Figure 9

SEM observations of a cross-section of a CNT2 sample after a SBS test in 2 mm (a), 1 mm (b), and 200 µm (c) scales.

In contrast, the delamination lengths at the end of the test are much reduced for the composite with CNTF interleaves. Even for the 2 CNTF composite, it can be seen that the addition of the CNT layer strengthens the interface. We can observe that the damage mode is different, and the presence of the robust interface at the CNT layer means that the damage is deflected to intralaminar damage.

3.2 Flexure properties of CFRP with and without CNTF

The flexural load–displacement curve (average measured three-point bending results from samples tested three times for each) of CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4 are given in Figure 10(a) and (b) for 0° and 90° specimens, respectively. A comparison of the slope within the elastic range of the flexural load–displacement curves of CNTF interleaved specimens (CNT2 and CNT4) with baseline CFRP (CNT0) specimens demonstrates that the addition of CNTF increases the longitudinal stiffness of interleaved specimens. The failure displacement of the 0° CFRP (CNT0) specimens showed that the load dropped after a displacement of 3.65 mm, while the failure displacements of the CNTs-CFRP specimens ranged no more than 3.5 mm. It indicates that the addition of CNTF has increased the stiffness but decreased the elongation of the 0° specimens. Among the three types of samples, the CNT4 specimens had the highest load-carrying capacity, while the control group CNT0 had the lowest peak loading. In the unloading process, all the specimens showed fluctuating curves, reflecting that the specimens have experienced damage initiation, load re-distribution, damage propagation, and fracture and failure. In Figure 10(b), the flexural load–displacement curve of the transverse specimen shows that CNTs-CFRP specimens have higher yield load compared to CFRP specimens, and the loading displacement of the CNT0 specimens was smaller than that of the CNT2 and CNT4 specimens. It may be because the load-bearing capacity of 90° specimens mainly depends on the epoxy matrix. The insertion of CNTF can increase the toughness of the resin matrix and delay the damage initiation and propagation.

Figure 10 Average flexural load – displacement curve of (a) 0° specimens and (b) 90° specimens for three types of specimens (CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4).
Figure 10

Average flexural load – displacement curve of (a) 0° specimens and (b) 90° specimens for three types of specimens (CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4).

SEM microscopic image (Figure 11) of the fractured surface of interleaved specimens shows the adhesion of CNTF, epoxy resin, and carbon fiber. As can be seen, the CNTF has adhered to the epoxy resin, and it can provide bridging and prevent the crack development of the matrix.

Figure 11 SEM micrographs of the combination of CNTs with fiber and matrix in CNT-FRP.
Figure 11

SEM micrographs of the combination of CNTs with fiber and matrix in CNT-FRP.

After the flexural load–displacement curves were obtained, the flexural strength and modulus could be calculated following the calculation formula of ASTM D7264. The calculated flexural strength and modulus results are shown in Table 2 below. σ ¯ f in Table 2 represented the average flexural strength of the specimens, E ¯ f is the average flexural modulus, d ¯ f is the average displacement after failure, ∆ is the increment compared to those without CNTs, and c υ is the dispersion coefficient of the calculated values. Compared to the control samples, the 0° specimens with CNTF had increased flexural strength and modulus; for instance, the specimens with four layers of CNTF had an increase of 14.34 and 13.76%, respectively. It is well reported in the literature that interleaves can improve the bonding between adjacent layers of the composite. This enhanced interfacial bonding can lead to better load transfer and higher strength. This means that when a load is applied, the interleaves help distribute the stress more evenly, reducing the risk of localized failure. Interleaves can also act as crack arrestors. When a crack starts propagating in one layer, it may encounter an interleave layer that can stop or slow down the crack’s progress, preventing or mitigating delamination. This can improve the overall durability and toughness of the composite. However, the failure displacement of the reinforced specimens decreased for 0° specimens. It was more brittle than the control specimen, which might be related to the bond degree of the reinforced specimens in the preparation process. For 90° specimens with CNTF, the flexural modulus and failure displacement had increased up to 24.05 and 38.60%, respectively. However, there was a slight decrease in flexural strength, albeit with low absolute magnitude, which could be attributed to measurement noise.

Table 2

Average flexural modulus, strength, and failure displacement of specimens

Group E ¯ f (MPa) ∆ (%) σ ¯ f (GPa) ∆ (%) d ¯ f (mm) ∆ (%) c υ (%)
CNT0-0° 1132.3 — 94.7 — 3.87 — 16.98
CNT2-0° 1215.4 7.33 98.3 3.79 3.83 −1.03 16.89
CNT4-0° 1288.2 13.76 108.28 14.34 3.56 −8.01 2.42
CNT0-90° 72.21 — 8.82 — 1.71 — 4.93
CNT2-90° 82.76 14.61 8.31 −6.14 2.19 28.07 3.81
CNT4-90° 89.58 24.05 8.61 −2.44 2.37 38.60 9.32

3.3 Results of low velocity impact

In order to study the mechanism of impact damage, the front and rear surfaces of samples were observed by optical microscope. Figure 12 shows the apparent morphology of the impact surface (the upper part in the red box) and the rear (the lower part in the red box) of three samples after impact, respectively. Under the 5 J impact energy, different degrees of dents appeared on the surface of the samples, and the impact damage in the samples mainly included fiber fracture, debonding, and matrix cracking.

Figure 12 Close-up view of front and back impact specimens. (a) CNT0-0°, (b) CNT2-0°, (c) CNT4-0°.
Figure 12

Close-up view of front and back impact specimens. (a) CNT0-0°, (b) CNT2-0°, (c) CNT4-0°.

First, the fracture cracks along the width caused by the impact were studied using the in-plane CT scan of the specimens (Figure 13). For the fracture cracks of the CNT0 specimen propagated all through the width of the specimen (as shown in Figure 13(a)). The transverse crack length on the surface of CNT4 specimens was short, and the fiber fracture on the back was not apparent. In the internal view from the CT scan (as shown in Figure 13(c)), the transverse damage crack expansion only accounted for about 1/2 of the total width of the specimens and did not extend to the end. In contrast, the CNT2 specimens exhibited more severe cracks than the CNT4 specimens. A transverse fiber fracture crack in CNT2 specimens had extended to the one edge of the specimen, and the fiber fracture on the back was much more noticeable. Meanwhile, along the fiber direction, the specimens are split with long cracks due to the weak strength dominated by the matrix in the direction perpendicular to the fiber in the 0° specimens.

Figure 13 Analysis of fiber fracture extension length: the cutting position is in the middle of the specimens: (a) CNT0-0°; (b) CNT2-0°; and (c) CNT4-0°.
Figure 13

Analysis of fiber fracture extension length: the cutting position is in the middle of the specimens: (a) CNT0-0°; (b) CNT2-0°; and (c) CNT4-0°.

In order to further understand the internal damage after impact, the difference between the impacted samples with and without CNTF was analyzed using CT to scan the thickness direction of the specimens, as shown in Figure 14. For all the specimens, the cracks and delamination could be observed. The damage of CNT0-0° was mainly fiber buckling and fiber breakage close to the back side of the impacted specimen, as well as delamination between the FRP layers. For the CNTs-CFRP specimens, fiber breakage and delamination exist, but the damage is less concentrated and less severe than in CNT0 specimens. Meanwhile, the overall deformation for specimens with CNTs films was less noticeable than the CNT0 specimen, showing that the specimens with CNTFs are reinforced and less deformed than the CNT0 specimens. However, in CNTs-CFRP specimens, the delamination are located near the insertion of CNTF and have propagated for a long distance, and this becomes the primary way of impact energy dissipation for CNTs-CFRP specimens. It may be because the adhesion between CNTF and carbon fiber prepreg layers was not as perfect as that between CFRP prepreg layers.

Figure 14 CT scan of damage from the cross section: (a) CNT0-0°; (b) CNT2-0°; and (c) CNT4-0°.
Figure 14

CT scan of damage from the cross section: (a) CNT0-0°; (b) CNT2-0°; and (c) CNT4-0°.

Finally, the internal crack development of the specimens was analyzed by calculating the pore volume using VGSTUDIO MAX software. Table 3 lists the volume of the scanned specimen segment (V s), the volume of the pore part in the scanned segment (V ps), the porosity ratio of the specimens (e ps), and the increased ratio after adding CNTF (∆ CNT0). The volume of the damaged part is colored in the 3D diagram in Figure 15, with the color bar showing from blue, green to red, for the increase in damage severity. Before adding CNTF, the CFRP specimen was dominated by red, while for the CNT4 sample, the color was mainly green and blue. It indicates that the reinforced sample with CNTF could delay the crack evolution and effectively prevent excessive crack development. This is due to the fact that CNTF can absorb more energy when the reinforced specimen is subjected to load. Ultimately, the delamination failure and damage propagation are mostly concentrated near the CNTF layer rather than the CFRP fiber fracture. In comparison, the pores generated in CFRP specimens are not only caused by damage in the fiber direction, but also caused by fiber breakage. According to the comparison in Table 3, it was observed that the porosity of CNTs-CFRP specimens was less than CNT0 specimen, with a decrease of 1.26 and 20.59% for CNT2 and CNT4, respectively, indicating that the CNTF added in CFRP specimens can help to resist the damage propagation.

Table 3

Comparison of pore volume and porosity of different specimens

Specimen V s (mm3) ∆ CNT0 (%) V ps (mm3) ∆ CNT0 (%) e ps (%) ∆ CNT0 (%)
CNT0-0° 1032.7 — 30.16 — 2.838 —
CNT2-0° 1066.2 3.25 29.78 −1.26 2.718 −4.23
CNT4-0° 1109.0 7.39 23.95 −20.59 2.114 −25.51
Figure 15 Overall 3D pore analysis view of different samples: (a) CNT0-0°; (b) CNT2-0°; and (c) CNT4-0°.
Figure 15

Overall 3D pore analysis view of different samples: (a) CNT0-0°; (b) CNT2-0°; and (c) CNT4-0°.

3.4 FAI properties of CFRP with and without CNTF

Figure 16 shows the load–displacement curves of the three types of specimens during 3-point bending test after impact. Generally, the FAI load–displacement curve was similar to the flexural load–displacement curve before impact. However, it can be seen that compared with Figure 10, the maximum flexural load value has decreased due to impact damage. The FAI load of the CNT4 specimens was remarkably higher than the CNT0 specimens, indicating less impact damage in the interleaved specimen. Meanwhile, it can also be seen that the deformation of the CNT0 specimen is more severe than that of the reinforced specimen with CNTF, the same as that in the flexural testing on the specimens before impact. Another observation from the curves was that the displacement value of interleaved specimens when reaching the ultimate load in FAI was smaller than CNT0 specimens.

Figure 16 Average FAI load–displacement curve of 0° specimens (CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4).
Figure 16

Average FAI load–displacement curve of 0° specimens (CNT0, CNT2, and CNT4).

The bending and residual bending values of CFRP laminates before and after impact are obtained and listed in Table 4. σ ud is the pristine bending strength; σ d is the residual bending strength; E ud is the bending modulus of undamaged beams; and E d is the residual bending modulus of damaged beam from FAI.

Table 4

Flexural properties of specimens before and after impact

Sample ID Flexural modulus: E (GPa) Flexural strength: σ (MPa) Failure load: F (N)
E ud E d −∆ (%) σ ud σ d −∆ (%) F ud F d −∆ (%)
CNT0-0° 94.70 24.59 74.03 1132.3 572.96 49.40 842.69 426.40 49.40
CNT2-0° 98.30 17.94 81.74 1215.4 507.20 58.27 1001.9 418.10 58.27
CNT4-0° 108.28 16.37 84.88 1288.2 526.53 59.13 1115.4 455.93 59.13

The flexural properties of CNT0 specimens are better after impact, and the reduction ratio was smaller than that of the reinforced specimens by CNTF. However, the overall flexural properties of the reinforced specimens were improved even though the reduction ratio was larger after impact load. The bending property of reinforced specimens decreases significantly after being subjected to impact load, but its overall bending property was improved. With the insertion of CNTF from 2 to 4 layers, the bending modulus of the reinforced sample decreased more than the bending strength, indicating that the modulus was more sensitive to impact damage.

From the CT scan shown in Figure 17, the CNT0 specimen is observed to have apparent delamination failure at the central impact position. Further observation revealed that on the impact position of the CNT0 specimen on the back side, the protrusion caused by fiber fracture is more prominent, indicating that irreversible damage has occurred in the specimen and led to decreased material stiffness. However, the CNT4-0° specimens displayed minor delamination damage in the CT scan of the through-thickness cross-section and minor fiber fracture on the back side of the impacted specimen. It was attributed to the enhancement of the interaction between the fiber and the matrix system by CNTF, promoting the whole system to absorb more energy.

Figure 17 The view of CT scans through thickness: CNT0-0°, CNT4-0°-S1, and CNT4-0°-S2.
Figure 17

The view of CT scans through thickness: CNT0-0°, CNT4-0°-S1, and CNT4-0°-S2.

The fracture surface of CFRP laminate structure was uneven after failure in the FAI, as shown in Figure 18. From the SEM images of the CFRP specimen, the fiber bundles were broken in the fracture by the external force, and fibers were pulled out, or the matrix has been destroyed, and fibers are exposed from the matrix. From the enlarged figure in Figure 18(b), the carbon fibers have a very smooth surface without matrix adhered, indicating that the bonding between fiber and matrix was relatively low.

Figure 18 Fracture surface of CFRP beams with different magnifications: (a) 50 μm and (b) 20 μm.
Figure 18

Fracture surface of CFRP beams with different magnifications: (a) 50 μm and (b) 20 μm.

For specimens with CNTF, as shown in Figure 19, the surface of the carbon fiber bundle was also smooth due to debonding with the resin. However, the CNTF have adhered to the epoxy resin (penetrated to some extent) and the surface of carbon fibers. In contrast, the resin around the carbon fiber bundles had been separated from the bundles with noticeable gaps. Compared with CNT0 specimens, the CNTF can bring binding effects into the CFRP laminates and improve the material properties. The binding effects can be summarized in the following aspects:

  1. Penetration and bridging between CNTs and matrix.

  2. Adhesion between CNTF and carbon fiber surface.

  3. The pull-out of CNTs from a matrix or debonding from the matrix and carbon fiber increases the energy absorption.

Figure 19 Microscopy image of fracture of CNTF-CFRP beams: (a) 10 μm and (b) 2 μm.
Figure 19

Microscopy image of fracture of CNTF-CFRP beams: (a) 10 μm and (b) 2 μm.

It could be observed from Figure 19(a) that the upper CNTF had partially smooth bonding surfaces, which suggests that the bonding effect of the preparation process could be improved.

4 Conclusion

This work experimentally studied the effect of CNTF introduced in carbon fiber composites as interleaves on the flexural response. Three composites were studied; baseline carbon epoxy composite without any CNTF, composite with 2 CNTFs, and composite with 4 CNTFs. The flexural response of the composites was studied using SBS, three-point bending, and FAI conditions. The key outcomes of the study are as follows:

  • The CNTF positively affects the ILSS found from the SBS test. The improvement in ILSS was of the order of 10%, which is similar to that published in the literature on composites modified by CNT [49].

  • For 0° unidirectional (UD) specimens, the maximum bending strength and bending modulus of CNTs-CFRP specimens have increased by 14.34 and 13.76% after the insertion of 4 layers of CNTF. However, the displacement of failure of 0° UD specimens has decreased. The bending modulus and failure displacement of 90° UD specimens has increased by 24.05 and 38.60%, while the bending strength of CNTs-CFRP specimens decreased.

  • The CT scanning results reveal that the impact damage evolution in the UD 0° CNTs-CFRP specimens was less than that of CFRP specimens. The internal failure of the CNTs-CFRP specimens was mainly delamination, while that of CFRP specimens was mainly fiber breakage. Furthermore, the porosity analysis of the specimens confirmed that the CNTs-CFRP specimens have lower porosity than the CFRP specimen, for instance, the average pore volume of CNT4 specimens decreased by 20.59%.

  • The bending property of CNTs-CFRP specimens was better than CFRP specimens before impact. However, the flexural property of CNT-CFRP specimens after impact was lower than that of the CFRP specimens. Compared to the flexural strength, the flexural modulus of CNTs-CFRP specimens decreased more after impact, indicating that the flexural modulus was more sensitive to impact damage.

  • The microscopic, SEM, and CT scanning analysis showed that the CNTF adhered firmly to both the matrix and the carbon fiber of the CFRP laminates. CNTF can enhance the strength and modulus of the CFRP and plays a significant role in dissipating load energy. Therefore, CNTF can be applied to the surface of the composite material, forming a protective layer that absorbs energy from impacts.

Overall, using CNTF in composites shows promise to improve the impact damage resistance of CFRP laminates and to increase the potential applications of CNTF in various industries. However, further research is still needed to fully understand the effects of CNTs on composite materials and optimize their use.

  1. Funding information: The research has been supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province, China (Grant No. 2022A1515011433), 111 Project (Grant No. D21021), Municipal Science and Technology Planning Project of Guangzhou (Grant No. 20212200004), and Key Discipline of Materials Science and Engineering, Bureau of Education of Guangzhou (Grant No. 202255464).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: David Hui, who is the co-author of this article, is a current Editorial Board member of Nanotechnology Reviews. This fact did not affect the peer-review process. The authors declare no other conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings can be shared upon request.

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Received: 2023-06-22
Revised: 2023-11-06
Accepted: 2023-12-04
Published Online: 2023-12-31

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0177
Keywords for this article
fiber reinforced polymer composites; low velocity impact; carbon nanotubes film; residual flexural strength
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
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  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
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  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
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  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
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  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
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  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
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  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
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  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
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  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
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  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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