Startseite Naturwissenschaften Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus

  • Anand S. Burange EMAIL logo , Zeid A. Alothman und Rafael Luque EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 31. Dezember 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 12 Heft 1

Abstract

Mechanochemistry emerged as an effective tool for the synthesis of nanomaterials, with potentially scalable prospects. This contribution aims to provide an overview of the most recent potential of mechanochemical routes in designing advanced nanomaterials including zeolites, metal oxides, and mixed metal oxides because of their catalytic applications. In the present review, the role of mechanochemistry in material design, the effect of mechanical energy on the surface area/surface properties, and recent trends in the field are discussed. A comparison of catalytic activities in selected cases for the materials prepared using conventional vs mechanochemical route has been provided.

Keywords: mechanochemistry; nanotechnology; tribochemistry; mesoporosity; ball milling

1 Why mechanochemistry?

Solvents play a crucial role in improving the chemical interaction between reaction components by dissolving them and bringing in one phase. Conventional synthetic methods require large energy consumption and longer reaction times and generate solvent waste [1]. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) mainly consist of low-boiling solvents, responsible for both outdoor and indoor pollution. The use of green solvents is highly recommended [2]. Factors including cumulative energy demand, energy required for solvent production, etc. should be considered when choosing a greener solvent [3]. To avoid environmental issues due to volatile solvents, solventless protocols are reported, mostly assisted by ultrasonic/microwave radiation and mechanochemical conditions [4,5,6]. However, in organic synthesis, it is practically impossible to avoid the use of solvent(s) since these are required at the end of the reaction (extraction/purification).

The term, “mechanochemistry” was introduced by W. Ostwald in 1891. The first mechanochemical synthesis was evidenced in ca. 315 BC by Theophrastus. He observed the reduction of cinnabar to Hg when ground with Cu mortar and pestle. Later, M. Faraday had a similar observation, where AgCl was reduced to silver upon grinding in the mortars of Cu, Zn, Fe, and Sn metals [7]. Mechanochemistry is sometimes referred to as tribochemistry or mechanochemical alloying. The evolution of these terms and fine details are very well discussed by Michalchuk et al. in their review [8].

In mechanochemical syntheses, the required energy for the reaction is provided by compression, grinding (milling), and shearing forces. It significantly reduces the usage of solvents and solvent waste generation at the end of the process. In this, reaction components are ground manually or in a ball mill (BM). Manual grinding (MG) has the disadvantage of open atmospheric conditions, introducing environmental factors. However, ball-milling has several advantages with respect to defined optimized parameters (sample weight ratio, frequency, etc.) preferred over MG. In an automated BM, a variety of mechanochemical reactions such as inorganic [9,10], organometallic [11], biocatalytic [12], organic [13,14,15], and others [16,17,18] have been reported. Typically, balls (in BM) are used to crush the reactants/precursors and to generate additional potential energy, required for bond breaking/making and creating surface defects/changes [1]. However, in certain cases, particularly in mixer BMs, temperature progression was recorded due to the employed operating frequency, ultimately influencing material properties [19].

Mechanochemistry was also found to be effective for chemical transformations of various gaseous reactants [20], e.g. methanation of carbon dioxide [21], CO hydrogenation to methane (CH4) [22], CO oxidation to CO2 [23], hydroformylation using syngas [24], hydrogenation reactions [25], synthesis of low valent Mg (I), p-block, and group 15 complexes [26,27,28]. BM assists in the generation of new chemical compounds that are difficult to synthesize using traditional methodologies [29,30]. Solventless mechanochemical synthesis can be associated with totally different product outcomes since reaction components are not solvated [31,32]. In kneading or liquid-assisted grinding (LAG), the addition of small amounts of solvent enhances the rate of the chemical reaction substantially and also influences selectivity via the introduction of the so-called “solvent effects” [29,30].

In a nutshell, mechanosynthetic protocols enable reactions to occur between reactants/reagents, which are poorly soluble in solvents [33], allow solventless (lesser solvent: LAG) synthesis (avoiding solvent waste), with relevant applications in the synthesis of a variety of materials that will be disclosed in the following sections.

1.1 Mechanochemistry and advanced material design

BM and reactive extrusion are useful tools for designing nanomaterials [7,34,35,36] using top-down approaches. Milling devices offer hard stress for the synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) including attritor, planetary, and vibrator mills. Interestingly, Debnath et al. reported a BM method in the bottom-up approach for the synthesis of monodispersed Au and Ag NPs from their salts at room temperature [37,38]. An upper region (top-down) in Figure 1 displays the breakdown of larger-sized particles, bulk metals, etc., to smaller particles as well as plastic deformation [39]. The deformation of plastic and dissociation of particles tend to increase with the milling time. Milling eventually led to the formation of high surface area (SA) nanomaterials with prominent intragranular and boundary defects. Further, continuation of milling led to either amorphous phase formation or sintering of smaller particles, thereby decreasing the SA of the material [9,39]. Metal NPs are produced (bottom-up approaches) from the respective metal precursors using milling devices or under MG influence by the type of metal precursor as well as reducing and capping agents employed during the synthesis [39]. Nucleation of metal species takes place and their growth from the atomic scale to NPs follows various pathways, including Ostwald ripening, coalescence, and atomic addition (Figure 1) [40]. However, BM helps to develop controlled metal NP synthesis and has several other advantages such as improved catalyst material interface, mesoporosity, enhanced dispersion of active phase, and improved redox properties [41,42,43,44].

Figure 1 Mechanochemical synthesis of NPs: top-down and bottom-up approaches [39].
Figure 1

Mechanochemical synthesis of NPs: top-down and bottom-up approaches [39].

This contribution is primarily focused on the benign-by-design mechanochemical synthesis of materials and their applications as catalysts. Various classes of highly porous materials have been reported using mechanochemical routes (Figure 2). Intriguingly, mechanochemically prepared catalysts showed better to excellent catalytic activities compared to catalysts prepared by conventional methods. Mechanochemical routes reduced the use of solvents while offering in principle better scalability. The current review emphasizes recent trends in mechanochemical catalysis and comparison with non-mechanochemical routes in contrast to earlier reports on the topic [35,45,46].

Figure 2 Mechanochemical synthesis of nanomaterials. Image reprinted with permission from Szczesniak et al. [1].
Figure 2

Mechanochemical synthesis of nanomaterials. Image reprinted with permission from Szczesniak et al. [1].

2 Mechanochemical synthesis and applications of nanomaterials

2.1 Zeolites

Zeolites are aluminosilicates known for their applications in shape-selective catalysis owing to their microporous crystalline nature. Brønsted and Lewis acids play key roles in various transformations in the petrochemical industry sector [47,48,49]. The acidity of zeolitic materials is widely explored in catalysis; however, microporous zeolitic materials suffer from diffusion constraints when dealing with bulky reactants/reagents [50,51]. Mesoporosity into the zeolitic structures can be introduced using different methods, e.g. desilication. Microporous and hierarchical/mesoporous zeolitic materials have been reported for various acid-catalysed transformations including acetylations and alkylations [47,52,53]. Ojeda et al. reported the mechanochemical synthesis of ZSM-5 containing iron oxide NPs and their applications in MW-assisted selective oxidation reactions and synthesis of acetonitrile from N,N-dimethylformamide [54]. Commercial (from Zeolyst International) MFI zeolites, namely CBV8014 (Z40c: Si/Al molar ratio of 40) and CBV3024E, were modified to induce mesoporosity. The samples were first calcined and later treated with 100 mL of NaOH solution of different molarities (0.4 M Z40c; 0.8 M Z15c) for desilication. Desilicated samples were later acid-washed to obtain Z40-H and Z15-H materials. Acid-washed samples recorded higher SA with respect to parent Z15c and Z40c due to mesoporosity generation. Acid-washed samples were subsequently employed in the ball-milled (BM) synthesis of iron oxide-containing catalysts. Z15-H and Z40-H samples were ground together with FeCl2·6H2O in a planetary BM followed by calcination to obtain Fe0.5/Z15c-H (BM) and Fe1/Z40c-H (BM) catalysts (0.5 and 1 denote iron wt% loading). Both materials displayed maximum conversion of benzyl alcohol (BA) to benzaldehyde using H2O2 under MW conditions as compared to Z15c, Z40c, Z15-H, and Z40-H. Fe0.5/Z15c-H (BM) provided 46% conversion with 97% selectivity; however, Fe1/Z40c-H (BM) showed 100% selectivity of the product with comparatively lower conversion (26%) under identical reaction conditions. In another approach, Grau-Atienza et al. reported an improved catalytic performance of iron oxide when supported on hierarchical zeolite materials. Iron-containing zeolites were prepared using BM and microwave methods and subsequently explored in the alkylation of toluene under MW irradiation (Figure 3a) [55]. In contrast to earlier reports, the authors observed the blockage of pores confirmed by N2 physisorption after alkali treatment. A H-ZSM-5-50 catalyst with a silica/ alumina ratio of 50, derived from commercially available MFI-zeolite CBV5524G, was subjected to planetary BM grinding together with FeCl2·4H2O and CuCl2·2H2O to form Fe/H-ZSM-5-50 and Cu/H-ZSM-5-50, respectively. The mentioned catalysts were screened in the conversion of furfuryl alcohol (FA) to methyl levulinate (ML) in a continuous flow [56]. Possible side products for the reaction are α-angelica lactone (AAL), β-angelica lactone (BAL), 2-methoxy-2-methylfuran (MMF), 5,5-dimethoxy-2-pentanone, and 5,5-dimethoxy-pent-3-en-2-one. Interestingly, no MMF formation was observed in the case of mechanochemically synthesized Fe/H-ZSM-5-50 and Cu/H-ZSM-5-50 catalysts. The highest selectivity to ML was recorded for Fe/H-ZSM-5-50 (Figure 3b) [56]. Zirconia supported on HZSM-5 and HBEA zeolites (10% Zr loading), prepared under BM, was also reported in the catalytic transfer hydrogenation of biomass-derived ML using isopropyl alcohol as a proton donor to γ-valerolactone (GVL) [57]. The introduction of zirconia into the zeolite was found to decrease the SA of the resultant material as compared to the parent zeolite due to the blockage of zeolite micropores by ZrO2. However, the presence of the cubic phase of ZrO2 was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The ZrO2 particle size in the case of Zr10HBEA(75) (Si/Al ratio = 75.0) was measured to be ca. 24.9 nm using the Scherrer equation. Selectivity to GVL was negligible over all catalysts due to the formation of side-products levulinic acid (after hydrolysis) and isopropyl levulinate. Interestingly, a decrease in the ML conversion was recorded from 66.0 to 45.6% with remarkable increase in selectivity (96%) compared to non-poisoned (30%) (Figure 3b) when Zr10HBEA(75) was poisoned with pyridine (py, 0.01 M feed).

Figure 3 (a) ML, MMF, AAL, BAL and yields obtained after 5 min batch alcoholysis of 0.2 M FA assisted by MW irradiation in methanol at 150°C using zeolite catalyst (50 mg) [56]; (b) ML conversion (top) and GVL selectivity (bottom) obtained by ZrO2-loaded zeolites in the continuous flow ML hydrogenation in the presence of pyridine. Reaction conditions: cat (0.5 g), ML (0.3 M), and py in 2-propanol (0.01 M), flow rate (0.2 mL/min), at 200°C and 30 bar pressure [57]. Image adapted with permission from Pescarmona et al. [53] and Ojeda et al. [54].
Figure 3

(a) ML, MMF, AAL, BAL and yields obtained after 5 min batch alcoholysis of 0.2 M FA assisted by MW irradiation in methanol at 150°C using zeolite catalyst (50 mg) [56]; (b) ML conversion (top) and GVL selectivity (bottom) obtained by ZrO2-loaded zeolites in the continuous flow ML hydrogenation in the presence of pyridine. Reaction conditions: cat (0.5 g), ML (0.3 M), and py in 2-propanol (0.01 M), flow rate (0.2 mL/min), at 200°C and 30 bar pressure [57]. Image adapted with permission from Pescarmona et al. [53] and Ojeda et al. [54].

Mesoporosity can also be introduced in the zeolitic structure using delamination. One of the promising examples of delaminated hierarchical zeolite is ITQ-2, prepared from the synthesized layered precursor of MCM-22 via chemical treatment with alkylammonium hydroxide and a surfactant under reflux and sonication conditions [58]. The methods used to induce mesoporosity such as dealumination, desilication, template method, and delamination suffer from drawbacks including the use of harsh/non-green chemicals, longer reaction time, and use of expensive reagents and their combinations. Comparatively, Silva et al. reported the synthesis of hierarchical MCM-22 wherein delamination was conducted by using shear force from the used vibratory BM instead of chemical processes, without significant loss of acidic sites [59]. The material was prepared from synthesized MCM-22P, which was kept in a vibratory BM at 25 Hz frequency for 30 min. Similar material was prepared via delamination using chemical methods and the catalytic activity of ball-milled vs chemically treated was tested in the cracking of 4-n-propylphenol. In the case of chemical delamination, a disruption of parallel planes responsible for Bragg’s diffraction was observed due to layer disorientation. Interestingly, the MWW structure remained intact after ball milling (30 min), except broadening of a few peaks as confirmed by XRD. An increase in total acidity with respect to the parent MCM-22 was recorded in the case of ball-milled catalysts and a large decrease for the chemically delaminated system was comparatively confirmed by NH3-TPD. Cracking of 4-n-propylphenol was carried out in the presence of 12% of water at 350℃ over 0.2 g of the catalyst. The ball-milled system exhibited excellent conversion and product yield. However, the isomerization of 4-n-propylphenol led to the formation of by-products.

Song et al. designed mechanochemically tailored, sulphur-resistant systems (V2O5/WO3-TiO2: VWTi) with 5 wt% vanadia, for the low-temperature (180℃) selective catalytic reduction of NO x [60]. VWTi prepared by wet impregnation method was ground with Y-zeolite in a porcelain mortar for 10 min at different ratios. Mechanical grinding facilitated the formation of V–O–Al bonds, decreasing the reducibility of vanadium (V) active sites (major deactivation reason). Catalyst deactivation was avoided by the formation of a thin carbon layer using octadecyltrichlorosilane over the zeolite surface, inhibiting Al species migration from active sites [60]. For hydroisomerization of n-paraffins, the unidimensional zeolite ZSM-22 was preferred among SAPO-11, ZSM-12, ZSM-23, etc. due to its high selectivity in the formation of monobranched isomers (as compared to unwanted multibranched precursors formed during the cracking process due to the lack of undulation in micropores). Zhai et al. developed TON zeolites with enhanced catalytic properties in the hydroisomerization of n-heptane in a fixed-bed glass reactor using bead-milling along with porogen polydimethyl dially ammonium chloride (PDDA) directed crystallization [61]. This combined preparation method allowed the formation of TON zeolites (ZSM-22) with high crystallinity with considerable axis length (100–300 nm) with a reduction in the [001] axis channel length. In the preparation, along with bead-milling, successive recrystallization was carried out in the presence of PDDA. The combination of constructive and destructive protocols enabled better control over shape, size, and crystallinity in the final material with respect to the bottom-up approach. The effect of preparation method in case of various ZSM-22 (40) (Si/Al ratio = 40) (P – parent, M – milled; M.L.R. – recrystallization conducted in mother liquor, M-P.R. – recrystallization in the presence of PDDA) is shown in Figure 4. Parent sample ZSM-22 (40)-P exhibited 100% crystallinity with rod-like crystals (Figure 4a1, b1), which decreased to 70% after milling. Milled samples ZSM-22 (40)-M displayed aggregated crystallites with nanosized particulates (Figure 4a2, b2). In the case of ZSM-22 (40)-M., M.L.R. samples coalescence and crystal growth were evidenced in SEM. The crystallinity of the samples for ZSM-22 (40)-M-P.R. under recrystallization by PDDA was regained back [61].

Figure 4 SEM micrographs for parent (A1, B1), milled (A2, B2), mother liquor crystallized (A3, B3), and samples recrystallized in the presence of PDDA (A4, B4); corresponding particle-distribution histograms (A5, B5) are displayed on the respective right columns. The A and B series correspond to ZSM-22 with Si/Al ratios of 40 and 70, respectively. Image adapted with permission from Zhai et al. [61].
Figure 4

SEM micrographs for parent (A1, B1), milled (A2, B2), mother liquor crystallized (A3, B3), and samples recrystallized in the presence of PDDA (A4, B4); corresponding particle-distribution histograms (A5, B5) are displayed on the respective right columns. The A and B series correspond to ZSM-22 with Si/Al ratios of 40 and 70, respectively. Image adapted with permission from Zhai et al. [61].

Zeolites prepared under solvent-free protocols tend to form aggregated crystals, creating diffusional issues in catalysis. This can be rectified by controlling the morphology as evidenced in the case of ZSM-5. Reduction in the thickness along the b-axis reported a substantial decrease in the diffusion pathway, particularly for MeOH to hydrocarbon conversion as compared to conventionally synthesized nano ZSM-5 [62]. Similar observations were reported earlier by Liu et al. in the MeOH to gasoline reaction employing similar catalysts with c-axis orientation [63]. The introduced additives interact with the silica precursor either by H-bonding, entropy hydrophobic effects, and/or van der Waals force of attraction in a particular manner, thereby controlling the morphology. Additives including starch, urea, and graphene oxide have been reported for the modified solventless synthesis of MFI zeolites with controlled morphology and size [63,64,65]. Rong et al. employed ionic liquids (ILs) as shape-directing agents in the mechanochemical synthesis of MFI-zeolites [66]. Silicate-1, i.e. pure silica zeolite prepared using 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (IL), Si-ZSM-5_C12-5, displayed a coffin-like structure due to growth along the c-axis, with high dispersion. According to DFT calculations, morphological changes in Si-ZSM-5_C12-5 could be attributed to favoured adsorption of imidazolium cation at the (010) plane with inhibition of the crystal growth along the b-axis [63,64,67]. Other ILs with different chain lengths of alkyl groups were also employed for the preparation of zeolites. The morphology could be easily tuned by changing the alkyl chain of ILs [66]. Osuga et al. explored Ce-MFI as a support to co-impregnate different metals. Cerium-containing MFI support was prepared via planetary ball-milling vs conventional hydrothermal (HT) method, denoted as Ce-MFIMC and Ce-MFIHT, respectively [68]. Pd (1.0 wt%) and other metals were subsequently co-impregnated on the ceria materials (BM vs conventional impregnation) and further screened in the oxidative coupling of CH4-OCM, at low temperatures. Elemental mapping with high-angle annular dark-field/scanning transmission electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis revealed a poor distribution of Co and Pd over hydrothermally prepared support Ce-MFIHT as compared to Ce-MFIMC. Additionally, Ce dispersion was also improved in Ce-MFIMC with respect to Ce-MFIHT, suggesting Ce distribution in zeolite influencing metal co-impregnation (Pd and Co) and dispersion. Compared to HT, catalysts containing 1.0 wt% Pd and Co (mechanochemical route) provided the highest ethane yield (Figure 5) [68]. In another case, grinding a desired amount of tin acetate with dealuminated zeolite followed by calcination could lead to 10 wt% Sn loading (Snβ) as an efficient catalyst in Baeyer–Villiger oxidation. In comparison with HT and the grafting method, the mechanochemical route also offered scalability [69] under solventless conditions [70]. Zeolite-Y also served as a hard matrix to control the growth of NPs. For instance, the controlled growth of CuO NPs, in the 10–20 nm range, is rather difficult due to agglomeration. Gogoi et al. reported CuO–Fe(iii)–Y (Fe-exchanged zeoliteY) in the oxidative coupling of amines. In the first step, Fe-exchanged zeolite Y was prepared and later impregnated with a copper salt solution [71]. The resultant material was grinded and calcined to form CuO–Fe(iii)–Y, exhibiting excellent activity and wide-substrate compatibility for the oxidative coupling of amines [71] Bromination of naphthalene was successfully carried out by Ardila-Fierro et al. using different brominating agents over commercially available FAU-type zeolite (CBV-760) in a mixer mill (Table 1) [72].

Figure 5 Catalytic performance of 1Pd1Co/Ce-MFIMC (red) and 1Pd1Co/Ce-MFIHT (blue) catalysts in the OCM reaction at different temperatures: (a) CH4 conversion, (b) O2 conversion, (c) C2H6 yield, (d) CO2 yield, (e) CO yield, and (f) H2 yield. Reaction conditions: cat (50 mg), flow rate (CH4/O2/Ar = 8.0/2.0/2.5 mL min−1), temperature (100−600°C). Image reproduced with permission from Osuga et al. [68].
Figure 5

Catalytic performance of 1Pd1Co/Ce-MFIMC (red) and 1Pd1Co/Ce-MFIHT (blue) catalysts in the OCM reaction at different temperatures: (a) CH4 conversion, (b) O2 conversion, (c) C2H6 yield, (d) CO2 yield, (e) CO yield, and (f) H2 yield. Reaction conditions: cat (50 mg), flow rate (CH4/O2/Ar = 8.0/2.0/2.5 mL min−1), temperature (100−600°C). Image reproduced with permission from Osuga et al. [68].

Table 1

Catalytic applications of mechanochemically synthesized zeolite-based catalysts

Entry Catalyst Catalytic application Conditions and activity Ref.
1 Fe0.5/Z15c-H (BM) BA (0.2 mL), H2O2 (0.3 mL), ACN (2.0 mL), Cat (0.05 g), 300 W, time (3–5 min), temp, (111℃), 46% conversion, 97% selectivity [54]
2 Fe0.5/Z40c-H (BM) Toluene (2.0 mL), benzyl chloride (0.2 mL), cat (0.025 g), 300 W, MW, time (3 min), >99% conversion, 51% para-product selectivity [55]
3 Fe/H-ZSM-5-50 FA in MeOH/EtOH/n-PrOH (1.6 M), temp, (170℃), pressure (50 bar), flow rate (0.2 mL/min), cat (200 mg), 79% ML yield [56]
4 Zr10HBEA(75) ML (0.3 M), Py in 2-propanol (0.01 M), cat (0.5 g), flow rate (0.2 mL/min), temp. (200℃), pressure (30 bar), 45.6% conversion, 96% selectivity [57]
5 MCM-22P Cracking of 2% 4-n-propylphenol, 12% water, temp. (350℃), cat (0.2 g), 77 mL/min N2 gas, 47% conversion [59]
6 V2O5/WO3-TiO2 + carbon-coated Y-zeolite Selective catalytic-reduction of NO x Gas feed: NO (500 ppm), NH3 (600 ppm), O2(10%), CO2 (5%), H2O (10%), SO2 balanced with N2 (30 or 100 ppm), GHSV(150000 mL h−1 g−1 cat), cat (0.08 g), temp. (180℃) [60]
7 Pt-ZSM-22 (40)-M-P.R. Hydroisomerization of n-heptane (n-7) Fixed-bed glass reactor, temp. (553 K), WHSV (1.0 g n-heptane. (gcat h)−1, n-H2: n-7 (26.0), 74% conversion [61]
8 1Pd1Co/Ce-MFIMC Oxidative coupling of CH4 Flow rate of each gas: CH4/O2/Ar (8.0/2.0/2.5 mL min−1), temp. (100–600℃), cat (50 mg), ethane yield ∼ 0.16% [68]
9 CuO–Fe(iii)-Y Alcohol (1 mmol), amine (1 mmol), ACN (3.0 mL), 70% tBuOOH (220 μL), cat (20 mg), temp. (60℃), time (4 h), yield 65–85% [71]
10 CuO–Fe(iii)-Y Alcohol (1 mmol), amine (1 mmol), ACN, 70% tBuOOH (100 μL), cat (20 mg), temp. (60℃), time (2 h), 76–80% yield [71]
11 CBV-760 Naphthalene (0.78 mmol), 1,3-dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (0.5 eq.), cat (50 mg), milling time (2 h), 80% yield [72]

ACN: acetonitrile; cat: catalyst; temp.: temperature.

2.2 Metal oxides (MOs) and mixed metal oxides (MMOs)

The syntheses of MOs and MMOs have been extensively reported in the literature [73,74]. Perovskites (ABO3 type) and spinels (AB2O4 type) are examples of stoichiometric MMOs known for their catalytic applications [73,75,76]. Recent advances in the mechanochemical synthesis of MOs and MMOs are discussed herein (Table 2). CuO/ZnO/γ-Al2O3 is a well-known and efficient catalyst for the synthesis of methanol at lower temperatures and pressure compared to zinc chromium-based catalytic systems. The catalytic activity is influenced by parameters, including porosity, pore size distribution, SA, phase composition, and the size of the coherent scattering zone. Smirnov et al. recently reported the synthesis of similar materials in a planetary mill (with no evidence of an increase in the coherent scattering zone), with the mechanochemical system exhibiting competitive catalytic activity and selectivity [77]. Non-thermal plasma (NTP) assisted CO2 methanation has received considerable attention owing to the ambient reaction conditions and mostly reported over Cu, Ni, Co, and Rh as active metals. Ni is preferred because of its low cost, higher activity (CO2 conversion), and selectivity to form CH4 [78,79]. Guo and Chen mechanochemically synthesized (using a planetary BM) a yttrium-modified Ni/CeO2 catalyst with different Ni loadings (wt%). 7.5Ni-1Y/CeO2 provided ca. 65% conversion and 80% selectivity for CH4 (ca. 50% yield) [80]. The higher activity recorded for the Y-doped catalyst is attributed to the induced anionic vacancies and enhanced basicity. However, increasing Y quantities showed detrimental effects, e.g. 7.5Ni-2Y/CeO2 with relatively lower activity related to blocking of Ni active sites [80]. Mechanochemistry helps in creating surface defects in photocatalysts (TiO2 and ZnO) and making materials with promising applications in water remediation/decontamination [46].

Table 2

Catalytic applications of mechanochemically synthesized oxide-based catalysts

Entry Catalyst Catalytic application Conditions and activity Ref.
1 Fe3BO6–CeO2 Oxidation of BA BA (3.0 mL); BA:H2O2 ratio (1:3), cat (5.0 mg), temp. (90℃), time (4 h), solventless, 23.4% conversion; 87.9% selectivity [84]
2 7.5Ni-1Y/CeO2 NTP catalytic CO2 methanation Feed gas (60 vol% H2/15 vol% CO2/25 vol% Ar), total flow rate (50 mL min−1), varied-voltage (8-11 kV) and frequency (7.7 kHz) and varied SIE (7–18 kJ L−1), 84.2 ± 1.8% CO2 conversion; 83.3 ± 1.9% selectivity for CH4 [80]
3 NiFe2O4/MOF-808 nanocomposite Photocatalytic removal of Cr(vi) and meropenem Meropenem degradation: Meropenem (50 ppm), temp. (25℃), cat (10.0 mg), pH (2.0) Cr(vi) reduction: Cr (vi) solution, irradiation time (60 min), pH (2.0), 100% efficiency in 60 min, reusable [86]
4 LaCu0.2Mn0.3Ni0.5O3 Oxidation of CH4 CH4:O2 ratio (1:6) with flow rate (40 mL min−1) diluted with Ar (40 mL min−1), temp. (450℃), 71.2% conversion [87]

Compared to commercial ZnO (SA: 5 m2/g), a high SA (91 m2/g) ZnO could be mechanochemically achieved using the salt templating (KCl) method, serving as an excellent support to load Pd (active metal) and further applications in catalysis [81]. Dry-milled Pd/CeO2 recorded the highest CH4 conversion prepared as compared to incipient wetness-prepared materials (CH4 abatement) under lean conditions [82]. In another observation, the mechanochemically induced interaction between Co3O4 and CeO2 in Co3O4–CeO2 strained surface structures could lead to promising catalytic activities in benzene oxidation [83]. Turgut et al. reported novel ceria-based Fe3BO6–CeO2, with different ceria mol% in the solventless oxidation of BA [84]. Among different compositions, milling of ceria with Fe3BO6 improved the catalytic activity of the material (up to 5% of ceria doping) as optimum during catalyst screening. Maximum conversion (34.3%) and selectivity for BA (81.5%) were obtained. A further increase in ceria mol% (>5 mol%) led to a decrease in the catalytic activity due to the promotional role of ceria [84]. Mechanochemical treatment resulted in morphological changes, for instance, quasi-spherical polyhedral particles of Fe3BO6 transformed into a hexagonal plate-like structure after grinding (with ceria) [84]. Roller ring vibratory-mill-activated CoFe2O4 spinel with microstrain provided the highest reported activity for NO x decomposition as compared to similar materials prepared under conventional methods [85]. Nanocomposites of NiFe2O4 with a metal–organic framework (MOF-808) were also reported as an efficient photocatalyst for the degradation of drug meropenem and reduction of chromium(vi) species [86]. Mirasgari et al. successfully mechanochemically substituted Cu by Mn and Co in perovskites LaCu0.5Ni0.5O3. LaCu0.2Mn0.3Ni0.5O3 exhibited excellent activity for CH4 combustion following the Mars van and Krevelen mechanism due to the anionic vacancy and lattice-oxygen mobility. However, the catalytic activity of LaCu0.2Mn0.3Ni0.5O3 was only improved when calcined at lower temperatures, attributed to higher SA. In this work, a series of perovskite materials were successfully prepared by using a solventless mechanochemical route. The improvement in the reducibility of the materials could be achieved due to Mn substitution as confirmed by H2-TPR studies [87]. The role of anionic vacancies in another La–Sr–Co perovskite composite obtained from green mechanical milling was proven by Luo et al. for the degradation of doxycycline [88]. A few recent examples of mechanochemically prepared materials are steam reforming of acetic acid over mesoporous Ni–Al2O3 for H2 production [89], localization of vanadia on TiO2 for NH3-SCR at low temperature [90], CH4 decomposition over NiO–MgO, [91], etc. Moreover, mechanochemically synthesized perovskites showed notable activity in optoelectronic applications [92]. Mechanochemistry also served as an effective tool for the synthesis of high-entropy oxides and related materials [93,94,95].

2.3 Other nanomaterials

High SA (>1,000 m2/g) bimetallic MOFs have also been successfully synthesized via a mechanochemical route [96]. Mechanochemically prepared ZnCu-MOF-74, Cu-MOF-74, and CuO/ZnO/Al2O3 and bimetallic ZnCu-MOF-74 recorded comparable activity for CO2 hydrogenation to that of industrial systems [97].

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) and related materials are known for their catalytic activities due to their basicity [98]. Szabados et al. reported the mechanochemical synthesis of NiAl4-LDHs with intercalated sulphate and sulphamate species. For gibbsite synthesis, Al(OH)3 was milled and converted into a bayerite structure. The material recorded excellent activity for CO2 hydrogenation with >90% selectivity for CO production [99].

Hydroxyapapatites (HAps) are also calcium phosphate materials well known for their applications as bioceramics. Xin and Shirai reported surface-tailored HAps for VOC oxidation. The mechanochemical route (using a planetary BM) helped to synthesize HAp materials with both bulk and surface bulk type of carbonate species as confirmed by FTIR analysis. Enhancement in the degree of carbonate substitution was observed with the increase in the mechanical energy due to increased ball size of planetary ball mill [100]. Milovanović et al. reported a mechanochemical synthesis of different NiO/zeolites (H-Y, H-BETA, H-ZSM-5) using the dry-milling method. Prepared materials were subsequently tested in the pyrolysis of hardwood lignin. NiO/H-Y recorded the least coke formation and maximum yield for the liquid and gaseous products [101]. Other catalytic applications for these types of nanomaterials include F-substituted Co-doped zeolitic imidazolate as an electrocatalyst for ORR [102], polymeric aluminium chloride-silica gel composite for the synthesis of heterocycles [103], graphitic phosphorus-linked C3N4 for photocatalytic water splitting [104], single-atom catalysts [105], and production of carbon nanofibre over Ni–Cu catalyst [106]

3 Conclusions and future prospects

Mechanochemistry emerged as an effective tool for the synthesis of various materials, including oxides, oxyfluorides, fluorides, MOs and MMOs, nanocomposites, and zeolite-based materials. Mechanochemical treatment decreases particle size and incorporates surface defects influencing catalysis, with the possibility of bond cleavage–bond formation under certain conditions. In the case of microporous materials, mesoporosity can be effectively introduced using mechanochemistry as opposed to established chemical treatments to avoid diffusional issues. Mechanochemistry minimizes solvent usage and waste generation, also showing a high efficiency in the case of reactions where gaseous reactants are involved as well as potentially improved scalability.

Mechanochemically prepared materials have been additionally reported to have improved stabilities often associated with enhanced catalytic activities as compared to materials prepared using conventional methodologies. Milling in many cases significantly influenced the surface structure and catalytic sites, thereby altering final activities.

Recent developments in the field clearly illustrate the potential of mechanochemistry as an advanced tool for the design of advanced functional and more sustainable materials with good scalability prospects. In selected cases, scalable materials (and controllable MO NP syntheses) have also been achieved using the mechanochemical route. However, the utilization of this tool in newer catalytic systems is challenging. Limitations, scope, and challenges in the mechanochemical field include the following:

Limited substrate range: Mechanochemistry may not be universally applicable to all types of substrates or materials (certain compounds or reactions may not be fit for mechanochemical synthesis, limiting its scope).

Energy-intensive: Mechanical forces applied during milling can be energy-intensive. This could lead to increased operational costs and environmental concerns, especially if the energy source is not sustainable or if the process requires high-energy input.

Selectivity challenges: Achieving high selectivity in mechanochemical reactions can be challenging. The mechanical forces may induce unintended side reactions (or alter the selectivity compared) to traditional synthetic methods.

Equipment limitations: The design and availability of suitable mechanochemical devices may limit the scalability and broad adoption of this technique. Specialized equipment may be required and the scalability of certain reactions may be challenging.

Reaction rate variability: The rate of mechanochemical reactions can vary depending on factors such as milling speed, pressure, and specific reactants. Achieving consistent reaction rates across different conditions can often be challenging.

Temperature control: Mechanochemical reactions may generate heat, and controlling the temperature during milling can be challenging, leading to variations in reaction outcomes (batch to batch) and hence results in reproducibility.

Complexity of reaction mechanisms: Understanding the detailed reaction mechanisms in mechanochemical processes is the most complex issue in mechanochemistry. The interactions between mechanical forces and chemical reactions may not be fully elucidated, making optimization challenging and mechanistic insights difficult to be followed/rationally understood.

Scale-up challenges: While scalable materials have been achieved in selected cases, scaling up mechanochemical processes for industrial production may face challenges related to uniformity, reproducibility, and economic feasibility.

Integration with continuous processes: Integrating mechanochemical processes into continuous manufacturing setups, common in the industry, may require innovative engineering solutions to ensure efficiency and reliability.

Acknowledging these challenges (and concerns) and actively addressing them through ongoing research and development will be crucial to unleashing the full potential of mechanochemistry in the design of more sustainable advanced functional materials for various applications.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Distinguished Scientist Fellowship Program (DSFP) at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. This publication has also been supported by the RUDN University Strategic Academic Leadership Program (R. Luque).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-10-16
Revised: 2023-11-22
Accepted: 2023-11-25
Published Online: 2023-12-31

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
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  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
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  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
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  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0172
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
mechanochemistry; nanotechnology; tribochemistry; mesoporosity; ball milling
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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Heruntergeladen am 27.12.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0172/html
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