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Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature

  • Aditya Kumar Tiwary , Harpreet Singh , Sayed M. Eldin EMAIL logo and R. A. Ilyas EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: December 31, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

The construction industry commonly employs concrete as a construction material, which sometimes may be subjected to fire exposure. It is important to adopt fire safety measures while planning and constructing such structures to ensure the safety of the occupants and the structural integrity of the concrete. So, determining its performance at elevated temperatures is of utmost importance. The main objective of this study was to investigate the impact of mineral incorporations, namely, nano bentonite clay (NBC) and nano fly ash (NFA), on the retained properties of concrete at normal (27°C) and at elevated temperatures. The feasibility of partly substituting ordinary Portland cement utilizing a mixture of NBC (0–5%) and NFA (0–50%) in concrete was assessed under the exposure to an elevated temperature ranging from 200 to 600°C. Several parameters were examined, including compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile capacity, water penetration, loss of mass, ultrasound pulse velocity, and microstructure properties. After the experimental analysis, it was observed that the fire endurance was shown to be improved with the inclusion of nanoparticles (BC and FA). A reduction in the loss of mass by samples subjected to elevated heat was observed with the addition of nano bentonite and NFA. The mechanical strength results were obtained as maximum for the concrete specimens with 2% NBC and 20% NFA and further, the specimens performed better when exposed to elevated temperature as compared with normal concrete specimens. The microstructure of the concrete also upgraded with better impermeability owing to the use of NBC and NFA.

Keywords: nanomaterial; elevated temperature; residual properties; microstructure analysis

Abbreviations

BC

bentonite clay

FA

fly ash

L

path length measured between transmitter and receiver ( mm )

M L

mass loss ( % )

M 1

mass of concrete block before application of high temperature ( kg )

M 2

mass of concrete block after application of high temperature ( kg )

NBC

nano bentonite clay

NFA

nano fly ash

OPC

ordinary Portland cement

SCM

supplementary cementitious materials

SEM

scanning electron microscope

S1

concrete specimens with nano bentonite clay 1% and nano fly ash 10%

S2

concrete specimens with nano bentonite clay 2% and nano fly ash 20%

S3

concrete specimens with nano bentonite clay 3% and nano fly ash 30%

S4

concrete specimens with nano bentonite clay 4% and nano fly ash 40%

S5

concrete specimens with nano bentonite clay 5% and nano fly ash 50%

T L

time over which ultra-sonic pulse transits the path length ( μ s )

UPV

ultrasonic pulse velocity

V

ultra-sonic pulse velocity ( km / s )

XRD

X-ray diffraction

1 Introduction

Concrete is well known for having integrated fire resistance and offering some degree of endurance and thermal resistance in high-temperature scenarios. During its lifetime, infrastructure may be exposed to a number of hazards, including fire [1]. The durability of a concrete structure allows it to endure catastrophes like accidental fires for a longer period than a metallic structure. Degradation of concrete takes place owing to exposure to fire for long duration and maximum temperature. The mechanical properties of concrete can also be influenced by other attributes, namely, the heating rate, kind of aggregate, specimen size, water content, and maturity of the specimen [2,3,4]. As the temperature increases, water evaporates from the calcium-silicate-hydrate (CSH) paste, causing the calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminate to decompose [5,6]. Approximately 100°C is the temperature where free water evaporates, 400–500°C is the temperature when Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) dehydroxylate and calcium oxide (CaO) decompose, and 600°C is the temperature at which the aggregates become quartz [7,8]. As concrete is extensively utilized in construction, determining its performance at elevated temperatures is of utmost importance [9,10].

According to Chen et al. [11], factors such as duration, peak temperature, and sort of cooling affect the strength of concrete. In early-stage curing, concrete that has been exposed to greater heating in the range of 800°C can regain its compressive strength. The coolant type (air/water) has an effect on the strength recovery [12]. Coskun and Tanyildizi studied the compressive and splitting tensile capacity of lightweight concrete in relation to fly ash (FA) content (10–30%) and the application of heat varying from 200 to 800°C [13]. Specimens that contained 30% FA demonstrated the most remarkable strength results. In the outcome, owing to the pozzolanic characteristics of FA, high temperatures did not adversely affect the concrete strength [14]. According to Xu et al. [15], high-temperature durability and mechanical characteristics of pulverized FA concrete improved under temperature ranges of 450–650°C, with 450°C having the most significant impact. In a study by Marzouk and Hussein [16], concrete containing 25% FA was tested under a wide range of temperature exposure between 21 and 232°C. For the heat application of temperatures of around 121–149°C, concrete strength was observed to be boosted. Concrete containing bentonite content was tested at ambient temperature and elevated temperature by Ahmad et al. Nonetheless, not much enhancement in compressive strength with bentonite content was registered. An acid attack resistance was found to be better when 30% bentonite was present [17]. Further, the compressive strength of concrete increased when bentonite content was 20% of the mix [18]. The ideal quantity of bentonite in the concrete exposed to higher temperatures is not yet fully understood. Bentonite clay (BC) is a clay material with a high montmorillonite quantity in addition to being a nano clay [19]. Nano bentonite clay (NBC) has been found to possess a greater surface area along with a greater cation exchange capacity, which makes it an effective material for use in concrete as a substitute for cement [20,21]. Further, the nano size of NBC can be very effective in filling voids which can further improve the workability, durability, and impermeability of concrete.

There is a great deal of interest in substituting pozzolanic supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) for cement due to its high demand as a primary building material, its greater expense when compared to other ingredients in concrete, and the issues related to the release of greenhouse gases over its production. Pozzolanic materials typically have micron-sized particles; however, it is possible to crush and pulverize them to create nanoscale particles [22]. Using SCMs, such as bagasse ash [23,24], blast furnace slag [25,26], FA, and rice husk ash [27,28], in concrete production can improve its mechanical and durability performance while simultaneously reducing resource consumption and lowering carbon dioxide emissions. Silica fume enhances concrete residual strength up to 200°C; however, it causes a considerable decrease in strength at higher temperatures due to the denser transition zone [29]. The strength of FA-based concrete declined up to 250°C, then recovered between 250 and 350°C. Beyond 350°C, the FA concrete lost its strength, exhibiting superior heat resistance at 550°C than the control concrete [30]. Concrete strength with 0 and 20% ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) declined at 100°C but increased as the temperature increased. Up to 350°C, concrete with 40 and 50% GGBFS replacement ratios exhibited no significant change in residual strength, but higher replacement ratios resulted in lower strength [31]. Furthermore, alternative materials such as polypropylene fibres [9], steel fibres [32], carbon nanotubes [33], nano silica, nano titanium [34,35,36], and nano alumina [37] have been employed in the production of concrete. Although these materials are effective in improving the performance of concrete in terms of mechanical and durability properties, the cost of these materials is a concern. The waste materials from industries can be utilized, which possess some cementitious properties, as partial replacement for cement for achieving cost effectiveness along with improving the mechanical and durability performance of concrete [38,39,40]. A reduction in carbon dioxide emissions can be achieved by replacing cement with NBC and nano fly ash (NFA) as these are obtained from waste materials and reduce the consumption of cement which is responsible for greenhouse gas emissions during its production, making concrete production more cost-effective [41,42]. Prior studies had explored the characteristics of mortar and concrete when incorporating bentonite and FA as constituents. Several experiments have presented an outcome that FA and bentonite can upgrade cementitious materials’ pore structure, thus improving their durability [17,43,44].

The necessity for particular research on adding nano bentonite and NFA is a gap in the existing literature on concrete subjected to extreme temperatures. The study covers a major knowledge gap by considering fire scenarios and sustainable needs in construction, offering vital information for building fire-resistant structures and satisfying industry sustainability targets. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of mineral incorporations, namely, NBC and NFA, on the retained properties of concrete at normal (27°C) and at elevated temperatures. In this exploration, the feasibility of partly substituting ordinary Portland cement (OPC) utilizing a mixture of NBC and NFA in concrete was considered. Mixtures included 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% NBC with 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% NFA. A post-fire exposure behaviour on the retained characteristics of concrete including NBC and NFA was investigated at an elevated temperature of 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C. Several parameters were examined, including compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, water permeability, mass loss, ultrasound pulse velocity, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

The present investigation examines a unique strategy to lessen the adverse consequences of high temperatures by incorporating NBC and NFA into concrete. By enhancing the thermal stability and mechanical properties of concrete, these nanoparticles have the capability to increase a structure’s fire resistance and durability performance [22,42]. In the area of civil engineering, this study is crucial because it may help in the production of more durable and environmentally friendly building materials that are capable of sustaining high temperatures. Through the use of these ingredients, the investigation encourages lessening the environmental effect of usual cement production. The novel feature of this approach is the opportunity to investigate the synergistic impacts of NBC and NFA on the residual mechanical characteristics of concrete after high-temperature exposure. Through thorough investigation and evaluation, the research seeks to provide the basis for future developments in fire-resistant building materials while also offering insightful information on the effectiveness of nano-modified concrete.

2 Experimental work

2.1 Material properties

2.1.1 Cement

OPC 43 grade in compliance with IS 8112:2013 [45] was utilized as a binder for concrete production since it is the most popular kind of binder which is being utilized for the purpose of concrete production. OPC 43 grade with a specific gravity of 3.15 and an initial setting time of 35 min as depicted in Figure 1(a) was used in this study.

Figure 1 Basic ingredients of concrete (a) cement, (b) fine aggregates, (c) coarse aggregates.
Figure 1

Basic ingredients of concrete (a) cement, (b) fine aggregates, (c) coarse aggregates.

2.1.2 Fine aggregate

Fine aggregate having a specific gravity of 2.65 with sand sieved over an IS 4.75 mm sieve in compliance with grading zone II of IS 383:2016 [46] as presented in Figure 1(b) was utilized in this study. Differences in void content can result in significant differences in water demand between fine aggregates of the same grading [47,48]. It is more important to consider water requirements than physical packing in determining the optimal gradation of fine aggregate for concrete. It is preferable to use fine aggregates with fineness moduli of 2.5–3.2.

2.1.3 Coarse aggregateand cooling procedure

A local quarry crushed angular granite aggregates with a nominal size of 10–20 mm and a specific gravity of 2.74 as presented in Figure 1(c) was utilized for the present investigation. Particle size distribution, water absorption, crushing strength of aggregates, bulk density, impact resistance of aggregates, and aggregate abrasion value were determined as shown in Table 1. The particle size distribution curve for fine and coarse aggregates is depicted in Figure 2(a).

Table 1

Physical characteristics of coarse aggregates

Particulars Value
Water absorption ( % ) 0.81
Crushing strength ( % ) 16.9
Loose bulk density ( kg / m 3 ) 1,325
Rodded bulk density ( kg / m 3 ) 1,455
Impact resistance ( % ) 18.6
Abrasion resistance ( % ) 25.8
Figure 2 Particle size distribution curves (a) fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, (b) cement, NBC and NFA.
Figure 2

Particle size distribution curves (a) fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, (b) cement, NBC and NFA.

2.1.4 Nanomaterials

The NBC is used in this study as shown in Figure 3(a). NBC can be used in cement by way of a binding agent in addition to enhancing the properties of the final product. When added to cement, NBC can increase the mixture’s workability and flow in addition to decreasing the water content required for mixing. It can also improve the durability as well as the strength of the cement through the decrease in permeability in addition to increased resistance to chemical and physical stress [49,50]. Additionally, NBC can reduce the amount of shrinkage and cracking that occurs during the drying process. Overall, the use of NBC in cement can lead to higher quality and a more reliable final product [42].

Figure 3 Nanomaterials (a) NBC, (b) NFA.
Figure 3

Nanomaterials (a) NBC, (b) NFA.

Pulverized coal is burned in electric generation power plants to generate FA, a fine powder as shown in Figure 3(b). FA is a pozzolanic material which is composed of siliceous and aluminous compounds and can react with water to form cementitious compounds. Due to its low embodied energy as well as its role as a by-product, FA is accepted as an eco-friendly material [51]. Many FA sources contain pozzolanic FA, which consists of siliceous alumina and siliceous material that combines with calcium hydroxide to form cement [52]. The physical and chemical composition of cementitious material (NBC and NFA) is listed in Tables 2 and 3. The particle size distribution curve for cementitious materials is presented in Figure 2(b).

Table 2

Physical characteristics of cementitious ingredients

Particulars Cement NFA NBC
Specific gravity 3.15 2.1 2.3
Specific surface area ( m 2 / g ) 0.3 360 465
Particle size ( μ m ) 16.03 0.02–0.07 0.01–0.05
Table 3

Chemical compositions of cementitious ingredients

Particulars Cement NFA NBC
CaO 60.65 1.74 1.97
SiO2 19.21 53.41 50.95
Al2O3 4.99 24.62 19.60
Fe2O3 4.11 13.12 5.62
MgO 3.02 1.22 3.29
SO3 2.44 0.22 —
Na2O 0.31 0.35 0.98
K2O 0.38 0.72 0.86
TiO2 — 1.47 0.62
MnO — 0.1 —
P2O5 — — 1.28
Loss on ignition (%) 1.65 0.5 15.45

2.1.5 X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of nanomaterials

The crystallographic structure, chemical content, and physical properties of a material can all be determined by XRD analysis, a non-destructive approach. For this purpose, some samples of FA and BC have been processed into nano-form and tested using XRD. Figure 4(a–d) displays the crystalline phase of the materials that have been identified.

Figure 4 XRD graphs (a) fly ash, (b) NFA, (c) bentonite clay, (d) NBC.
Figure 4

XRD graphs (a) fly ash, (b) NFA, (c) bentonite clay, (d) NBC.

A peak value pointing toward the existence of chemical constituents such as calcium, magnesium, aluminium silicate, and silicon oxide in both FA and BC is depicted in Figure 4(a) and (c). Similarly, as displayed in Figure 4(b) and (d) NFA and NBC possessed the same peaks of chemical constituents. Silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), iron oxide (Fe2O3), CaO, and a few other insignificant elements constitute a significant portion of NFA. Montmorillonite, a form of clay substance, constitutes the majority of bentonite. It additionally comprises a variety of minerals including calcite, gypsum, quartz, and feldspar. The part substitution of cement utilizing NFA and NBC is possible and it can further improve concrete’s mechanical and durability properties.

2.2 Mix design and specimen details

The concrete blend was prepared in accordance with IS 10262:2009 [53] using the procedure demonstrated in Figure 5. A total of six mixes (S0, S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5) were prepared in this study in the proportion of 1:1.7:2:48 which was determined from the mix design of M25 grade of concrete. S0 is prepared as a reference or control specimen without any addition of nanomaterials. Further, as observed in prior research, NFA significantly influences the properties of concrete when added in the proportions of 10–40% [22,54,55,56]. However, in the case of NBC, due to its finer particles, it might reduce the workability and can have negative effects on strength development when utilized at higher proportions, that is why lower percentages of up to 5% replacement were utilized similar to past studies to get a better insight about its behaviour in concrete [42,57,58]. Hence the other five mixes represent the samples with part substitution of cement by weight with nano bentonite in proportions of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5%, and NFA in percentages of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%. The water-to-cement proportion was determined as 0.42. The mix quantities for concrete specimens with NBC and NFA are depicted in Table 4.

Figure 5 Concrete mixing procedure.
Figure 5

Concrete mixing procedure.

Table 4

Mix proportions for concrete with NBC and NFA

Samples Cement (kg/m3) NFA (kg/m3) NBC (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3)
S0 417.00 0 0 1113.12 787.65 175.14
S1 371.13 41.7 4.17 1113.12 787.65 175.14
S2 325.26 83.4 8.34 1113.12 787.65 175.14
S3 279.39 125.1 12.51 1113.12 787.65 175.14
S4 233.52 166.8 16.68 1113.12 787.65 175.14
S5 187.65 208.5 20.85 1113.12 787.65 175.14

The mix was prepared as per the proportion specified and filled in the cube (150 mm side), beam (100 mm square side and 500 mm length), and cylinder (150 mm diameter and 300 mm height) moulds. The concrete was filled in three layers with the packing of each layer through a vibrating table. An overall of 432 samples were cast comprising 216 cubes, 108 cylinders, and 108 beam specimens. Out of these, 72 specimens were set as control specimens which were tested at room temperature including 12 specimens without any utilization of NFA and NBC. For each proportion of the sample of concrete, three repetitions were made and average results were collected for the same. The description of the specimens is presented in Table 5. After filling the moulds with the concrete mix, the moulds were enfolded with a thin polythene sheet to eliminate the decrease in water content [59,60]. After the period of 24 h, the specimens were taken out from the moulds and kept inside the curing tank for 28 days which was maintained at ambient temperature [47,61]. The mixing of specimens, casted specimens and curing of specimens are displayed in Figure 6.

Table 5

Description of the specimens

Test type Specimen geometry (mm) No. of specimens
Compression 150 × 150 × 150 108 (18-control, 90-heated)
Split tensile 150 × 300 108 (18-control, 90-heated)
Flexural 100 × 100 × 500 108 (18-control, 90-heated)
Water permeability 150 × 150 × 150 108 (18-control, 90-heated)
Figure 6 Preparation of specimens (a) mixing of specimens, (b) casted specimens, (c) curing of samples.
Figure 6

Preparation of specimens (a) mixing of specimens, (b) casted specimens, (c) curing of samples.

2.3 Heating and cooling procedure

Figure 7 shows an electric furnace possessing the ability to heat the specimens up to 1,150°C. The inner dimensions of the furnace were measured as 500 × 500 × 600 mm. Special trolleys were used to place the concrete samples inside the furnace. The heat was increased by closing the furnace cap after the samples were put inside the furnace. In a lot of prior studies [47,59,62], samples were exposed to high temperatures according to the ISO-834 fire curves [63]. In some studies, a constant heating rate of 10 ° C /min or 12 ° C /min was employed to achieve the elevated temperature of the specimen [62,64]. However, in this present investigation, a heating rate of 15 ° C /min was employed to increase the temperature of the furnace. Digital thermometers were used to record the temperature readings during exposure. Time vs temperature increase curve for elevated heating of about 200–600°C for the specimen recorded from thermocouples is shown in Figure 7(b). There was a time lag recorded for the temperature applied by a furnace and the observed temperature of the concrete specimen in the time vs temperature graph for the specimen. After attaining its ultimate temperature, the furnace’s temperature was maintained for 2 h to ensure uniform distribution of temperature throughout the specimen such that the inside temperature of the specimen was at the same level as the furnace [62,65,66]. To prevent a fire from forming, the furnace was immediately shut off once the target heating of the specimen was reached. After shutting off the furnace, the samples were kept inside the furnace for some time till the temperature of the specimens reduced to 100°C. Afterwards, the samples were placed to cool down in the air at room temperature.

Figure 7 Heating procedure (a) electric furnace, (b) time vs temperature curve for specimen, (c) concrete specimens before and after exposure to raised temperature.
Figure 7

Heating procedure (a) electric furnace, (b) time vs temperature curve for specimen, (c) concrete specimens before and after exposure to raised temperature.

2.4 Testing procedure

After heating and cooling down of the samples, the specimens were tested under different testing procedures as described in Figure 8. All the tests were conducted in the same manner for specimens exposed to elevated temperatures of about 200–600°C separately.

Figure 8 Testing of specimens after heat treatment.
Figure 8

Testing of specimens after heat treatment.

2.4.1 Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties were assessed by performing compression (on cubical specimens), split tensile (on cylindrical specimens), and flexural strength (on beam specimens) testing in accordance with the BIS 516:2021 [67]. The loading was raised at a constant rate till the specimens failed.

2.4.2 Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test

Before carrying out these mechanical strength tests, the weight loss and UPV tests were also accomplished for the cubical concrete samples. The UPV experiments were executed in accordance with the BIS 516:2018 [68]. The UPV and mass loss of specimens can be determined by equations (1) and (2) as follows:

(1) V = L T L ,

(2) M L = M 1 − M 2 M 1 × 100 .

2.4.3 Water permeability test

One set of cubical specimens was tested for water permeability test as per DIN 1045:1991 [69]. The test was conducted for 3 days with a water pressure of 0.5 MPa. Thereafter, the specimen was split into two parts from the centre with the aid of a compression testing machine. The depth of water penetrated inside the cube specimens was determined to represent the permeability of the concrete specimen.

2.4.4 Microstructure analysis

To assess the microstructure properties of concrete after exposure to high heat, SEM analysis was carried out by employing a Nova-Nano FE-SEM 450 machine on the specimen’s debris obtained after the failure of specimens in compression testing. The residues were cleaned to remove any loose debris and contaminants by rinsing them in distilled water and then dried with the aid of a clean cloth by gentle patting. Then, the residues were placed in SEM holders and the surface of the residues was prepared by grinding or polishing to have a flat surface and transferred into the SEM chamber for SEM imaging.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Specimen appearance

The experimental findings of the concrete samples with NBC and NFA indicated that concrete’s colour changes when it is exposed to high temperatures. Concrete’s colour changes depending on how much heat treatment is applied [70,71]. As the temperature rises from the ambient range, no notable alteration in the appearance of the samples was observed with no indication of cracks on the samples’ surfaces. However, when the temperature of the samples hits 200°C, the specimens become bright in colour probably due to the loss of free water [7]. A peak temperature of 300–400°C, however, produced darker colours in the specimens. Peak temperatures between 500 and 600°C caused the colour of the sample to turn from dark to light with grey stains on the surface owing to CO2 combustion [8]. In accordance with the outcomes of the existing exploration, all types of concrete mix produced similar results.

Figure 9 illustrates that the visual appearance of specimens to which high temperatures were applied varies depending on the ratio of mix and temperatures applied. The appearance of the specimens slightly changes at temperatures of about 200–300°C. Although the surface of the specimens does not show any cracks at this point. The specimens’ colours change from a light brown to a darker brown with a raise in the temperature to 400°C. In specimens at 500–600°C, small cracks can be observed and continuous long cracks can occur. Similar findings were observed by several researchers [72,73,74].

Figure 9 Appearance of specimens after heat application.
Figure 9

Appearance of specimens after heat application.

3.2 Compressive strength

The residual compression strength of concrete cubical samples with NBC and NFA after exposure to high temperature was determined via compression test. The findings of the compression test are presented in Figure 10 for all the specimens.

Figure 10 Compression test results (a) residual compressive strength, (b) normalized compressive strength.
Figure 10

Compression test results (a) residual compressive strength, (b) normalized compressive strength.

3.2.1 At ambient temperature

The compression resistance of concrete specimens was registered to be increased at lower proportions of NBC and NFA. However, at higher proportions of these nanomaterials, the compression resistance was registered to be diminished [17]. The highest compression resistance at normal temperature was observed for S2, which increased the compressive strength by 21% as contrasted to the reference specimen.

3.2.2 At elevated temperature

Concrete’s compression resistance at high temperatures depends on several factors, including additives, its strength at room temperature (29°C), and its heating rate [50]. As the temperature of specimens was increased from ambient temperature, the decrease in compression resistance was recorded. For control concrete specimens, the decline in the compression resistance occurred at 9, 16, 25, 34, and 45% as the temperature was raised to 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. The loss of water from concrete when heated from 200 to 300°C causes hydrothermal changes [75]. Micro-cracking can occur when internal stresses are generated at 400°C [76]. The disintegration of Ca(OH)2 occurs at temperatures greater than 400°C, leading to a further reduction in strength [77]. At about 500 and 600°C, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel begins to decompose, resulting in a reduction in strength and stiffness [78]. A further loss of strength occurs when calcium carbonate (CaCO3) decomposes between 500 and 600°C [75,79].

However, the specimen, with optimum compression strength at ambient temperature registered an increase in strength at a raised temperature of 200°C by 3%. Further rise in the exposure temperature led to the decrement of the compression strength of 7, 18, 29, and 42% for 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. Both regular concrete and concrete containing NBC and NFA experience small fractures owing to the breakdown of C–S–H gel and empty water capillaries. The reduction in compressive strength was found to be less in the case of concrete blended with NBC and NFA at elevated temperature in contrast to control specimens, which implies better performance of nano-modified concrete at elevated temperature.

3.3 Flexural strength

Based on the outcomes of a flexural strength test, the residual flexural strength of concrete prism/beam specimens with NBC and NFA after exposure to high temperatures was determined. The outcomes of the flexural strength experiment for each specimen are depicted in Figure 11. Behaviour similar to that seen in the compression resistance was recorded in the flexural strength test.

Figure 11 Flexural test results (a) residual flexural strength, (b) normalized flexural strength.
Figure 11

Flexural test results (a) residual flexural strength, (b) normalized flexural strength.

3.3.1 At ambient temperature

At lower proportions of NBC and NFA, the flexural strength of concrete samples was discovered to be increased, but at higher proportions of these nanomaterials, the flexural strength was recorded to be reduced [17]. The sample S2 had the greatest flexural strength at normal temperature, increasing the flexural strength by 10.11% in comparison to the control specimen.

3.3.2 At elevated temperature

Similar to the compressive strength, the flexural strength of concrete at raised temperatures is impacted by numerous variables, including additives, its strength at room temperature (27°C), and heating rate [50]. A decrease in flexural strength was seen as specimen temperatures were raised above ambient temperature. For control concrete specimens, the flexural strength decreased with temperature rise to 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively, by 2, 7, 12, 17, and 24%. Hydrothermal changes occur when concrete is heated from 200 to 300°C due to water loss [75]. The breakdown of CSH gel, drying of the cement mixture, and modification of aggregate crystal structure have been attributed to the decline in flexural strength. Additionally, due to the specimen’s increased temperature, the bonding between the cement mix and the aggregates decreased, and tiny cracks and voids increased, which decreased the specimen’s ability to resist bending [12,80,81].

However, for S2 specimens, a 3% gain in flexural strength was registered at the higher temperature of 200°C. Additionally, the flexural strength decreased by 2, 8, 14, and 22% while the temperature increased to 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. The drying of concrete and the breakdown of the bonding between the binder and the filler ingredient were the reasons for the decrease in flexural strength [82,83].

3.4 Split tensile strength

Through a split tensile capacity experiment, the residual split tensile strength of concrete cylinder specimens with NBC and NFA after exposure to high temperature was obtained. For all the specimens, the outcomes of the split tensile experiments are depicted in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Split tensile strength test results (a) residual split tensile capacity, (b) normalized split tensile capacity.
Figure 12

Split tensile strength test results (a) residual split tensile capacity, (b) normalized split tensile capacity.

3.4.1 At ambient temperature

Lower amounts of NBC and NFA were shown to increase the split tensile strength of concrete specimens. The tensile resistance, however, was recorded to diminish with larger ratios of these nanomaterials [17]. S2, which enhanced tensile strength by 10% in contrast to the reference specimen, had the maximum tensile resistance at standard normal temperature.

3.4.2 At elevated temperature

For control concrete samples, the tensile resistance decreased as the temperature increased to 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively, by 4, 8, 13, 19, and 26%. When heated to 200°C in relation to S2 samples, a 1% improvement in tensile resistance was noted. However, as the temperature was raised further to 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively, there was a 4, 9, 16, and 24% decrease in the tensile strength. Several variables, including additives, concrete’s strength at room temperature (29°C), and its heating rate, affect the material’s tensile strength at high temperatures [50]. Due to the concrete’s pore structure caused by the quick loss of moisture and its distinctive expansion of the cement mixture and other elements, the tensile strength of the concrete decreased [47,80]. Concrete loses water when heated from 200 to 300°C, which results in hydrothermal alterations [75] and microcracking at 400°C due to internal stress development [76]. Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel starts to break down between 500 and 600°C, which reduces its stiffness and strength [78]. When CaCO3 breaks down between 500 and 600°C, strength is further reduced [75,79].

3.5 Water permeability

Concrete cubical specimens containing NBC and NFA were subjected to water penetration testing in accordance with DIN 1045:1991 [69]. Concrete cubes were fitted in the apparatus and water at 0.6 N/mm2 of pressure was applied to the concrete surface by adding water to the water tank. The water permeability in terms of the depth of water penetrated inside the concrete specimens was determined. Based on measurements done for the specimens to which high temperature of 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C were applied, Figure 13 indicates an increase in water penetration depth as temperatures rise during the fire exposure. The test specimens exposed to fire are shown to have more penetration of water as the temperature rises. Higher temperatures result in more penetration of water, especially at 500 and 600°C.

Figure 13 Water permeability test results (a) residual depth of water penetration, (b) normalized water permeability.
Figure 13

Water permeability test results (a) residual depth of water penetration, (b) normalized water permeability.

3.4.2 At ambient temperature

Nano bentonite and NFA replaced cement in the test results, resulting in a decrease in water penetration. Because NBC and NFA have smaller particle sizes than conventional cement, the binder phase is packed tightly. As a result, there is less porosity. Consequently, water is less likely to soak into the concrete due to this reduction in porosity [19,84]. The reduction in water penetration depth as 2.8, 7.2, 13.8, 20, and 25.5% was registered for specimens S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 in comparison to control specimen.

3.4.3 At elevated temperature

For the control specimen, as the temperature was raised, increases in the penetration depth of water as 12, 20, 34, 54, and 74% were recorded in case of temperature exposure to 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. The specimen S2, which resulted in optimum mechanical resistance outcomes, showed an increase in the depth of water penetration by 8, 14, 26, 45, and 64% after temperature exposure of 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. However, maximum control on the water permeability was reflected by the specimen S5 with 2, 7, 17, 31, and 51% increases in the water permeability when high temperatures of 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C were applied to the specimens, respectively. The rapid evaporation of moisture increases, resulting in the porous concrete structure [85]. The micro-cracks change to macro-cracks owing to the distinctive thermal expansion of binder and filler materials in concrete, leading to higher water permeability of concrete specimens [86,87].

3.5 Mass loss

Mass loss of concrete makes a significant contribution to its durability evaluation. The mass of specimens with or without the utilization of NBC and NFA at normal temperature and after application of high temperature is presented in Figure 14.

Figure 14 Mass of specimens (a) residual mass, (b) normalized mass.
Figure 14

Mass of specimens (a) residual mass, (b) normalized mass.

3.5.1 At ambient temperature

It was demonstrated that the use of such nanomaterials increases the mass of specimens due to more dense structure. However, the mass of specimens was observed to decrease with an increment in the heating temperature [31,88]. The increment of 0.6, 1.1, 1.4, 1.6, and 1.9% in the weight of the concrete samples were observed for S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 samples in contrast to reference samples.

3.5.2 At elevated temperature

As the temperature increased from room temperature to 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, the loss in the mass of the specimens was determined as 2, 4, 7, 10, and 13%, respectively, for the control specimens. Similarly, for S2 specimens, the mass loss was obtained as 1.6, 3.2, 5.8, 8.4, and 11% after exposure to high temperature of about 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. Further, the sample S5 showed a greater reduction in the mass loss at 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8% while the temperature of exposure increased from standard normal temperature to 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. The reduction in mass at greater temperatures could be owing to the expulsion of chemically bound water, which is a component of cement hydration compounds and is extremely hard to disperse. This water leaks out of the concrete as the hydration compounds break down due to heating [52,83,89,90,91]. Concrete mass decreased as a consequence of the CSH gel’s dissolution, varied temperature stresses within the material, and the quick drying of the concrete. The weight of the concrete decreased after imposing high temperatures because the porousness of the concrete specimen increased and the bond between the cement mix and other elements was weakened [59,92].

3.6 UPV

An UPV experiment can be employed to evaluate the internal deterioration generated by raised temperatures in a concrete specimen. The UPV test outcomes for the specimens with and without NBC and NFA at elevated temperature exposure are presented in Figure 15.

Figure 15 UPV results (a) UPV values of specimens, (b) normalized UPV values.
Figure 15

UPV results (a) UPV values of specimens, (b) normalized UPV values.

3.6.1 At ambient temperature

The UPV values were found to be increased due to the substitution of NBC and NFA. The UPV values were increase by 4, 7, 9.5, 11.2, and 12.7% for the specimens S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5, respectively, in contrast to control specimen.

3.6.2 At elevated temperature

In Figure 15, when the temperature of the specimens was increased, the UPV decreased. For the reference specimen, the decrease in the UPV outcomes was registered as 9, 17, 28, 37, and 44% for the temperature exposure of 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C, respectively. Increasing temperature results in more internal damage of the test specimen, and reflected in an increase in the degree of damage [93]. The UPV outcomes decline significantly from 400 to 600°C owing to capillary water deprivation and ettringite drying. Further, for S2 specimens, reductions in the UPV results were obtained as 8, 16, 23, 31, and 39%. Similarly for the specimen, S5, the lowest reduction in UPV findings was 6, 11.9. 18.1, 24.1, and 30% was observed when high temperature of 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600°C was applied, respectively. Due to the expansion of fractures, weakening of the bonding among the aggregates, dissolution of the CSH gel, and quick loss of water, which gave rise to the generation of concrete’s porosity and the emergence of significant empty spaces, the pulse velocity decreased [12,51,87,94].

3.7 SEM

The thermal decomposition of concrete’s constituent materials causes it to undergo microstructural changes at high temperatures. The extent and nature of these changes depend on the temperature and duration of exposure. SEM analysis can characterize the microstructure of concrete after high-temperature treatment. Using SEM images, the morphology, size, and distribution of concrete components can be observed. A high-temperature analysis can also reveal the extent to which the microstructure has been damaged or degraded. Figure 16 illustrates the SEM images for the control concrete specimen (NC) and optimum strength concrete specimen (S2). The SEM images at ambient temperature, at the onset of elevated temperature (200°C) and at the peak temperature of 600°C was compared to get an idea of the behaviour of concrete specimens at lower and higher temperature range.

Figure 16 SEM images for concrete specimen (a) S0 (27°C), (b) S2 (27°C), (c) S0 (200°C), (d) S2 (200°C), (e) S0 (600°C), (f) S2 (600°C).
Figure 16

SEM images for concrete specimen (a) S0 (27°C), (b) S2 (27°C), (c) S0 (200°C), (d) S2 (200°C), (e) S0 (600°C), (f) S2 (600°C).

The SEM results of S2 are collected because they resulted in the optimum mechanical strength increase of the control specimen at almost all the temperature ranges. A concrete specimen at a normal temperature of 27°C has a tightly combined structure, is compact, and contains dense phases in both cases of concrete specimens. However, in the case of the control specimen at this stage, some undeveloped CSH and some void can be observed. Furthermore, there is a large amount of crystal water and gel present at this stage in the case of the S2 specimen with minor voids only and a well-consolidated matrix. When the sample is heated to 200°C, the control specimens are shown to have some major voids and some crack development. Water vaporizes and evaporates from internal free space as well as capillary spaces. C–S–H gel also loses adsorbed water through cement hydration, resulting in cement dehydration [70,95] and a dispersed structure was observed. In the case of S2 concrete specimen shows still a dense structure with minor disintegration of CH and some crack development at a temperature of 200°C. The concrete surface appears porous at temperatures of 600°C because a great deal of water is lost. Additionally, the concrete structure is destroyed, resulting in a non-homogeneous structure for the control specimen. It appears that the control specimens appear white and cracks appear on their surfaces at this temperature. As a result of further decomposition and loosening, the specimens show major voids at 600°C [92,96]. The Ca(OH)2 hydration byproduct turned dehydrated as a consequence of a spike in temperature since the water that was soaked by the CSH paste vaporized resulting in the disintegration of CSH paste in the case of the S2 specimen at a temperature of 600°C. The low-dense structure appeared in the SEM images with some voids at temperatures of 600°C along with CSH paste breakdown which led to a loss in mechanical strength [62,65]. Nonetheless, better post-fire performance was observed for the concrete specimens incorporating the NBC and NFA with fewer cracks and void development.

4 Conclusion

In the present investigation, the impact of NBC and NFA on the mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete specimens implemented at elevated temperatures was determined through an experimental program. Post the study, the salient points that were extracted from the study are listed below:

  • The mechanical strengths of the concrete samples recorded improved with the substitution of nano bentonite and NFA at room and elevated temperatures. The optimum content of NBC and NFA was determined to be 2%, and 20% at which better mechanical properties of the concrete was observed. However, further substitution of NBC and NFA beyond this limit gave rise to a decrease in the mechanical resistance.

  • At the elevated temperature, the mechanical strengths were observed to decrease. However, the specimen having 2% NBC and 20% NFA showed the highest residual mechanical strength as compared with other samples.

  • The water permeability of concrete specimens with NBC and NFA decreased due to the condensed and close-packed structure of such concrete specimens. Also, the loss of mass was less in the case of specimens with NBC and NFA. Due to the increase in mass, and less porous, compact, and dense structure, the UPV in the concrete samples also increased. However, as the temperature increased, decrease in the mass and UPV outcomes with a rise in permeability can be seen.

  • The substitution of NBC and NFA increases the compactness of concrete by filling the pore of concrete resulting in less crack formation at the lower temperatures of the range 200°C. However, as the temperature further increases, development of micro and some major fissures might be reflected on the concrete surface. The SEM analysis of the concrete specimen with optimum content of NBC and NFA also indicated that the microstructure of concrete gets improved owing to the addition of these nanomaterials. Owing to the disintegration of CSH gel and increase in the porosity, wide cracks and irregular structures were observed at temperature exposures of more than 400°C.

It was demonstrated in the above study that the use of NBC (2%) and NFA (20%) in the concrete can lead to an improvement in residual characteristics of concrete post the application of elevated temperatures up to 200°C. However, further increases in the temperature can result in the degradation of the residual characteristics, yet it showed better mechanical properties in contrast with the specimens without the use of such nanomaterials.

5 Future scope

Following are the future perspective of the study:

  • Long-term durability evaluation: Further research into the behaviour of the concrete composed of NBC and NFA under high-temperature exposure might be done by carrying out experiments such as freeze–thaw cycles, alkali-silica reaction, sulphate attack, carbonation resistance, etc.

  • Effect of curing methods: It is possible to investigate the effects of several curing processes, such as water curing, steam curing, or accelerated curing, on the characteristics of concrete prepared with NBC and NFA and heated to a high temperature.

  • Behaviour under various temperature regimes: The research may be expanded to examine the qualities of concrete containing NBC and NFA subjected to high-temperature regimes by replicating various fire exposure scenarios at varied temperatures and exposure times.

  • Environmental considerations: By examining energy consumption, carbon footprint, and life cycle assessments, research on the environmental impact and sustainability aspects of using NBC and NFA in concrete at elevated temperatures can be done. This will help researchers to comprehend the overall environmental advantages of these materials.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-05-02
Revised: 2023-09-14
Accepted: 2023-11-09
Published Online: 2023-12-31

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0162
Keywords for this article
nanomaterial; elevated temperature; residual properties; microstructure analysis
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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