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Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm

  • Mohammad Reza Karami , Babak Jaleh EMAIL logo , Mahtab Eslamipanah , Atefeh Nasri and Kyong Yop Rhee EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 21, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Microwave absorbers have many applications in medical, industrial, and military devices. Polymeric composites including carbon-based filler can be used as lightweight absorbers with high electromagnetic (EM) wave absorption performance. Hence, multilayer microwave absorbers were designed using titanium dioxide (TiO2)/reduced graphene oxide (RGO)/epoxy nanocomposites with different weight percentages manufactured using refluxing and annealing methods. The characterization of nanocomposite indicated thin layers of TiO2/RGO as divided sheets in epoxy. The EM properties of the nanocomposites were examined using the Nicolson-Ross-Weir (NRW) detection method. The S-parameters were measured using PNA-N5222A Microwave Network Analyzer. The multilayer absorber software was designed based on the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm by MATLAB software, in which the material and thickness of layers were optimized with two cost functions in X-band frequencies. The first cost function seeks to reach the best absorption bandwidth, and the second cost function seeks to reach the maximum average return loss (RL) of the frequency range of 8.2–12.4 GHz. A maximum bandwidth with an RL of less than −12.81 dB was obtained with a thickness of 2.4 mm. A maximum average RL of −22.1 dB was obtained with a thickness of 2.6 mm. The maximum absorption peak was observed with a thickness of 2.5 mm with −62.82 dB at a frequency of 10.86 GHz.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: graphene oxide; TiO2 nanoparticles; multilayer microwave absorber; particle swarm optimization algorithm

1 Introduction

Developing electronic devices such as wireless telecommunication, radar systems, and local networks has recently led to electromagnetic (EM) wave radiation at different frequencies. Although electronic devices can simplify human life, the EM wave radiation of these devices is a serious environmental problem because it can damage the surrounding electronic devices and harm human health. Hence, efficient approaches must be investigated to control EM pollution effectively [1,2]. In electronic devices, the interference effect of neighboring systems and unwanted internal reflections may create external noises that cause problems in their operation. Therefore, EM absorbers can control those problems by the undesired waves and interferences. Nowadays, EM absorbers have many applications in improving EM compatibility and EM interference problems. By removing unwanted waves, they reduce environmental pollution and improve the performance of electronic devices [3,4].

For this purpose, nanostructures have been introduced as EM wave absorbers. To achieve highly efficient EM absorbers, two significant steps can be followed [5–10]: (i) designing compounds with particular EM coefficients and (ii) creating the maximum impedance matching, which is obtained by calculating the optimal thickness and arrangement of the layers. This multilayer absorber has better performance than a single-layer absorber. The higher the impedance matching, the less the reflection from the outer layer, and the more power of the radiation wave entering the absorbing medium, and by passing through it, the possibility of EM wave absorption increases.

Conductive polymer-based composites, which consist of polymers and conductive fillers, have been widely used for EM removal because of their considerable properties of high flexibility, lightweight nature, compatibility, good chemical stability, and low-cost processing [11,12]. Epoxy resin is widely used in electronic devices because of its lightweight, thermal stability, mechanical features, simple processing, and corrosion resistance. It can be used as an affordable and available matrix to fabricate EM-absorbing materials [11–14]. Furthermore, polymeric composites with carbon-based fillers, such as carbon nanotubes, carbon black, and graphene, have exhibited excellent EM wave attenuation performance due to their unique electronic and mechanical features [15]. Carbon-based absorbing materials possess high complex permittivity values, outstanding thermal stability, and lightweight [16]. To attain affordable and light absorbers, graphene-based compounds are well known as promising candidates [17]. Graphene, which can be produced through facile chemical processing of graphite, is a two-dimensional lattice of single-layer carbon atoms. It is particularly attractive as an excellent EM wave-absorbing material, especially in its oxide forms, due to its high specific surface area and dielectric constant [18,19,20]. Graphene oxide (GO) is a graphene nanosheet decorated with oxygen functional groups, such as epoxy, hydroxyl, and carboxyl groups. GO sheets include hexagonal ring-based carbon network having both sp2 hybridized and sp3 hybridized carbons [21]. Reduced graphene oxide (RGO), fabricated by removing the oxygen groups of GO, has been introduced to improve EM absorption. This improvement in EM absorption is ascribed to the defects and functional groups [22,23,24]. Defects and functional groups can enhance impedance-matching characteristics and rapid energy transitions from contiguous states to the Fermi level. However, graphene materials are non-magnetic, and their EM absorption ability is due to their dielectric loss. In addition, the permittivity and permeability of graphene materials do not balance together, leading to bad impedance matching. The composition of graphene materials with other nanostructures can improve their absorption capability [13].

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a standard semiconductor metal oxide with wide applications due to its outstanding advantages such as nontoxicity, affordability, chemical stability, good dielectric properties, and high refractive index. It has a band gap of 3–3.2 eV and is available in three polymorphic crystalline forms: anatase, rutile, and brookite. Its low dielectric loss and high dielectric constant make it applicable as a nanofiller in a polymeric matrix for EM absorption [25–30].

The particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is a random optimization technique inspired by the social behavior of bird herding and fish training [31,32]. This population-based self-adaptive algorithm has been used for many system problems. Since the order and thickness of the layers are significant in multilayer absorbers and the change in each one causes a change in absorber’s performance, its optimization is critical. Multi-objective optimizers are used in designing and manufacturing multilayer absorbers, the most common of which are the genetic algorithm and PSO algorithm [7,33,34,35]. In this work, the modified local best particle swarm optimization (MLPSO) is used, a modified version of PSO, because it has high speed and accuracy and is easy to implement.

Hence, in this work, the TiO2/RGO was synthesized using refluxing and thermal reduction methods and then dispersed in epoxy resin as filler via the stirring method. The EM features of the as-prepared nanocomposites (the complex permittivity and permeability coefficients) were perused using the Nicolson-Ross-Weir (NRW) method of the ASTM D5568-14, in which the samples were placed in the rectangular waveguide setup. Their S-parameters in the microwave X-band frequency range (8.2–12.4 GHz) were measured by the PNA N5222A microwave network analyzer. The MLPSO algorithm was used to design a multilayer absorber, in which the material and thickness of layers were optimized with two cost functions in X-band frequencies. The optimal values of average return loss (RL) of −22.1 dB and absorption peak of −62.82 dB were acquired with the thickness of 2.6 and 2.5 mm, respectively. Figure 1 illustrates a flowchart of the design and optimization process of the multilayer absorber.

Figure 1 Flowchart showing the steps of design and optimization.
Figure 1

Flowchart showing the steps of design and optimization.

2 Experimental

2.1 Materials and instrumentation

Chemical materials (powdered flake graphite, sodium nitrate, sulfuric acid, and potassium permanganate) to synthesize GO with high purity were purchased from the Merck company. TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs), including biphasic anatase and rutile phases with a ratio of 80 to 20, were prepared from Degussa Co. (Germany). Epoxy resins with the commercial names resin 577 and hardener 567 were provided by the composite materials Co. (Turkish) supplier. X-ray diffraction (XRD, Italstructure, ADP200) patterns in 2θ degree range of 10–80° were performed to identify the crystalline phases present in the samples. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR, Thermo Nicolet) was performed to detect the functional groups of the sample. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, TSCAN) images were used to characterize the surface features and evaluate the morphological changes. The EM properties of the materials were calculated via an N5222A PNA Microwave Network Analyzer. Complex permittivity and permeability coefficients were calculated to measure the amount of reflection and transmission of microwave waves from the materials.

2.2 TiO2/RGO/epoxy nanocomposite fabrication

GO nanosheets were synthesized via the oxidation of graphite through Hummer’s method [36]. To fabricate the GO–TiO2 nanocomposite, 0.03 g of GO and 0.03 g of TiO2 NPs were separately dispersed in 100 ml of deionized water under sonication for 45 min to acquire homogenous suspensions. TiO2 suspension was then added to the GO suspension. The GO–TiO2 suspension was refluxed for 10 h at 80°C. An annealing method was used to prepare the RGO–TiO2 nanocomposite, in which the GO–TiO2 suspension was dried at 180°C for 3 hours. Different weight percentages of 7RGO:3TiO2, 3RGO:7TiO2, and 5RGO:5TiO2 were fabricated. These nanocomposites were added to epoxy resin with a specific weight ratio as shown in Table 1 to prepare TiO2-RGO-epoxy. The ingredients were mixed well for 20 min in 1.5 ml of ethanol using stirrer and poured into the mold. The samples were fabricated in a size of 10.1 × 22.8 × 3 and 10.1 × 22.8 × 2 mm3. Figure 2 illustrates the TiO2/RGO/epoxy nanocomposite preparation setup.

Table 1

Amount of material used for the preparation of TiO2/RGO/epoxy nanocomposite

Sample name TiO2 (mg) GO (mg) RGO (mg) Epoxy (mg)
S1 750 — — 750
S2 — 355 — 750
S3 — 750 — 750
S4 225 525 — 750
S5 375 375 — 750
S6 525 225 — 750
S7 525 — 225 750
S8 375 — 375 750
S9 225 — 525 750
Figure 2 Schematic of the preparation of (a) TiO2/RGO and (b) TiO2/RGO/epoxy nanocomposites.
Figure 2

Schematic of the preparation of (a) TiO2/RGO and (b) TiO2/RGO/epoxy nanocomposites.

2.3 MLPSO

The PSO is a population-based self-adaptive algorithm with inherent parallelism, introduced in 1995 by Kennedy and Eberhart [32]. It is a global random optimization technique inspired by the social behavior of bird flocking and fish schooling. Because PSO has high speed, good convergence, and easy implementation, this algorithm is widely used in different optimization problems. MLPSO is one of the versions of PSO that prevents premature convergence of PSO and increases its accuracy. This method divides society into several local groups that do not overlap. In PSO, the random solutions are particles with a velocity in the search space that fly through a hyper-dimensional search space. In addition, the velocity and position of each particle update based on its best position in the search space [33]. Each particle is considered a point of the D-dimensional search space, and the ith particle is introduced by x i = (x i1, x i2, …, x iD ). The best previous position and velocity of the ith particle are demonstrated as p i = (p i1, p i2, …, p iD ) and v i = (v i1, v i2, …, v iD ), respectively. The D-dimensional vector of p g = (p g1, p g2, …, p gD ) is shown to be the best particle in the population [37]. If the g index shows the best particle in the population, the velocity and position are acquired by the following equations [33,38]:

(1) v i ( d + 1 ) = ω v i ( d ) + c 1 r and ( p i ( d ) − x i ( d ) ) + c 2 r and ( p g ( d ) − x i ( d ) ) ,

(2) x i ( d + 1 ) = x i ( d ) + v i ( d + 1 ) ,

where v i (d) and x i (d) illustrate the velocity and position of the ith particle, respectively, rand is a uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 1, and ω is the inertia weight. At the same time, c 1 and c 2 have denominated acceleration constants. The PSO algorithm is based on two versions of the global neighborhood (g-best) and local neighborhood (l-best). The aforementioned equations describe the gbest version of the PSO. For the lbest version, p g (d) should be changed to p l(d). Although the PSO algorithm is facile and computationally effective, its efficiency is unsatisfactory in solving complex multimodal optimization problems. Hence, modifying the PSO algorithm can improve its efficiency [33].

Quick convergence in solving complex multimodal problems is the major imperfection of PSO-based algorithms. Local PSO spans a wider search space; however, it has slow convergence. An MLPSO solution has been presented to prevent local optimum traps in complex search environments, in which neighborhoods do not overlap. Therefore, trapping the particle of a neighborhood into a locally optimized problem will not affect the other neighborhoods. Furthermore, one particle can only trap via each local optimum, increasing the chance of finding a global optimum by population [33].

2.4 Transmission line theory

Transmission line theory clarifies the results in terms of the transmitted/reflected waves, which was used to describe the electrical properties of nanocomposites. When a microwave enters into a nanocomposite consisting of absorber materials, the RL value can be acquired through the transmission line theory by the following equation [39–43]:

(3) RL ( dB ) = 20 log ( Γ ) ,

(4) Γ = Z in − Z 0 Z in + Z 0 ,

(5) Z in = Z 0 μ r ε r tanh j 2 π df c μ r ε r ,

where Γ is the interface reflection coefficient, and Z in and Z 0 are the input impedance at the accessible space/nanocomposite interface and the intrinsic impedance of free space, respectively. In addition, μ r, ɛ r, and d are the complex relative permeability, complex relative permittivity, and thickness of the sample. f and c also show the microwave frequency and velocity of light in a vacuum. j is the complex constant (j = − 1 ). The microwave absorbent of a multilayer sample for normal incidence was calculated by the following equation [44,45]:

(6) z 1 = η 1 z 2 + η 1 tanh ( k 1 d 1 ) η 1 + z 2 tanh ( k 1 d 1 ) ,

(7) z n = η n z n + 1 + η n tanh ( k n d n ) η n + z n + 1 tanh ( k n d n ) ,

where Z n is the input impedance of the nth layer, and η n and k n are the impedance and propagation constant of the nth layer, respectively.

(8) η n = η 0 μ r n ε r n ,

(9) k n = j ω ( μ 0 ε 0 μ rn ε rn ) 1 / 2 = j 2 π λ μ rn ε rn ,

where ω and λ are the radian frequency and wavelength, respectively, and μ rn and ɛ rn are the complex relative permeability and complex relative permittivity of the nth layer, respectively. Accordingly, the multilayer absorbent possesses the RL as follows:

(10) RL ( dB ) = 20 log Z in ( n ) − Z 0 Z in ( n ) + Z 0

Figure 3 shows a brief explanation of the multilayer absorber configuration.

Figure 3 Multilayer absorber configuration.
Figure 3

Multilayer absorber configuration.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Materials’ characterization

XRD analysis was deployed to study the crystalline structure and phase composition. As shown in Figure 4, the samples’ XRD spectra confirm the nanocomposite’s successful formation.

Figure 4 XRD pattern of (a) epoxy, (b) TiO2/GO (30:70), (c) TiO2/RGO (30:70), and (d) TiO2/RGO/epoxy (30:70:50).
Figure 4

XRD pattern of (a) epoxy, (b) TiO2/GO (30:70), (c) TiO2/RGO (30:70), and (d) TiO2/RGO/epoxy (30:70:50).

The XRD spectrum of the pure epoxy presents a wide diffraction peak (Figure 4(a)), indicating the amorphous phase of the epoxy resin. Figure 4(b) show sharp peaks at 25.4°, 37.9°, 48.2°, 54°, 55°, 62.8°, 70.4°, and 75.3°, assigned to the anatase phase (81%) of TiO2. The diffraction peaks at 27.5° and 68.9° can be assigned to the rutile phase (19%), indicating that the main phase of TiO2 NPs is anatase [46]. The crystalline size of the TiO2 NPs is found to be 24.7 nm, calculated by Scherer’s formula and full width at half maximum of the (101) peak [47]. The peak at 10.9° (Figure 4(b)) is associated with the formation of the GO owing to graphite oxidation. There is a broad characteristic peak at 16–24.1°, which is attributed to the single layer of the RGO in the spectrum corresponding to the TiO2/RGO (30:70) (Figure 4(c)) [48,49,50]. Therefore, it can be concluded that the GO powder was incompletely converted to RGO. Moreover, the peaks of TiO2 NPs show lower intensity compared to the spectrum of TiO2/GO (Figure 4(b)) due to the immobilization of the RGO surface. Figure 3(d) presents the XRD pattern of TiO2/RGO/epoxy (30:70:50).

Figure 5 shows the FT-IR spectra of TiO2/GO and TiO2/RGO nanocomposites. A wideband appeared in the 855–440 cm−1 range, indicating stretching vibrations of Ti–O in Ti–O–Ti bands [51,52,53]. The different peaks appearing at 1,546 and 1,694 cm−1 correspond to the vibration mode of C═C and C═O of COOH groups, respectively. The vibration mode of C–O and C–OH also appears at 1,024 and 1,172 cm−1, respectively. In addition, two peaks at 2,900 and 2,835 cm−1 can be indexed as a C–H vibration [53,54]. A broad band at 3,670–2,980 cm−1 and a weak peak at 1,407 cm−1 are imputed to stretching vibrations of OH [55,56,57]. The FT-IR spectrum of TiO2/RGO nanocomposite presents weak peaks owing to the decomposition of GO bonds through the synthesis of RGO.

Figure 5 FT-IR spectra of TiO2/GO (30:70) and TiO2/RGO (30:70) nanocomposite.
Figure 5

FT-IR spectra of TiO2/GO (30:70) and TiO2/RGO (30:70) nanocomposite.

SEM analysis of cured epoxy composites was performed to determine the exfoliation and dispersion of TiO2 NPs, RGO, and TiO2/RGO nanocomposite in the matrix. Figure 6 shows the morphology of pure epoxy resin and TiO2/RGO/epoxy (30:70:50) in different magnifications. A smooth surface of pure epoxy can be clearly seen in Figure 6(a). Figure 6(b)–(d) reveals that TiO2/RGO forms thin layers as divided sheets with great dispersion in the epoxy matrix. Therefore, this nanofiller in the epoxy resin at 50 wt% can improve epoxy performance.

Figure 6 SEM images of (a) pure epoxy and (b)–(d) TiO2/RGO/epoxy (30:70:50) in different scales.
Figure 6

SEM images of (a) pure epoxy and (b)–(d) TiO2/RGO/epoxy (30:70:50) in different scales.

Furthermore, it is found that the roughness of cured composite epoxy is higher than that of cured pure epoxy and that the cured composite epoxy exhibits more irregular and coarse surface features.

3.2 EM properties of the TiO2/RGO/epoxy

The RL has strongly pertained to the μ r and ɛ r of the samples, which influence the impedance matching and attenuation characteristics. The microwave absorption features of the samples determine the impedance matching and attenuation characteristics. The impedance matching indicates if the microwave can transmit through the samples, and the attenuation characteristic is a factor for the evaluation of the ability of the samples toward the conversion of the microwave energy to heat dissipation [39]. Figure 7 shows the NRW method. This setup includes a pair of 3.5 mm coax-to-waveguide adapters, two coaxial cables with SMA connectors, two waveguide standard sections, an N5222A PNA microwave network analyzer, and a waveguide shim. The aperture dimensions of waveguides follow WR-90 rectangular waveguide size. The manufactured samples were placed in the rectangular aperture of the WR-90 waveguide and connected to an N5222A PNA Microwave Network Analyzer. Their S-parameters were measured in the 8.2 to 12.4 GHz frequency range. Therefore, their permittivity and permeability coefficients were calculated using the NRW formula [58] as follows:

(11) μ r * = μ ′ − j μ ″ = 2 π Λ k 0 2 − k c 2 1 + Γ 1 − Γ ,

(12) ε r * = ε ′ − j ε ″ = 1 μ r * k 0 2 4 π 2 Λ 2 + k c 2 ,

(13) Γ = X ± X 2 − 1 ,  

(14) X = S 11 2 − S 21 2 + 1 2 S 11 ,  

(15) T = S 11 + S 21 − Γ 1 − ( S 11 + S 21 ) Γ ,

(16) 1 Λ 2 = − 1 2 π ln ⁡ ( T ) 2 ,

where S ij is the scattering parameter of the 2-port microwave network; μ r * is the relative complex permeability of specimen, ε r * is the relative complex permittivity of specimen, k 0 = 2 π λ 0 is the wavenumber in free space, k c = 2 π a is the waveguide cutoff wavenumber (rad/m); a = 22.86 is the width of rectangular waveguide (m) , λ 0 = c 0 f is the wavelength in free space (m); c 0 is the speed of light in free space; and f is the measurement frequency (Hz).

Figure 7 Setup for measuring EM properties of samples by NRW method with microwave network analyzer.
Figure 7

Setup for measuring EM properties of samples by NRW method with microwave network analyzer.

The real (ɛ′ and μ′) and imaginary (ɛ″ and μ″) parts of ɛ r and μ r were calculated for the samples, as depicted in Figure 8. The real parts are related to energy storage. In contrast, the imaginary parts are attributed to energy loss for electric/magnetic fields. According to Figure 8(a) and (b), the TiO2/epoxy is a pure dielectric material and shows almost constant values over the whole frequency range. After the incorporation of the GO and TiO2 composition into the epoxy matrix, both ɛˊ and ɛˊˊ are slightly improved in the frequency range of 8.2–12.4 GHz compared with S1 and S2. However, increasing the TiO2 content leads to a reduction of the permittivity (S6 and S7). This means that a high TiO2 percentage leads to a reduction of the dielectric constants. The reduction of GO to RGO enhances both parts of permittivity, leading to the composition of TiO2, RGO, and epoxy being able to absorb more microwave energy. Adding the TiO2 and RGO causes more capacitance and increases dielectric constants [59]. Multiple polarization consisting of interfacial and dipole polarization and some remaining oxygen functional groups of GO improve the permittivity [60]. The annealing process improves the graphitization and conductivity of RGO, increasing the real and imaginary parts of the permittivity [61]. Figure 8(c) and (d) illustrates the real and imaginary parts of the permeability in the frequency range of 8.2–12.4 GHz, respectively. The μ ′ behavior of the samples showed almost constant values around 1 from 8.2 to 12.4 GHz. Among the samples, the maximal microwave magnetic loss value was achieved for S8 in the X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz) frequency. Dielectric loss (tan δ E = ɛ″/ɛ′) and magnetic loss (tan δ H = μ″/μ ′ ) are depicted in Figure 8(e) and (f). The highest tan δ E can be observed for S7 and S8 over the whole frequency range, suggesting that these specimens are more conducive to microwave absorption. Due to magnetic losses, all samples have low magnetic field attenuation. Therefore, the electric losses are the dominant properties of the proposed samples to design multilayer absorbers.

Figure 8 Frequency dependence of (a) and (b) complex permittivity, (c) and (d) complex permeability, (e) dielectric loss, and (f) magnetic loss of samples.
Figure 8

Frequency dependence of (a) and (b) complex permittivity, (c) and (d) complex permeability, (e) dielectric loss, and (f) magnetic loss of samples.

3.3 Transmission line method and impedance matching optimization

In the case of multilayer absorbers, the number of layers and the total thickness are determined as design constraints. However, the material arrangement and the layer thickness are the variables that create the statistical population. For example, if there are nine types of material to design a 3-layer absorber, the minimum thickness change step is considered equal to 0.1 mm, and the total thickness is determined to be 3 mm maximum, each point has six dimensions p i = (n 1, n 2, n 3, t 1, t 2, and t 3). The three primary dimensions are related to the type of material in each layer, each of which has nine possibilities. Furthermore, the other three dimensions are related to the thickness of each layer, which can vary between 0.1 and 3 mm. The RL is calculated for each point using the transmission line theory method in the X-band range for each frequency with a step of 0.01 GHz.

Moreover, the cost function 1 and 2 described below will determine the score of each point for subsequent comparisons. The optimization starts with 50 local groups of 5 people, which are randomly created, and according to the obtained results, the p-best, l-best, and g-best points are identified and stored, and then, they start their movement with the described speed and acceleration in the direction of l-best. In each step, p-best, l-best, and g-best are retrieved to identify the best. This operation is repeated until the points are concentrated in g-best, and after the desired convergence in enough iterations, the iteration loop can be ended. Moreover, finally, the best multilayer absorber and its performance will be reported in g-best. Two cost functions were defined as shown in the following: Cost function 1 (to achieve the maximum absorption bandwidth with the lowest RL):

(17) cos t i 1 ( n 1 . t 1 . n 2 . t 2 . ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ) = max { mi n i | Γ ( f i ) | } .

At each step with this cost function, the lowest RL value for each member in the entire frequency range is recorded. The best absorption occurs when cost function 1 is maximized. The maximum value recorded in cost1 is stored in p-best, the maximum value in each group is stored in l-best, and the maximum value in all groups is stored in g-best. According to the results recorded in p-best and l-best, the members move toward the target points with the acceleration and speed described previously, and new points are made. The new points are re-evaluated according to the cost function. Therefore, p-best, l-best, and g-best are updated. This iteration continues until the points converge toward g-best. Cost function 2 (to achieve the maximum average RL) was calculated as follows:

(18) cost 2 ( n 1 . t 1 . n 2 . t 2 . ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ) = ∑ i | Γ ( f i ) | ∑ i 1 .

In cost function 2, the average RL at all frequencies is calculated. Any member whose cost2 is higher has a higher value. Like cost function 1, the maximum value recorded in cost2 is stored in p-best, the maximum value in each group is stored in l-best, and the maximum value in all groups is stored in g-best. The rest of the steps will be repeated like cost1.

The cost function, total thickness, and the number of layers are given to the software as design limitations in each optimization. The number of absorption layers is chosen between 1 and 5. Also, the maximum total thickness was determined to be 2, 2.5, and 3 mm. Furthermore, the minimum thickness changes were considered to be 0.1 mm. The four components of permittivity and permeability of the samples are provided to the software as primary data. The cost functions 1 and 2 are used in optimization, as shown in Figure 9. Also, the total absorber thickness is considered to be between 2 and 3 mm. Furthermore, the number of layers is assumed to be between 1 and 5. Used materials and their thickness in optimum multilayer absorbers are listed in Tables 2–7; the arrangement of the layers from top to bottom indicates the order of the layers from the air side to the metal side.

Figure 9 Sample optimization by (a)–(c) cost function 1 and (d)–(f) cost function 2. (a) Cost1–2 mm, (b) Cost1–2.5 mm, (c) Cost1–3 mm, (d) Cost2–2 mm, (e) Cost2–2.5 mm, and (f) Cost2–3 mm.
Figure 9

Sample optimization by (a)–(c) cost function 1 and (d)–(f) cost function 2. (a) Cost1–2 mm, (b) Cost1–2.5 mm, (c) Cost1–3 mm, (d) Cost2–2 mm, (e) Cost2–2.5 mm, and (f) Cost2–3 mm.

Table 2

Samples optimized by cost function 1 with limitation of total thickness 2 mm and the number of layers from 1 to 5

N layers Material in layers Layer thickness (mm) Min RL (dB) Max RL (dB) Mean RL (dB) RL <−10 (dB) RL <−20 (dB)
1 Layer S8 1.7 −6.15 −9.98 −8.41 — —
Total thickness 1.7
2 Layers S8 0.5 −10.82 −18.41 −14.23 X band —
S6 1.5
Total thickness 2
3 Layers S8 0.5 −11.33 −18.89 −14.67 X band —
S1 0.2
S5 1.3
Total thickness 2
Table 3

Samples optimized by cost function 1 with limitation of total thickness 2.5 mm and the number of layers from 1 to 5

N layers Material in layers Layer thickness (mm) Min RL (dB) Max RL (dB) Mean RL (dB) RL< −10 (dB) RL< −20 (dB)
1 Layer S7 2.2 −8.07 −11.94 −-10.72 3.2 GHz —
Total thickness 2.2
2 Layers S8 0.8 −10.82 −21.15 −15.79 X band 0.3 GHz
S6 1.6
Total thickness 2.4
3 Layers S8 0.2 −12.35 −21.97 −16.1 X band 0.2 GHz
S7 0.4
S6 1.6
Total thickness 2.2
4 Layers S8 0.3 −12.81 −28.89 −18.59 X band 1.2 GHz
S1 0.9
S7 0.6
S6 0.6
Total thickness 2.4
Table 4

Samples optimized by cost function 1 with limitation of total thickness 3 mm and the number of layers from 1 to 5

N layer Material in layers Layer thickness (mm) Min RL (dB) Max RL (dB) Mean RL (dB) RL< −10 (dB) RL< −20 (dB)
2 Layers S2 1.1 −11.13 −21.93 −16.86 X band 0.7 GHz
S7 1.7
Total thickness 2.8
Table 5

Samples optimized by cost function 2 with limitation of total thickness 2 mm and the number of layers from 1 to 5

N layers Material in layers Layer thickness (mm) Min RL (dB) Max RL (dB) Mean RL (dB) RL< −10 (dB) RL< −20 (dB)
1 Layer S9 2 −5.13 −26.1 −15.14 3.2 GHz 1 GHz
Total thickness 2
2 Layers S9 1.3 −6.56 −62.65 −17.90 3.2 GHz 1.6 GHz
S1 0.7
Total thickness 2
Table 6

Samples optimized by cost function 2 with limitation of total thickness 2.5 mm and the number of layers from 1 to 5

N layers Material in layers Layer thickness (mm) Min RL (dB) Max RL (dB) Mean RL (dB) RL< −10 (dB) RL< −20 (dB)
1 Layer S5 2.5 −6.19 −38.55 −16.22 3.5 GHz 1.3 GHz
Total thickness 2.5
2 Layers S7 0.7 −7.59 −62.82 −20.54 3.4 GHz 1.8 GHz
S1 1.8
Total thickness 2.5
4 Layers S7 0.5 −7.44 −54.23 −21.66 3.2 GHz 1.6 GHz
S4 0.4
S1 1.4
S7 0.2
Total thickness 2.5
Table 7

Samples optimized by cost function 2 with limitation of total thickness 3 mm and the number of layers from 1 to 5

N layers Material in layers Layer thickness (mm) Min RL (dB) Max RL (dB) Mean RL (dB) RL< −10 (dB) RL< −20 (dB)
2 Layers S2 1.5 −8.41 −40.35 −21.03 4 GHz 2 GHz
S7 1.3
Total thickness 2.8
3 Layers S2 0.8 −6.80 −55.18 −22.1 3.5 GHz 1.7 GHz
S7 0.6
S3 1.2
Total thickness 2.6

Based on the optimization results, in a single-layer absorber design producer by cost1, sample S7 with a thickness of 2.2 mm has a maximum bandwidth of more than −8.07 dB RL compared to other specimens. For cost2, the maximum average RL equals −16.22 dB for sample S5 with a thickness of 2.5 mm. In our study, increasing the thickness did not improve absorption properties for the single-layer absorber design. In some multilayer absorber design processes, enhancing the number of layers improves absorber’s performance. It is shown in Table 3 that when the number of layers increases from 1 to 4, the performance of the designed absorber shows more improvement. Nevertheless, enhancing layer numbers does not improve absorption characteristics in most multilayer absorber design processes. In these cases, the presented optimization software calculates the thickness of one or more layers equal to zero values, as shown in Table 5. This table shows that when cost function 2 is used for optimizing multilayer absorber design with a maximum thickness of 2 mm limitation, a two-layer absorber with a thickness of 2 mm has the best performance, and introduced software automatically considers zero values for the thickness of other absorber layers. Also, the optimized multilayer absorbers, designed by developed software based on increasing the layer numbers and enhancing total thickness limitation, are stated in Tables 2–7. As indicated in Table 3, a 4-layer absorber with a thickness of 2.4 mm, which is designed based on cost function 1, has the best RL bandwidth of less than −12.81 dB compared to other introduced samples. Also, a 3-layer absorber with a thickness of 2.6 mm, which is designed based on cost function 2, has the best result of average RL of about −22.1 dB compared to other specimens, as shown in Table 7.

The material type and layer thickness of multilayer absorbers in optimization with the cost function 2 and the total thickness limitation of 2, 2.5, and 3 mm are summarized in Tables 5–7, respectively.

A comparison of the absorption performance of the synthesized nanocomposites with the reported materials is summarized in Table 8. According to reports, a superior ability to absorb microwave was observed compared with other reports, and the effective absorption was broadened to the whole X band.

Table 8

Comparison of the microwave-absorbing properties of different related composites or structures reported in the literature

Materials Matrix d (mm) Min RL (dB) Bandwidth (GHz) (<−10 dB) Ref.
TiO2/RGO Epoxy 2 −62.65 3.2 This work
TiO2/RGO Epoxy 2.5 −62.82 3.4 This work
GO-CNTs/epoxy foam Epoxy 3 −41.5 7.1 [62]
Carbon black and Ni0.6Zn0.4Fe2O4 Epoxy 2 −24 4.8 [63]
MXene/Fe3O4 Wax 2.6 −50.3 1.9 [64]
ZnO/RGO — 3.2 −67.13 7.44 [65]
[CaTiO3/ZnFe2O4]@C Epoxy 2 −22 7.2 [66]
Fe3O4/carbon fiber and Fe3O4/RGO Epoxy 2 −52 4 [67]

4 Conclusion

In this research, TiO2/RGO/epoxy nanocomposites with a different weight ratio were fabricated using a simple method of annealing followed by magnetic stirring. The SEM images of the nanocomposite exhibited good exfoliation and dispersion of TiO2/RGO as nanofiller in the epoxy resin. Investigation of the EM properties shows that the annealing process improves the graphitization and conductivity of RGO, increasing the real and imaginary parts of permittivity. The measurement of the EM properties of the prototypes shows small magnetic losses; then, the electric loss is the dominant property for designing of multilayer absorbers.

The optimization algorithm shows that multilayer absorbers perform better than single-layer absorbers with a certain thickness. With cost function 1, the performance of a single layer with a thickness of 2.2 mm, the minimum loss of −8.07 dB reached −12.81 dB in four layers with a thickness of 2.4 mm. With cost function 2, the single-layer absorption with a thickness of 2.5 mm, the average RL of −16.22 dB reached −22.1 dB in three layers with a thickness of 2.6 mm. Therefore, increasing the total thickness and number of layers is effective up to a range.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge from the Iranian Nano Council and Bu-Ali Sina University for the support of this work.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2022R1A2C1004437). It was also supported by the Korea government (MSIT) (2022M3J7A1062940). The authors also gratefully acknowledge the Iranian Nano Council and Bu-Ali Sina University for supporting this work.

  2. Author contributions: Mohammad Reza Karami: conceptualization, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, validation, formal analysis. Babak Jaleh: conceptualization, supervision, methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing. Mahtab Eslamipanah: methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, validation, investigation. Atefeh Nasri: methodology, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, validation, investigation. Kyong Yop Rhee: writing – original draft, review and editing. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Received: 2022-12-30
Revised: 2023-08-13
Accepted: 2023-08-21
Published Online: 2023-09-21

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0121
Keywords for this article
graphene oxide; TiO2 nanoparticles; multilayer microwave absorber; particle swarm optimization algorithm
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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