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Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite

  • Hanjing Zhu , Baohong Tian EMAIL logo , Yi Zhang EMAIL logo , Meng Zhou EMAIL logo , Yunzhang Li , Xianhua Zheng , Shengli Liang , Shuang Liu , Wenyu Sun , Yong Liu and Alex A. Volinsky
Published/Copyright: April 11, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

With the rapid development of the copper-based composite in the field of electrical contact material industry, the problem of poor arc erosion resistance of the copper-based material becomes more and more prominent. Improving the arc erosion resistance of the copper-based composite is an urgent problem to be solved. Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC electrical contact composites were prepared in a fast-hot-pressing sintering furnace. The microstructure and phase structure of the composites were analyzed by using a scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, and X-ray diffraction meter, respectively. The arc erosion properties of the composites at 25 V, DC and 10-30 A were investigated by using a JF04C electric contact tester. The mass loss of the composites was reduced by 77.8%, and the arc erosion rate was reduced by 79.6% after the addition of nano-yttrium oxide under the experimental conditions of 25 V, DC and 30 A. At the same time, the arc energy and welding force of the composite after switching operations decreased, indicating that the addition of nano-yttria improved the arc erosion resistance of the composite. This work provides a new method for improving the arc erosion resistance of the copper-based composite contact material.

Keywords: copper-based composite; nano-alumina particles; electrical contact; nano-yttria; 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC

1 Introduction

With the rapid development of the power industry, ultra-high-voltage, large capacity, and long-distance power transmission have gradually become the trend of energy-saving power transmission [1,2]. Vacuum high-voltage switchgear plays an important role in high-voltage power transmission apparatus and equipment [3,4]. Vacuum high-voltage switches are also called vacuum circuit breakers, and the key component is their contact material [5]. The performance of electrical contact materials directly affects the technical level of power generation, transmission, and transformation equipment [6]. Electrical contact refers to the physical and chemical phenomena in which two conductors contact each other and transmit current or signals through the contact interface [7]. Due to the limitation of its working environment, the contact material should have some basic characteristics: excellent electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity [8,9], low contact resistance and high temperature [10], excellent breaking ability [11], resistance to welding and environmental media pollution [12], and good physical and mechanical processing performance [13]. The traditional electrical contact material is silver-based composites, which have a high cost [14,15]. Therefore, all countries are committed to developing a variety of new electrical contact materials to meet the requirements.

Copper-based composite for electrical contact use appears in the public eye [16,17]. Copper (Cu) has excellent electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. In recent years, with the rapid development of copper-based composite, the copper–tungsten (Cu–W) series, copper–molybdenum (Cu–Mo) series, and copper–chromium (Cu–Cr) series as the mainstream have been gradually developed [18]. Molybdenum (Mo) has the characteristics of a high melting point and high hardness. Molybdenum can form an “artificial alloy” with copper. The Cu–Mo series composite is mainly used in vacuum switch tubes [19]. Biyik milled the powder containing 25 wt% Mo in a high-energy planetary-type ball mill to achieve homogeneously mixed Cu25Mo composite powder [20]. The nanocrystalline powder was obtained after ball milling for 30 h, which is helpful to improve the properties of composites. Alumina diffusion-reinforced copper (Cu-Al2O3) can greatly improve the strength of the substrate. The introduction of diffusely distributed alumina particles into the copper matrix can impede dislocation movement and inhibit recrystallization [21]. Cu-Al2O3 prepared by the internal oxidation process is widely used in electrical contact materials. For example, Wang et al. [22] investigated the effect of alumina particles on the deformation behavior of copper-based materials by the nano-indentation method. It was found that the displacement recovery ratio and elastic work ratio are 6 and 9% higher for the 5 wt% Cu-Al2O3 composite compared with the pure copper material, respectively. Hussain et al. [23] prepared the Cu-Al2O3 composite with different contents (0, 1%, 3%, and 5%) of alumina by the powder metallurgy method. It was found that with the increase of alumina content, the relative density, micro-hardness, friction, and wear resistance of the composites were significantly improved. Wagih et al. [24] prepared Cu-Al2O3/graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) coated silver nanocomposite with different GNP contents. The compressive strength and hardness of the composite increase by 88.1 and 55.2% with the increase of the GNP content, respectively. Silicon carbide (SiC) is the second particle of copper-based composite and it has great potential in the field of advanced electronic packaging material. The electric conductivity of the silicon carbide-reinforced copper-based composite does not decrease while the strength and high-temperature strength are improved. Akbarpour et al. [25] investigated the influence of the silicon carbide content on the microstructure, mechanical, and magnetic properties of the Cu(1-x)SiC (x = 0, 2, 10, and 15 wt%) composite powder. It was found that when the silicon carbide content is 15 wt%, the Vickers micro-hardness reaches a maximum value of 135.22 HV. Dong et al. [26] prepared the 15 vol% SiCnw/6061Al composite by the pressure infiltration method and found that this composite demonstrates high strength (over 1,000 MPa). Feng et al. [27] investigated the effect of SiC addition on the Al2O3/Cu composites and found that a small amount of SiC addition can improve the strength of the composites. At the same time, relevant studies have shown that the addition of some secondary additives (e.g., nano-yttria (Y2O3), boric oxide (B2O3), and cerium oxide (CeO2)) can limit the negative arc effect and prolong the contact life of electrical contact materials [28,29,30].

Rare earth metals have the ability to promote recrystallization, refine grains, strengthen the matrix, and possess high melting points and good stability [31,32]. Liu et al. [33] added Ce2O and graphene oxide (GO) to the copper–chromium (Cu–Cr) composite to prepare the GO-Cu/0.5Ce2O30Cr composite. The composite showed excellent electrical contact properties and anti-fusion welding properties. Liang et al. [34] introduced GO and Ce2O into the Cu30Cr10W composite contact material with excellent mechanical properties and welding resistance. As a typical rare earth metal oxide, nano-yttria has attracted extensive attention in recent years [35,36]. Nano-yttria is an ideal reinforcing phase for copper-based composite with excellent thermodynamic stability, wettability, and chemical stability [37,38,39]. Huang et al. [40] prepared the Cu–10 vol% Y2O3 nanocomposite by the traditional mechanical alloying (MA) method. The micro-hardness of the Cu–10 vol% Y2O3 nanocomposite reached 209.6 HV, with a compressive strength of 655 MPa and a plasticity of 33.4%. Huang et al. [41] found that the addition of yttrium oxide to the copper-based composite can refine its grain. At the same time, with the increase of the Y2O3 content, the relative density and Vickers hardness of the composite increased. Y2O3 shows an excellent reinforcing effect in copper-based electrical contact material. Mu et al. [42] found that the arc erosion resistance of composites was significantly improved after the addition of Y2O3. The contact resistances of the composite still kept a lower value after 20,000 switching operations.

At present, the commonly used methods for preparing particle-reinforced composites include the external forcing method and the internal autogenous method. The external strengthening method includes the powder metallurgy method [43] and MA [44]. The internal autogenetic method includes the in situ autogenetic method [45], internal oxidation method [46], and chemical coating on the particle surface [47]. The composite can show the best comprehensive performance by formulating the preparation process [48]. In the process of preparing composites by powder metallurgy, in order to improve the compactness and sintering shrinkage of mixed powder and to increase the density of composites, more liquid phase sintering components can be added to the alloy. The commonly used reinforcement is SiC [49,50], titanium carbide (TiC) [51], and boron nitride (BN) [52].

The above research status and the previous research work of our group [17] showed that the composites with the addition of 30 wt% refractory metals have more excellent comprehensive properties. The addition of a small amount of SiC can improve the performance of electrical contact materials without sacrificing the physical properties [27]. The addition of a small amount of Y2O3 can reduce the contact resistance of electrical contacts and exhibit superior electrical contact performance [42]. In this work, Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites were prepared by powder metallurgy and internal oxidation methods. The relative density, electrical conductivity, and Vickers hardness were measured. The microstructure and electrical contact properties, including the mass transfer, arc duration, arc time, and welding force, of the two composites were investigated, respectively.

2 Experimental details

2.1 Composite fabrication

The feedstock of the composite included the copper–0.2 wt% aluminum (Cu–0.2% Al) alloy powder with an average particle size of 37 μm, cuprous oxide (Cu2O) powder of 2–5 μm, molybdenum powder of 5–8 μm, silicon carbide powder of 3–5 μm, and nano-yttria powder of 50 nm. These powders were commercially available. The chemical composition of the Cu–0.2% Al alloy powder is shown in Table 1. The contents of trace impurity elements, iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) in the –0.2% Al alloy powder were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Table 2 shows the specific component content of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites; 30Mo represents 30 wt% Mo, 3SiC represents 3 wt% SiC, 0.5Y2O3 represents 0.5 wt% Y2O3, and the rest for Cu-Al2O3. The fabrication processing routine of the two composites is as follows (Figure 1). The Cu–0.2% Al alloy powders, cuprous oxide, molybdenum, silicon carbide, and nano-yttria powders with different mass percentages were put into a self-made ball grinding tank. The composite powders were ball milled. A traditional QQM/B light ball mill was used in the process of ball milling. The test parameters were set as follows: continuous ball milling for 4 h, rotating speed of 50 rpm, and the ratio of composite powders and copper balls was 1:3. No coolant was used during ball milling to maintain the original morphology of the powders. A certain amount of composite powders after ball milling was weighed and placed in a graphite grinding tool. A layer of graphite paper was wrapped in the inner ring of the graphite abrasive in order to avoid powders sticking on the graphite wall. The graphite grinding tool was sintered in a fast hot press sintering furnace (FHP-828). The vacuum degree in the furnace was controlled below 10 Pa, the sintering pressure was 45 MPa, and the heating rate was 100°C/min. The sintering process was divided into three stages: the sintering temperature was set to 700°C, held for 10 min, and then continued to heat up to 950°C and held for 10 min; finally the composite was took out when the temperature in the furnace cooled to 100°C.

Table 1

Chemical composition of the Cu–0.2% Al alloy powder (wt%)

Elements Fe Al Zn Sn Pb Ni
Mass percent 0.004522 0.242343 0.000536 0.021612 0.000776 0.00117
Table 2

Composition of copper-based composites (wt%)

Composites Cu-0.2% Al Mo SiC Cu2O Y2O3
Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC 65.2 30 3 1.8 /
0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC 64.7 30 3 1.8 0.5
Figure 1 Schematic illustration of the preparation process of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites.
Figure 1

Schematic illustration of the preparation process of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites.

2.2 Mechanical and physical properties

In order to avoid the influence of surface and roughness on the basic properties, the sintered composite ingots were polished with sandpaper of different grit sizes and then mechanically polished with W 0.5 diamond abrasive paste. The following basic properties tests were performed on the composites after the above operations. Eight measurements were taken for each composite ingot using a Sigma 2008 B1 digital conductivity meter and the average was taken. The actual density of the composites was determined with a hydrostatic balance (MS105) using deionized water under 21°C as the liquid medium. The relative density of the composites was calculated according to the principle of Archimedes’ drainage method. The Vickers hardness of the composites was measured with an HV-1000 microhardness tester, and each composite was measured eight times and averaged. The test force was 50 g with a loading time of 10 s.

2.3 Microstructure characterization

The original powder, composite powder, and microscopic morphology after arc erosion were observed under a scanning electron microscope (SEM, JSM-IT100). The signal source of the SEM was a secondary electron with an acceleration voltage of 20 kV, a working distance of 11 mm, and a probing current of 50 nA. The composite samples used in SEM were polished to 2,000 mesh with sandpaper. Mirror polishing was carried out with the W 0.5 diamond scrub cream.

The surface morphology of sintered and arc erosion composites was observed under a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, JEOL JSM-7800F). The elemental distribution on the surface of the composites after sintering and arc erosion was analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS, 20 mm2 X-MaxN Silicon Drift Detector) with a FESEM. FESEM was performed with accelerating voltages ranging from 0.01 to 30 kV and a probing current of 200 nA (15 kV).

The crystal structure of the composite powder and sintered composites were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD, D8 advanced X). XRD tests were performed using copper Kα radiation, operating at 40 kV and 40 mA, with a step size of 0.2° and a scan range (2θ) of 30–92°.

The dislocation structure and microstructure of different phases were characterized by transmission electron microscopy (TEM, FEI Talos F200X). The microscope used worked below 200 kV. The composite samples used for TEM with 500 μm in thickness sheets need to be manually polished to about 100 μm and then ion thinning. Ion thinning was performed on a Gatan 695 ion thinning instrument. A starting voltage of 5 keV and an ion gun angle of ±8° were used for trenching and initial thinning, and the electron gun angle was reduced to 4.5 keV ±6° for 5 min of thinning, 4 keV ±4° for 5 min of thinning, and 5 min of thinning at 3 keV ±3° to obtain TEM samples.

2.4 Arc-erosion tests

Cylindrical composite samples with 3.8 mm in diameter and 10 mm in height were used as the anode and cathode of the electrical contact test. To ensure the accuracy of the experimental data, the samples were manually polished and mechanically polished with a W 0.5 diamond scrub cream before the test. The masses of the composites before and after electrical contact were weighed with an electronic balance (FA2004B), and each composite was weighed five times to obtain the average value. The change in the mass of the composites before and after the electrical contact test was expressed as ∆m as follows:

(1) ∆ m = m e − m b ,

where m e represents the composite mass after the switching operations and m b represents the composite mass before the switching operations.

The arc erosion experiment was carried out after 5,000 switching operations on a JF04C electrical contact experimental device. The moving contact was the anode and the static contact was the cathode. The test voltage was 25 V, DC, and the currents were 10, 20, 25, and 30 A, respectively. The contact force was maintained between 40 and 60 cN.

The model three-dimensional (3-D) morphology of the cathode and anode after the electric contact experiment was characterized by a nano focusing 3-D topography instrument.

3 Results

3.1 Microstructure

The original powder morphology of Cu–0.2% Al, molybdenum, silicon carbide, and cuprous oxide are shown in Figure 2. It was found that the Cu–0.2% Al alloy particles, molybdenum particles, and cuprous oxide particles were generally spherical, while the morphology of silicon carbide particles had irregular sharp shapes with a wide range of size. The morphology of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite powders after ball milling are shown in Figure 2(e) and (f). It can be found that the different particles in the composite powder were uniformly distributed when the ball/material ratio during the ball milling process was 3:1. The morphology of the various powders did not change significantly before and after ball milling. The spherical shape of the particles can ensure that the composites maintain better flowability during the sintering process, which is conducive to improving the relative density of the composites.

Figure 2 SEM images of feedstock and composite powders: (a) Cu-0.2% Al alloy, (b) molybdenum, (c) silicon carbide, (d) cuprous oxide, (e) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, and (f) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite.
Figure 2

SEM images of feedstock and composite powders: (a) Cu-0.2% Al alloy, (b) molybdenum, (c) silicon carbide, (d) cuprous oxide, (e) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, and (f) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite.

The XRD analysis results of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC powders and as sintered composites are shown in Figure 3. From Figure 3(a) and (b), it can be seen that the (111), (200), (220), (311) diffraction peaks of the copper matrix are higher than the (110), (200), (211), (220) diffraction peaks of the main strengthening phase molybdenum, irrespective of the composite powder before sintering or the compact body after sintering, although molybdenum also has a higher diffraction peak. Interestingly, it is found that small diffraction peaks have changed between 35° and 40° as shown in Figure 3(c) and (d). The results indicate that the reaction of Cu2O is complete after sintering. Other particles are not shown in the XRD spectrum as small amounts were added.

Figure 3 XRD spectrum of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC powders and as sintered composites. (a and c) XRD spectrum of composite powders as milled and (b and d) XRD spectrum of composites as sintered.
Figure 3

XRD spectrum of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC powders and as sintered composites. (a and c) XRD spectrum of composite powders as milled and (b and d) XRD spectrum of composites as sintered.

Figure 4 shows the microstructures and EDS results of sintered Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites, respectively. Molybdenum particles, silicon carbide particles, and nano-yttria particles were evenly distributed on the copper base without obvious agglomeration, pores, and other defects, as shown in Figure 4(a)–(d). From the line scanning EDS results of molybdenum particles and silicon carbide particles, the copper base was closely combined with the main reinforcing particles, as shown in Figure 4(f) and (g). Figure 4(e) and (h) shows the EDS data of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites.

Figure 4 SEM images and EDS maps of as-sintered composites. (a, b, f) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, (c, d, g) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, (e) EDS map data of two composites, and (h) EDS lines data of the two composites.
Figure 4

SEM images and EDS maps of as-sintered composites. (a, b, f) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, (c, d, g) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, (e) EDS map data of two composites, and (h) EDS lines data of the two composites.

Figure 5 shows the TEM, HRTEM images, and EDS point sweep data of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. A large number of alumina nanoparticles were formed in situ in the composite and evenly distributed on the copper matrix, as shown in Figure 5(a) and (g). Figure 5(b) shows the HRTEM image of the part area of Figure 5(a). Figure 5(c)–(e) shows the point scan data of the corresponding areas in Figure 5(a) and (b); so it is evident that area A1 is of the MoC particle, area B1 is of the copper base, and area C1 is of the silicon carbide particle. The formation of the hard-phase MoC particles facilitates the improvement of the mechanical properties of composites. In Figure 5(f), it can be determined by fast Fourier transform that the internal oxidation process generated γ-alumina. In Figure 5(g), alumina nanoparticles are dispersed on the copper base, pinning dislocations and causing dislocation tangling. The size of these alumina particles is about 5–20 nm and the spacing is about 25–60 nm. Nano-dispersed particles and spacing can act as a source of dislocations and increase the dislocation density of the substrate during cold deformation, which hinders the dislocation and grain boundary motion. When a large number of nanoparticles are dispersed on the copper matrix, they will nail dislocations and form dislocation stacking and high-density dislocations. The high-density dislocations are interwoven to further form dislocation units, thus acting as dispersion reinforcement and improving the high-temperature performance of the contact. Figure 5(h) shows some high-density dislocations and dislocation cells.

Figure 5 TEM and HRTEM images and EDS of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. (a, b, g, h) HRTEM images, (b) HRTEM image of the part area of (a), (c) EDS point of A1 of (b), (d) EDS point of B1 of (b), (e) EDS point of C1 of (a), and (f) selected area electron diffraction pattern and indexing of alumina nano-particles of D1 of (a).
Figure 5

TEM and HRTEM images and EDS of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. (a, b, g, h) HRTEM images, (b) HRTEM image of the part area of (a), (c) EDS point of A1 of (b), (d) EDS point of B1 of (b), (e) EDS point of C1 of (a), and (f) selected area electron diffraction pattern and indexing of alumina nano-particles of D1 of (a).

3.2 Mechanical and physical properties

The relative density, electrical conductivity, and microhardness of the two composites are shown in Table 3. The relative density of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite was only 97.14% before the addition of nano-yttria, and the relative density of 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite could reach more than 98% after the addition of nano-yttria. Spherical nanoparticles of nano-yttria have good mobility, and can be evenly distributed in the copper matrix [53]. In the sintering process of the composite material, the pores generated by the accumulation of matrix particles can be filled. The relative density of composites is increased. Compared with the composites without nano-yttria, the electrical conductivity of the composites with nano-yttria is improved. This is mainly because the electrons are less hindered from moving while there are fewer pores in the composite material while moving. When the scattering of electrons by pores decreases, the resistance inside the composite decreases and the conductivity increases. Nano-yttria has good thermal stability and does not grow during the sintering process [54]. Meanwhile, nano-yttria can inhibit the growth of copper grains since it is often distributed around grain boundaries. Thus, it acts as a fine-grained reinforcement [55]. These factors promote the increase of microhardness of composites.

Table 3

Physical and mechanical properties of copper-based composites

Composites Theoretical density/g cm−3 True density/g cm−3 Relative density/% Electrical conductivity/% IACS Vickers hardness/HV
Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC 8.70 8.45 97.14 50.75 194
0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC 8.67 8.54 98.46 51.59 206

3.3 Mass transfer of electrodes

When the contact electrodes repeatedly open and close the circuit, erosion, and wear will occur. Meanwhile, some phenomena such as metal-liquid bridging arcing and spark discharge will occur. Metal transfer, splashing and vaporization, and mass loss and deformation occur on both sides of the electrode. It seriously affects the service life of the contact. However, the existing weigh test methods cannot accurately measure the erosion of composite; therefore, the mass transfer of contacts is often used to measure the severity of the material loss [56].

Figure 6 shows the mass change of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites after 5,000 times switching operations under 25 V, DC and 10–30 A test conditions, respectively. It can be seen from Figure 6 that the mass of the two composites shows a trend of the mass increase of the anode and mass loss of the cathode, indicating the phenomenon of cathode material transfer to the anode. The mass of the cathode and anode of composites gradually increase while the current increases from 10 to 30 A. The mass loss of the cathode and anode of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is generally lower than that of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite without the addition of nano-yttria, which shows that the addition of nano-yttria improves the arc erosion resistance of the composition. The density, electrical conductivity, and microhardness of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite are improved to a certain extent after the addition of nano-yttria. The structure of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is more compact, which reduces the mass loss of the contact poles during the switching operations. The increase of electrical conductivity is beneficial to the current transmission of the composite contact material during the switching operation. The increase in the current transfer efficiency facilitates the improvement of the composite material’s ability to resist arc erosion. It is found that the total mass change of the two composites is negative, indicating that a few materials are lost during the test. Interestingly, the mass loss of the composite was reduced by 77.8% when the current intensity reached 30 A. The mass loss of the composite material is mainly due to material migration or evaporation [57]. There is a less mass loss in this experiment compared to the work of Liang et al. [34]. This may be due to the formation of a high melting point molybdenum skeleton on the contact surface during arc erosion. These molybdenum skeletons are difficult to evaporate and vaporize.

Figure 6 Mass change under 25 V, DC and 10–30 A test condition of composites. (a) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC electrical contact and (b) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC electrical contact.
Figure 6

Mass change under 25 V, DC and 10–30 A test condition of composites. (a) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC electrical contact and (b) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC electrical contact.

3.4 Arc erosion morphology

Due to the arc heat flow input and arc force during the test of the contact material, the contact material will separate from the contact body in the form of evaporation, liquid splashing, or solid falling off. Arc erosion is the main form of contact material loss.

Figure 7 shows the erosion morphology of the contact surface of the composite after 5,000 switching operations under 25 V, DC and 30 A. Figure 7(a) and (b) shows the anode and cathode arc erosion morphology of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, respectively, whereas Figure 7(c) and (d) shows that of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, respectively. Figure 7(e)–(h) represents the partially enlarged view of the ablation morphology of the two composites, showing typical arc erosion morphology such as the reticular skeleton, droplet, bulge, pore, paste peak, and coral structure.

Figure 7 SEM images showing arc-eroded surface morphologies up to 5,000 switching operations at currents up to 30 A. (a, b, e, f) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and (c, d, g, h) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC.
Figure 7

SEM images showing arc-eroded surface morphologies up to 5,000 switching operations at currents up to 30 A. (a, b, e, f) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and (c, d, g, h) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC.

Figure 8 shows the 3-D arc erosion surface morphology of the composite after 5,000 switching operations at 25 V, DC and 30 A. The scanning range is 1,600 mm × 1,600 mm. Figure 8(a) and (b) shows the 3-D morphology of the anode and cathode of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, respectively, whereas Figure 8(c) and (d) show that of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, respectively. It can be seen from the diagram that after 5,000 switching operations, the anode surface is convex and the cathode surface is concave. There were many mountain-like protrusions on the anode surface and many canyon-like pits on the cathode surface, indicating that the material on the electrode surface migrated from the cathode to the anode.

Figure 8 3-D surface morphology of composites operating at 25 V, DC and 30 A. (a and b) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and (c and d) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC.
Figure 8

3-D surface morphology of composites operating at 25 V, DC and 30 A. (a and b) Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and (c and d) 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC.

In order to explore the element distribution on the electrode surface after arc erosion, the element distribution on the electrode surface is further analyzed by EDS, as shown in Figure 9. The droplet-like material is mainly composed of copper. Copper has a low melting point and could be spattered in the form of droplets during electrical contact. The droplets rapidly cool in the air to form copper balls. Molybdenum has a relatively high melting point. It realizes rapid solidification in an argon environment after melting, which mainly forms the network skeleton in the eroded surface morphology. At the same time, in addition to the copper base, the nano-yttria, alumina, and silicon carbide are also redistributed on the skeleton, which indicates that in the process of the electrical contact, the surface achieves a redistribution of elements.

Figure 9 EDS element maps after the electric contact experiment of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite operation at 25 V, DC and 30 A. (a, i) BSE images, (b) Cu Kα1, (c) Mo Lα1, (d) Al Kα1, (e) C Kα1-2, (f) Si Kα1, (g) Y Lα1, (h) O Kα1, (j) dot scan of point one of (i), and (k) dot scan of point two of (i).
Figure 9

EDS element maps after the electric contact experiment of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite operation at 25 V, DC and 30 A. (a, i) BSE images, (b) Cu Kα1, (c) Mo Lα1, (d) Al Kα1, (e) C Kα1-2, (f) Si Kα1, (g) Y Lα1, (h) O Kα1, (j) dot scan of point one of (i), and (k) dot scan of point two of (i).

3.5 Arc duration and energy

The main form of arc erosion is the evaporation and splashing of the contact material due to local overheating under the action of the arc, resulting in material loss. Arc erosion is the most important factor affecting the contact life of the switchgear [58]. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the arc duration and arc energy during arc erosion.

The arc current, contact material, contact surface condition, and contact separation speed will affect the arcing duration [59,60]. This work focuses on the variation of arc duration for different contact materials after 5,000 contact tests at 25 V, DC and 30 A. Figure 10(a) and (b) shows the variation rule of arc duration and arc energy with contact times. The arcing duration of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite shows an upward trend at about 1,300 times, a downward trend at about 1,700 times, and then it is in a stable state. While the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite shows an upward trend at about 700 times and a downward trend at about 1,000 times, and then shows a steady state. With the increase of contact times, the arc burning time of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is shorter and more stable than that of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. Comparing Figure 10(a) and (b), it can be seen that the arc duration and arc energy of the contact material show a similar change trend, indicating that the arc duration and arc energy may show a certain linear relationship. Therefore, the scatter diagram of the corresponding relationship between arcing duration and arcing energy of the two composites was plotted, and the fitting equations were established. Figure 10(c) and (d) shows the fitting curve of arcing duration and arcing energy of the two composites. It can be seen that there is a certain linear relationship between arcing duration and arcing energy of the two composites. After fitting the data, the results are as follows:

(2) E 1 = 75 . 74 t − 11 . 42 R 2 = 0 . 99 ,

(3) E 2 = 67 . 41 t − 6 . 71 R 2 = 0 . 99 .

Figure 10 Relationship of the arc energy, the arc duration, and operation times of the two composites at 25 V, DC and 30 A. (a) Variation of arc duration of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites with operation times, (b) variation of arc energy of the two composites with operation times, (c) relationship between arc duration and arcing energy of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, and (d) relationship between arc duration and arc energy of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite.
Figure 10

Relationship of the arc energy, the arc duration, and operation times of the two composites at 25 V, DC and 30 A. (a) Variation of arc duration of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites with operation times, (b) variation of arc energy of the two composites with operation times, (c) relationship between arc duration and arcing energy of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, and (d) relationship between arc duration and arc energy of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite.

Equation (2) is the fitting equation of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, and equation (3) is that of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. It can be seen from the above equations that under the condition of 25 V, DC and 30 A, when the arc duration is greater than 0.57 ms, the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite has a shorter average arc duration than the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. This is consistent with the results of Zhang et al. [17]. However, the arc burning energy decreased with a short arc duration due to the addition of nano-yttria in this experiment. This is mainly because nano-yttria has a high melting point and good chemical stability. At the same time, owing to the good high-temperature stability of nano-yttria, it stably exists in the copper base in the process of powder metallurgy [61], which prevents the abnormal growth of grains, and effectively improves the arc erosion resistance of the composite. Therefore, the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite has better arc extinguishing ability.

3.6 Arc erosion rates

The form of arc erosion generally varies with different materials and current conditions [62]. The electrode surface of the contact material mainly vaporizes when the current passing through the test is small. When the current increases, not only the gasification and evaporation of the material but also the splashing of liquid metals occurs. The strong droplet splashing will become the main form of contact material erosion when the current is further increased. Therefore, a large number of droplets appear on the electrode surface at 25 V, DC and 30 A in this work, as shown in Figure 7. The arc erosion rate is an important parameter in characterizing the arc erosion of the contact material, i.e., the ratio of the material weight or volume loss to some characteristic value. Generally, the amount of material erosion per unit of arc energy φ is used as the erosion rate:

(4) φ = ∆ m / W ,

where ∆m represents the mass change before and after erosion and W represents the arc energy.

At 25 V, DC and 30 A, 5,000 switching operations were carried out on the two composites, and their mass loss and arc energy change were discussed as examples:

(5) φ 1 = ∆ m 1 / W 1 = 4 . 95 × 10 − 7 g / J ,

(6) φ 2 = ∆ m 2 / W 2 = 1 . 01 × 10 − 7 g / J ,

where φ 1 , ∆ m 1 , and W 1 represent the erosion rate, the mass change before and after erosion, and the total arc energy, respectively, of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. φ 2 , ∆ m 2 , and W 2 are the erosion rate composite, the mass change before and after erosion, and the total arc energy, respectively, of 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC. At 25 V, DC and 30 A, the arc erosion rate of the composites decreased by 10.45% after the addition of nano-yttria. It also shows that the arc erosion resistance of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite improves to a great extent by the addition of a small amount of nano-yttria.

3.7 Welding force

In the process of the electrical contact test, the electrical contacts of the cathode and anode are continuously and repeatedly opened and closed. A contact force of 40–60 cN is applied between the cathode and anode in this work. Liquid metal bridging and melting to a certain extent will occur between the contacts under this contact force. It is the welding process of the contact material. The welding force is the force required to separate two fused contacts. However, welding of the contact material will seriously damage the service life of contacts, so it is necessary to reduce the welding force to improve the service life of the contact material. To improve the comprehensive performance of contacts, the most effective measure is to increase the anti-fusion weldability of contacts besides improving the breaking operation force of contacts. The main ways include improving the electrical conductivity and heat transfer characteristics of the contact, increasing the melting point and hot melting, and reducing the fusion welding force of the contact material.

Figure 11 shows the relationship between the welding force of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites and the operation times of contact disconnections during the electrical contact test at 25 V, DC and 10 A and 25 V, DC and 30 A, respectively. Each data point represents the average value of 100 cycles. It can be seen from Figure 11 that the welding force tends to stabilize as the number of operations increases. Assuming that the tensile strength at the welding position is equal to that of the contact material, the welding force depends on the current-carrying contact area and the tensile strength of the contact material:

(7) F = σ S ,

where F is the welding force, σ is the tensile strength, and S is the current-carrying contact surface area.

Figure 11 Relationship between the welding force and operation times of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites: (a) 25 V, DC and 10 A and (b) 25 V, DC and 30 A.
Figure 11

Relationship between the welding force and operation times of Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites: (a) 25 V, DC and 10 A and (b) 25 V, DC and 30 A.

It can be seen from Figure 11 that the welding force of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is generally lower than that of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. The calculation result shows that the average welding force of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is about 38.06 cN, and that of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is about 34.40 cN at 25 V, DC and 10 A. The average welding force of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is about 38.20 cN and that of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is about 36.76 cN at 25 V, DC and 30 A. It can be found that the average welding force of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite is slightly lower than that of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. This shows that the addition of nano-yttria can reduce the welding force and improve the welding resistance of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. The main reason is that the conductivity, density, and microhardness of the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite are better after the addition of nano-yttria. These improvements synergistically acted on the fusion welding resistance of the Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite. Simultaneously, the affinity of nano-yttria particles to Cu is small. Nano-yttria particles were dispersed in the 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite, which reduced the fluidity of copper in the composites. It is difficult to splash copper droplets during an electrical contact. Also, it is difficult for the welding process to proceed smoothly when the droplets are not splashed, which reduced the welding force. The results of Mu et al. [42] also showed that the addition of yttria can reduce the welding force of the material.

4 Conclusion

  1. The Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC and 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composites were prepared by fast-hot-pressing sintering technology combined with the internal oxidation method. TEM analysis indicates that the alumina nanoparticles disperse on the copper base.

  2. The relative density of the composite reaches more than 98%, and the microhardness reaches 208 HV after the addition of nano-yttria nanoparticles. This is mainly due to the dispersion distribution of nano-yttria nanoparticles and alumina nano precipitate during sintering and the internal oxidation process.

  3. Under the experimental conditions of 25 V, DC and 10–30  A, the mass of the cathode decreases, the mass of the anode increases, and the total mass change increases. The addition of nano-yttria improves the mechanical and physical properties of composites. These improved properties reduce the loss of the material during the electrical contact and decrease the fusion force of the composite.

  4. By characterizing the element distribution on the electrode surface before and after the electrical contact test, it can be found that the element distribution on the electrode surface changes significantly before and after the electrical contact, which shows that the element redistribution occurs during the process of the electrical contact.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52071134), the Program for Innovative Research Team at the University of Henan Province (22IRTSTHN001), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2020M682316, 2021T140779), Scientific Research and Development Special Project of Henan Academy of Sciences (220910009), and Key R & D and promotion projects in Henan Province (212102210117).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2022-10-03
Revised: 2023-02-15
Accepted: 2023-03-08
Published Online: 2023-04-11

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2022-0532
Keywords for this article
copper-based composite; nano-alumina particles; electrical contact; nano-yttria; 0.5Y2O3/Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
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