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Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment

  • Jia Su , Peng Zhang EMAIL logo , Jinjun Guo and Yuanxun Zheng
Published/Copyright: November 2, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Marine engineering structures are often faced with complex environmental factors. It is the focus of current research to modify cement-based composites (CBCs) to achieve their high durability in complex environments such as seawater. In this study, the effect of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers on durability of nano-SiO2 (NS)-reinforced cement-based composites was investigated by simulating seawater environment and taking PVA fiber content as variable. In addition, based on the Weibull probability distribution model, the damage degree of NS and PVA fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (NFRCCs) subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment (WTCSE) after 300 freeze–thawing cycles (FTCs) was predicted. The test results demonstrated that the NFRCC exhibited the most excellent durability subjected to WTCSE when the content of PVA fibers was 1.2%. Compared with the reference group only doped with NS subjected to WTCSE, its impermeability pressure increased by 150%, the chloride ion electric flux decreased by 31.71%, the compressive strength loss rate decreased by 19.00% after 125 FTC, and the compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficient of chloride salt erosion increased by 9.15% after 25 wetting–drying cycles. The predicted results of the Weibull probability distribution model indicated that the damage degree of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE after 300 FTC would not exceed 0.35. The microscopic test analysis showed that the incorporation of PVA fibers reduced the proportion of large pores and the overall porosity of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE. PVA fibers bridged microcracks while adsorbing NS and its hydration products, thus enhancing the adhesion of the substrate. This study provides a reference for the research of high-performance CBC in complex environment.

Keywords: cement-based composites; PVA fibers; nano-SiO2 ; coupled environment; durability; microstructure

1 Introduction

With the consumption of inland resources and the vigorous development of coastal areas, the ocean has become a new target of development and utilization in the field of construction engineering because of its extremely rich resources. A series of ocean engineering projects such as underwater tunnels, ports, and cross-sea bridges have developed rapidly [1]. Traditional cement-based composites (CBCs) have certain strength, durability, and low cost, which have become the most widely used building materials in engineering. However, marine engineering buildings are facing increasingly harsh environment, which brings challenges to traditional CBCs [2,3]. A complex marine environment has been formed due to large diurnal temperature difference, high humidity, and high chloride concentration in seawater in most coastal areas, which is extremely disadvantageous to the durability of the structure. The common factors that cause the performance damage of CBC are wetting–drying cycles (WDCs), chlorine salt erosion, freeze–thawing cycles (FTCs), and so on [4]. It is noteworthy that the environment is usually the coupling effect of multiple factors, and the damage degree is much greater than the effect of a single factor [5].

Chlorine salt erosion is the main reason of durability reduction of CBC [6,7]. The chloride ions of chlorides in seawater react with the hydration products in the cement-based material to form Friedel’s salt. It causes the matrix to expand and crack. The chloride ions subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment (WTCSE) enter the matrix through the cracks, thus eroding the steel bars, resulting in the reduction of structural-bearing capacity. It forms a negative cycle, resulting in a significant reduction in structural durability [8,9]. However, factors such as WDC, high temperature, and carbonization can further decrease the strength of CBC, accelerate the diffusion of harmful ions, and increase the degree of chloride ion erosion [10]. Ting and Yi [11] mentioned in the review on the durability of CBC in seawater environment that the coupling environment could reduce the compressive strength of ordinary Portland concrete (OPC) by up to 76%. Ma et al. [12] tested the durability of OPC under WDC in salt water, and its corrosion resistance coefficient was only 0.77. Therefore, it is essential to modify conventional CBC to meet durability and investigate the modification mechanisms in coupled environments.

Traditional CBCs have low tensile strength, poor crack resistance, and toughness. Therefore, scholars have conducted studies to enhance durability of CBC by modifying them [13,14]. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers have the advantages of high tensile strength, chemical resistance, environmental protection, and low cost. Numerous research results have shown that PVA fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (PVA-FRCC) can be applied in marine engineering and other fields to control the development of cracks and maintain the strength and durability of structures [15–19]. Sridhar [20] investigated the properties of hybrid fiber (PVA and steel)-reinforced engineered cement-based composites (ECCs). The results showed that 1.5% PVA fibers and 0.5% steel fibers could increase the flexural strength of ECC by 55.5%. The samples also maintained a certain durability after soaking in sulfate and chloride solution for 90 days. Nam et al. [21] conducted 300 FTC on PVA fibers and polypropylene fiber-reinforced FRCC. The results showed that PVA-FRCC had favorable frost resistance. In general, PVA fibers play a bridging effect in the cement matrix, which can effectively inhibit the generation and expansion of cracks, thus improving the durability of PVA-FRCC. PVA-FRCC has been applied in bridge bearing, dam, building foundation, and other practical engineering construction.

To enhance the durability of CBC, researchers have replaced some of the cement with supplementary cementitious materials such as nanoparticles, fly ash (FA), and metakaolin to fulfill both environmental and performance requirements [22]. Nano-SiO2 (NS) is the most widely used nanomaterial. NS can react with Ca(OH)2 in the cement matrix to generate low-density C–S–H gel, thus filling the pores and making the structure more compact [23,24,25]. On the other hand, NS and C–S–H gel reduce chloride ion penetration by blocking chloride ion channels [26], and both of them have improved the durability of cement-based composites (NRCCs) [27,28,29]. FA is a common industrial by-product with pozzolanic properties and calcium activity, which can improve the workability of CBC and enhance their later strength [30]. By replacing 20% cement with FA, harmful ion permeability was reduced and corrosion resistance was enhanced in the coupled attack of sulfate and WDC environment [31]. However, the partial substitution of FA for cement is not conducive to the development of early strength of materials, so it can be modified together with NS to promote the formation of C–S–H gel [32].

Although supplementary CBCs such as NS and FA can reduce the porosity and improve the pore distribution of the material, improving the brittleness of the material itself still requires the participation of fibers. Jelodar et al. [33] conducted that the compressive strength of mortar modified with PVA fibers, NS, and micro-silica increased by 4.6% when the PVA fiber content was 0.75%. Huang et al. [34,35] analyzed the impact of PVA fibers and NS on resistance of FA-based cement mortars to sulfate attack and the resistance of steel reinforcement within the matrix to chloride ion attack. The results demonstrated that the compounding of PVA fibers and NS increased the compressive strength after 28 day curing by up to 118% and effectively improved the resistance of CBC to sulfate attack. In addition, the synergistic effect of the two retarded the erosion of the reinforcement in the chloride solution. By comparing the changes in mechanical properties of FRCC with and without the addition of NS, Ling et al. [36] concluded that PVA fibers had a greater impact on the tensile zone of CBCs. Zhang et al. [37] evaluated the effect of PVA fibers and NS on durability of CBCs and concluded the two synergistically enhanced properties such as impermeability and freeze–thawing resistance. Although some results have shown that PVA fibers and NS can synergistically improve the durability of FA-based cement composites, the pattern and mechanism of the durability effect of PVA fibers on NRCC when NS and PVA fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (NFRCCs) are exposed to complex seawater environments are not yet well established.

In order to explore the effect of PVA fibers on the durability of NRCC in the coupled environment, the WTCSE was used to simulate the marine engineering environment. The impermeability, chloride penetration resistance, freeze–thaw resistance, chlorine salt attack resistance under WDC conditions, microstructure, and pore distribution characteristics of the specimens subjected to WTCSE were investigated in this study. It revealed the physical laws and micro-mechanisms with PVA fibers and provided a reference for the use of materials in practical seawater engineering.

2 Experimental program

2.1 Materials

The cement was P.O 42.5 Portland cement from Mengdian Group, Henan of China, with the specific surface area of 386 kg/m3. The initial setting time and final setting time of cement are 90 and 300 min, respectively. The 3 day and 28 day compressive strengths of cement are 26.6 and 54.5 MPa, and the flexural strengths are 5.42 and 8.74 MPa, respectively. All the aforementioned values meet the national standards. The Class I FA was manufactured by Luoyang power plant, China, and its properties are summarized in Table 1. The chemical compositions of cement and FA are shown in Table 2. Test water was Zhengzhou tap water. The fine aggregate was made of extra fine quartz sand from Gongyi, Henan, with the particle size of 75–120 μm. The polycarboxylic acid superplasticizer with 25% water reduction rate was used in this study, which was produced by Hongxiang Construction Admixture Plant, Laiyang, Shandong. The NS was sourced from Wanjing New Materials Ltd., Hangzhou, Zhejiang, and its appearance was a loose white powder with the apparent density of 54 g/L. The properties of NS are presented in Table 3. In this experiment, high elastic modulus PVA fibers manufactured by Kuraray Japan were used, with a standard length of 12 mm and a diameter of 40 μm. The physical characteristics of PVA fibers are listed in Table 4.

Table 1

Physical properties of FA

Density (g/cm3) Stacking density (%) Water absorption (%) Standard consistency (%)
2.16 0.77 106 47.10
Table 2

Chemical compositions of cement and FA (wt%)

Chemical compositions SO3 SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO & MgO Others
Cement 2.23 21.14 4.32 3.32 66.47 3.33
FA 0.52 60.98 24.47 6.70 5.58 1.75
Table 3

Properties of NS

Value of PH Reduction by heating/burning (%) Specific surface area (m2/g) Mean particle size (nm) Purity (%)
6.21 1.0 200 30 99.7
Table 4

Physical characteristics of PVA fibers

Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Length (mm) Diameter (μm) Elongation (%)
1,560 42 12 40 6.5

2.2 Mix proportions and sample preparations

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of PVA fibers on durability of NRCC subjected to WTCSE. In the test, 35% mass fraction of the cement was replaced by FA. The ratio of water to the cement, FA, and NS was 0.35. The ratio of quartz sand to the cement and FA was 0.5. The content of NS was set at 1.5% of the cement mass. The contents of PVA fibers were set at 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, and 1.5% by total volume. Therefore, a total of seven groups of mix proportions were set, as shown in Table 5. Here, “N” and “P” denote the NS and PVA fibers. For example, “N-1.5” represents the CBC mixed with 1.5% NS and “PN-0.9-1.5” represents the CBC mixed with 0.9% PVA fibers and 1.5% NS. “M-0” represents the CBC without PVA fibers and NS. All test groups were performed subjected to WTCSE.

Table 5

Mix proportions of specimens

Mixture ID Quartz sand FA Cement Water Superplasticizer PVA fibers NS
kg/m3 %
M-0 500 350 650 350 1.5 0 0
N-1.5 500 350 640.25 350 5.5 0 1.5
PN-0.3-1.5 500 350 640.25 350 6.0 0.3 1.5
PN-0.6-1.5 500 350 640.25 350 6.5 0.6 1.5
PN-0.9-1.5 500 350 640.25 350 7.0 0.9 1.5
PN-1.2-1.5 500 350 640.25 350 7.5 1.2 1.5
PN-1.5-1.5 500 350 640.25 350 8.0 1.5 1.5

Numerous results have indicated that good dispersion helps PVA fibers and NS to better improve the durability of NFRCC. Due to the large specific surface area of NS, it is very prone to agglomeration when directly added into the material. PVA fibers have fine dispersibility and can be added in small amounts. In order to prepare NFRCC with superior durability, the forming process as shown in Figure 1 was adopted. First, NS, superplasticizer, and water were artificially stirred. Then, the quartz sand, FA, and cement were poured into the mixer and stirred for 2 min. The pre-dispersed solution (containing NS, superplasticizer, and water) was added and stirred for 2 min. Then, the remaining water was added. Eventually, PVA fibers were added in four batches. The mixture was poured into the molds and demolded after 24 h. The specimens were cured in a standard conditioning environment (the temperature was 20 ± 2°C, and the humidity was above 90%) for 28 days and were subjected to WTCSE for testing after another 30 days.

Figure 1 Flowchart of specimen preparation and maintenance.
Figure 1

Flowchart of specimen preparation and maintenance.

2.3 Simulation of WTCSE

CBCs exposed to seawater are eroded by harmful ions and the durability decreases. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt appropriate methods to simulate similar environments such as oceans. In this experiment, TR-WSYP-31-simulated environment test chamber was used to simulate the WTCSE. The internal state of the chamber is illustrated in Figure 2. The outer shell and inner tank of the test chamber are made of stainless steel. There is a blast channel at the back side, which is connected with four blowers to ensure the temperature and humidity in the box. The two sides of the box are salt spray nozzle, and the top is rain spray nozzle. The refrigeration system is located outside the laboratory. The whole system has good sealing performance to ensure the effectiveness of WTCSE. In accordance with the specification GB2423.17-93 and combined with the actual environment of marine engineering, the salt concentration of WTCSE was determined to be 5% NaCl solution, the humidity was 100%, and the temperature was 50°C.

Figure 2 Internal state of the test chamber.
Figure 2

Internal state of the test chamber.

After the specimens were molded and demolded, they were first maintained for 28 days. Then, the specimens were immersed in a simulated environment chamber lasting 30 days, as shown in Figure 3. The specimens were the circular truncated cone with the size of 80 mm × 70 mm × 30 mm, cylinders with a diameter of 100 ± 1 mm and a height of 50 ± 2 mm, cubes with the side length of 70.7 mm, and cubes with the side length of 100 mm. Then, the specimens were taken out and a series of durability tests were conducted after 2 days to explore the effect of PVA fibers on the durability of NRCC subjected to WTCSE.

Figure 3 Simulation of the WTCSE.
Figure 3

Simulation of the WTCSE.

2.4 Durability tests

2.4.1 Impermeability

According to JGJ/T70-2009 [38], the test of the impermeability of NFRCC was conducted by using the step-to-step pressure method, and the test instrument was mortar penetrator shown in Figure 4(a). The specimen was a circular truncated cone with the size of 80 mm × 70 mm × 30 mm, with 6 pieces in each group. Because of the good sealing effect, neutral silicone adhesive was used as the sealing material of NFRCC as illustrated in Figure 4(b) and (c). During the test, the constant pressure for 2 h of 0.2 MPa was increased to 0.3 MPa and increased at the rate of 0.1 MPa/h until half of the specimens were permeated. The calculation equation is as follows:

(1) P a = H a − 0.1 ,

where P a is the impermeable pressure value of NFRCC (MPa), and H a is the pressure value at the time of termination of the test (MPa).

Figure 4 Mortar penetrator and neutral silicone adhesive: (a) Mortar penetrator; (b) Neutral silicone adhesive; (c) Specimen with Neutral silicone adhesive.
Figure 4

Mortar penetrator and neutral silicone adhesive: (a) Mortar penetrator; (b) Neutral silicone adhesive; (c) Specimen with Neutral silicone adhesive.

2.4.2 Chloride penetration resistance

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of PVA fibers on the durability of NRCC subjected to WTCSE based on the electric flux method of GB/T50082-2009 [39]. The specimens were cylinders with a diameter of 100 ± 1 mm and a height of 50 ± 2 mm. Each group had three specimens. The CABR-RCP9 instrument is shown in Figure 5(a). First, the holes of specimens were filled with sealing materials and vacuum filling was performed with the saturation meter illustrated in Figure 5(b). The specimens were placed in the electric flux-measuring device. The positive and negative electrodes of the test tank were sodium hydroxide solution and NaCl solution, respectively. The power supply voltage of the device was 60 ± 0.1 V, and the power supply was at least 6 h. The chloride permeability resistance of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE was determined by the quantity of electric charge. The electric flux was calculated in the following equation [39]:

(2) Φ = 900 × ( I 0 + 2 I 30 + 2 I 60 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + 2 I t + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + 2 I 330 + 2 I 360 ) × ( 95 / D ) 2 ,

where Φ is the total coulomb quantity through NFRCC (C), I 0 is the initial current (A), D is the diameter of NFRCC (mm), and I t is the current at time t (A).

Figure 5 Impermeability test instrument: (a) CABR-RCP9-type chloride ion flux meter and (b) intelligent vacuum water retention instrument.
Figure 5

Impermeability test instrument: (a) CABR-RCP9-type chloride ion flux meter and (b) intelligent vacuum water retention instrument.

2.4.3 Freeze–thaw resistance

In order to analyze the influence of PVA fibers on freeze–thaw resistance of NRCC subjected to WTCSE, the mass and compressive strength loss rates of NFRCC were measured by the rapid freeze–thaw method according to JGJ/T70-2009 [38]. The specimens were cubes with the side length of 70.7 mm, with 3 pieces in each group. Strength loss and 125 FTC of NFRCC were measured by WHY-2000 microcomputer-controlled pressure testing machine and HC-HDK freeze–thawing machine (Figure 6). The time of a FTC was 2–4 h. The conversion time was less than 10 min.

Figure 6 Freeze–thaw resistance testing instrument: (a) WHY-2000 microcomputer-controlled pressure testing machine and (b) HC-HDK freeze–thawing machine.
Figure 6

Freeze–thaw resistance testing instrument: (a) WHY-2000 microcomputer-controlled pressure testing machine and (b) HC-HDK freeze–thawing machine.

The equation for determining PVA fibers’ impact on the freeze–thaw resistance of NRCC subjected to WTCSE is as follows:

(3) Δ m n = m 0 − m n m 0 × 100 % ,

where Δ m n is the quality loss rate of NFRCC after n FTC (%), m 0 is the initial quality (g), and m n is the average quality (g).

(4) Δ f n = f 0 − f n f 0 × 100 % ,

where Δ f n is the strength loss rate of NFRCC after n FTC (%), f 0 is the initial compressive strength (MPa), and f n is the average strength of each group of NFRCC after n FTC (MPa).

2.4.4 Chlorine salt attack resistance under dry and wet cycle conditions

With reference to GB/T50082-2009 [39], the specimens were the cubes with the side length of 100 mm. Before the test, the NFRCCs were placed in the oven and dried at (80 ± 5)°C for 48 h. Then, they were immersed in the 5% NaCl solution for 12 h. Then, the specimens were removed from the solution and placed outside the box for 12 h. During this period, they were dried at 80 ± 5°C. Drying time was not less than 6 h. The cycle was repeated until 30 cycles. The temperature of the environmental chamber was 50°C. The NaCl solution had to be changed every 15 times in between. At the end of the experiment, the apparent changes in NFRCC were observed and the compressive strength was tested using the WHY-2000 press.

The chlorine salt attack resistance of NFRCC after 30 WDC was characterized by the compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficient K f :

(5) K f = f c n f c 0 ,

where K f is the corrosion resistance of NFRCC (%), f c 0 is the compressive strength of the reference specimen not corroded by chlorine salts (MPa), and f c n is the compressive strength after n WDC in chloride environment (MPa).

2.4.5 Pore structure analysis test

The apparatus used for the pore structure analysis was the AutoPore IV 9500 high-performance fully automatic mercury piezometer. The pore structure of NRCC subjected to WTCSE was investigated using mercury-pressure tests on specimens (N-1.5 and PN-1.2-1.5). According to the specification ISO15901-1:2016 [40], the dilatometer was selected first during the test. The sample was weighed and transferred into the dilatometer. Then, a series of tests such as low and high pressure was performed.

2.4.6 Microstructure observation

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe and record the effect of PVA fibers on the microstructure of NRCC after FTC subjected to WTCSE. Samples were taken from two groups of specimens (N-1.5 and PN-1.2-1.5). They were dried at 60°C for 1 day and observed by 200 and 2000 times microscope after being treated with gold spray.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Effect of PVA fibers on impermeability of NRCC subjected to WTCSE

The variation of the impermeability pressure of NRCC subjected to WTCSE with the PVA fibers admixture is illustrated in Figure 7. From Figure 7, the comparison between “M-0” and “N-1.5” showed that the incorporation of 1.5% NS into CBC increased the impermeability pressure subjected to WTCSE. As PVA fibers content increased, the impermeability pressure of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE first increased gradually, reaching a maximum of 1 MPa at 1.2% PVA fibers and then decreasing to 0.71 MPa. The maximum impermeability pressure was 150% higher than that of “N-1.5.” It can be concluded that appropriate amount of PVA fibers can improve the impermeability of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE. When the content of PVA fibers exceeds the appropriate value, the impermeability of CBC will not be improved. Generally, the impermeability of CBC is one of the most fundamental properties of durability. It is closely related to the pore structure [41,42,43]. The comparison of M-0 and N-1.5 shows that NS alone can improve the impermeability of CBC subjected to WTCSE. The reason is that NS and FA can reduce the porosity and refine the pore structure, thus enhancing the impermeability [44,45]. On this basis, the incorporation of PVA fibers gives support to the interior of CBC, effectively inhibiting the development of cracks. In addition, PVA fibers are hydrophilic, allowing for better bonding to the matrix. As a result, PVA fibers inhibit the formation of penetrating water seepage capillaries, thus enhancing the impermeability of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE. However, excessive PVA fiber content is not easily dispersed and will form defects in the matrix with the form of clusters, increasing the chance of matrix cracking and thus reducing the impermeability of NFRCC.

Figure 7 Impermeability pressure of CBC subjected to WTCSE.
Figure 7

Impermeability pressure of CBC subjected to WTCSE.

3.2 Effect of PVA fibers on chloride penetration resistance of NRCC subjected to WTCSE

Suitable conditions will increase the rate of diffusion of chloride ions in CBC and accelerate erosion. Therefore, it is essential to determine the resistance of NFRCC to chloride penetration subjected to WTCSE. It can be clearly illustrated from Figure 8 that the electric flux value of CBC reduced when only 1.5% NS was added. On this basis, as PVA fibers content increased, the electric flux value of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE decreased first and then increased. When the content of PVA fibers grew from 0.3 to 1.2%, the electric flux value of NFRCC decreased by 9.86, 18.05, 24.09, and 31.71% compared with that of NS alone. It indicated that the resistance to chloride penetration of NFRCC increased with increasing PVA fibers dosing when the content was less than 1.2%. When PVA fiber content was 1.5%, the electric flux value increased instead. It was 11.57% lower than that of the control group “N-1.5.” It suggested that excess PVA fibers inhibited the ability to improve the chloride penetration resistance of CBC. This is consistent with the conclusion of Wang and Dong [46]. However, it was still higher than that of NRCC without PVA fibers.

Figure 8 Electric flux of CBC subjected to WTCSE.
Figure 8

Electric flux of CBC subjected to WTCSE.

Chloride permeability is highly dependent on pore distribution and crack width. In a recent study, Wang and Dong [46] performed the RCM test and the rapid chloride penetration test to determine that a moderate amount of PVA fibers could improve the chloride ion penetration resistance of ultrafine fly ash (UFA)-based concrete (UFAC). When PVA fiber content was 0.2%, the electric flux of UFAC was reduced by 42.58% compared with the control group. However, the electric flux of UFAC without PVA fibers was only reduced by 26.32%. It is due to PVA fibers bridging the matrix microcracks and limiting the development of cracks. Physically, the FA in NFRCC in this study can physically adsorb some of Cl− [47,48]. And it can be concluded from Figure 9 that PVA fibers improve the pore structure of NFRCC purely from the physical aspect. In terms of chemical reactions, the C–S–H adheres to the surface of PVA fibers as a product of the volcanic ash effect of NS and FA. The Cl- reacts with C–S–H to form Friedel salts when it diffuses near PVA fibers [49]. At the same time, the salts adhere to the surface of PVA fibers and contribute to the enhancement of pore structure [11,50]. However, excessive PVA fibers are unevenly dispersed in NFRCC, which constitute the matrix defects and increase the cracking risk and porosity [51]. Therefore, the effect of PVA fibers enhancing the chloride ion permeability of NRCC subjected to WTCSE was weakened.

Figure 9 X-ray diffraction image of UFAC with PVA fibers [46].
Figure 9

X-ray diffraction image of UFAC with PVA fibers [46].

3.3 Effect of PVA fibers on freeze–thaw resistance of NRCC subjected to WTCSE

The main reason for the freeze–thaw damage is that the internal hydrostatic pressure of the matrix is too large, resulting in cracking. By optimizing the pore structure and balancing the internal and external pressure difference, the cracking of CBC can be suppressed, thus improving the durability of materials [52]. The mass and compressive strength loss rate of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE after multiple FTC change with the content of PVA fibers are illustrated in Figure 10. The comparison between “M-0” and “N-1.5” demonstrated that the incorporation of NS in CBC effectively improved the freeze–thaw resistance subjected to WTCSE with a significant reduction in both mass and compressive strength loss rate. It can be explained by the fact that NS and its hydration products fill the tiny pores of the material matrix, reducing the proportion of free water in the pores. The pressure values generated during FTC are reduced, thus enhancing the freeze–thaw resistance of NRCC [22,53,54].

Figure 10 Mass loss rate and compressive strength loss rate of CBC after different FTC.
Figure 10

Mass loss rate and compressive strength loss rate of CBC after different FTC.

The rate of mass and compressive strength loss of NFRCC increased slowly with the number of FTC. From Figure 10, the mass loss rate of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE decreased with increasing PVA fiber incorporation when the number of FTC reached 125. Compared to NRCC specimens, the mass loss rate of NFRCC was reduced by 2.11, 4.03, 6.14, and 11.71% when PVA fiber content was 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2%, respectively. From Figure 10, the compressive strength loss rate of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE decreased with increasing PVA fiber incorporation when the number of FTC reached 125. Compared to NRCC specimens, the compressive strength loss rate of NFRCC was reduced by 6.92, 12.45, 15.86, and 19.00% when PVA fiber content was 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2%, respectively. NFRCC samples with different PVA fiber contents are compared in Figure 11. It was obvious that FTC caused the loss of edges and the flaking of the surface layer [21,55]. On the one hand, with the weakening of the surface layer protection, PVA fibers and the internal matrix were exposed. On the other hand, the difference in internal and external pressure due to freeze–thaw could further reduce the durability of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE. The apparent breakage of specimens gradually decreased with the increase of PVA fibers. Among them, “PN-1.2-1.5” had the highest apparent integrity, indicating the strongest freeze–thaw resistance. It had some degree of breakage and surface loss, but overall integrity was high.

Figure 11 Appearance of CBC after freeze–thaw damage.
Figure 11

Appearance of CBC after freeze–thaw damage.

In fact, PVA fibers weaken the internal stress of freezing water by bridging microcracks and reducing the proportion of free water [56]. On the other hand, Nam et al. [21] suggested that PVA fibers inhibited surface fouling after FTC in FRCC. However, Yuan et al. [55] argued that PVA fibers were more beneficial to the freeze–thaw resistance in later stages. The reason was that PVA fibers were more capable of bridging when cracks developed. The effect of improving the freeze–thaw resistance of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE was weakened when the content of PVA fibers was 1.5%. It is attributed to the inhomogeneous dispersion of PVA fibers, which disrupts the continuous structure and increases the likelihood of cracking.

3.4 Model of freeze–thaw damage

According to damage mechanics, the compressive strength was used as the damage evaluation index [57]. The degree of compressive strength loss D c was defined as the rate of compressive strength loss Δ f n of CBC. Therefore, the expression of freeze–thaw damage degree D c is as follows:

(6) D c = 1 − f n f 0 ,

where D c is the degree of compressive strength loss of NFRCC after n FTC, f 0 is the initial compressive strength (MPa), and f n is the average strength of each group of NFRCC after n FTC (MPa).

In order to better express the damage pattern and predict the lifetime of CBC under FTC conditions, scholars have developed effective FTC models [22,56]. Based on previous studies, the quadratic polynomial and exponential forms of decay models can better express the damage law of FRCC. However, both models do not satisfy the condition that D c is 0 and has some errors. In this study, the widely adopted Weibull random probability distribution model was used to fit the D c of NFRCC [58,59,60]. The equation for the Weibull probability density function when the independent variable is n is shown in the following equation:

(7) f ( n ) = β η n η β − 1 exp − n η β ,

where η denotes the scale parameter and β denotes the shape parameter.

The expression for D c is equation (8) and its variant form is equation (9):

(8) D c ( n ) = ∫ f ( n ) d n = 1 − exp − n η β ,

(9) ln ln 1 1 − D ( n ) = β ln 1 η + β ln ( n ) .

Equation (9) is rewritten as a linear equation, where Y = ln ln 1 1 − D ( n ) , X = ln ( n ) , A = β , and B = β ln 1 η . Therefore, the final linear expression Y = A X + B is used to fit the experimental data on PVA fibers’ impact on the degree of freeze–thaw loss of FRCC subjected to WTCSE. The curves and characteristic parameters obtained from the fitting of the Weibull distribution function are illustrated in Figure 12 and Table 6, respectively.

Figure 12 Linear-fitting curve based on the Weibull distribution.
Figure 12

Linear-fitting curve based on the Weibull distribution.

Table 6

Weibull probability distribution fitting

Number Parameter R 2 Fitting equation
A B β η
N-1.5 0.3124 −2.5124 0.3124 3109.6 0.992 D ( n ) = 1 − exp − n 3109.6 0.3124
PN-0.3-1.5 0.3189 −2.6279 0.3189 3791.5 0.994 D ( n ) = 1 − exp − n 3791.5 0.3189
PN-0.6-1.5 0.3047 −2.6461 0.3047 5909.3 0.997 D ( n ) = 1 − exp − n 5909.3 0.3047
PN-0.9-1.5 0.3211 −2.7740 0.3211 5648.0 0.995 D ( n ) = 1 − exp − n 5648.0 0.3211
PN-1.2-1.5 0.3525 −2.9935 0.3525 4876.6 0.919 D ( n ) = 1 − exp − n 4876.6 0.3525
PN-1.5-1.5 0.3193 −2.8023 0.3193 6479.4 0.964 D ( n ) = 1 − exp − n 6479.4 0.3193

The correlation coefficient (R 2) for the freeze–thaw damage model of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE is above 0.919, which proves that the Weibull probability distribution model is applicable to the freeze–thaw damage law of this study. The Weibull probability distribution based on damage evolution is plotted in Figure 13. It is evident from Figure 13 that the increase in PVA fiber incorporation effectively improved the FTC resistance of the CBC subjected to WTCSE. The best resistance to compressive strength loss of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE was achieved when PVA fiber content was 1.2%. The model predicted the freeze–thaw damage of the WTCSE-treated NFRCC at 300 FTC. The overall degree of freeze–thaw damage of CBC does not exceed 0.40, indicating that the CBC have good freeze–thaw durability. “PN-1.2-1.5” has the lowest predicted freeze–thaw damage at 300 FTCs, not exceeding 0.35. Based on the freeze–thaw damage model, the durability theory of NFRCC in the WTCSE under FTC was improved, which may provide a theoretical basis for the research of building materials used in complex environments such as ocean engineering.

Figure 13 Freeze–thaw damage degree model based on the Weibull distribution.
Figure 13

Freeze–thaw damage degree model based on the Weibull distribution.

3.5 Effect of PVA fibers on chlorine salt attack resistance under WDC conditions of NRCC subjected to WTCSE

Tidal splash zone in marine concrete structure is a typical WDC environment. By simulating the seawater environment, many scholars concluded that WDC accelerated the erosion of Cl- on CBC subjected to WTCSE [61,62,63]. Sun et al. [64] found that Cl- erosion under WDC conditions was more serious than NaCl solution immersion. In the study, the effect of PVA fibers on chlorine salt attack resistance under WDC conditions of NRCC subjected to WTCSE was investigated. The appearance of WTCSE-treated NFRCC specimens after 30 WDC in 5% NaCl solution is illustrated in Figure 14. The “N-1.5” specimen showed a small amount of crystal precipitation and defects at the edges and corners. With the addition of PVA fibers, the corner defect was reduced and some raw edges of fibers were exposed [65]. The specimen of “PN-1.2-1.5” was the most complete. The relationship between PVA fiber content and compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficient is shown in Figure 15. By comparing “M-0” and “N-1.5,” it could be seen that the resistance of NRCC subjected to WTCSE to chlorine salt erosion was improved under the condition of WDC. It is because that NS can reduce the porosity of CBC and inhibit the erosion of Cl- on the matrix under WDC conditions. This is involved in the study of Zhang et al. [66]. From Figure 15, when the PVA fiber content was 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2%, the compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficients of NFRCC under WDC conditions were 73.1, 74.2, 75, and 78.7. Compared with the coefficient of “N-1.5” of 72.1, they increased by 1.39, 2.91, 4.02, and 9.15%. It indicated that the resistance of NFRCC to chlorine salt erosion under WDC conditions enhanced with the increase of PVA fibers subjected to WTCSE.

Figure 14 Appearance of WTCSE-treated CBC after 30 WDC in 5% NaCl solution.
Figure 14

Appearance of WTCSE-treated CBC after 30 WDC in 5% NaCl solution.

Figure 15 Compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficient of CBC.
Figure 15

Compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficient of CBC.

In fact, the main form of chloride infiltration in WDC environment is the gradual transfer from surface capillary absorption to interior [65]. Before the addition of PVA fibers, the CBC treated with WTCSE under WDC conditions has an increased proportion of macropores and faster crack development due to chloride corrosion, resulting in a decrease in the durability. After adding PVA fibers, products of Cl- corrosion on the matrix adhere to PVA fibers, filling pores and inhibiting the corrosion of chloride salts on NFRCC under WDC conditions [51]. Meanwhile, PVA fibers have high tensile strength, which inhibits the development of microcracks. In addition, Kou et al. [65] suggested that the formation of hydrogen bonds between PVA fibers and hydration products also inhibited the generation of microcracks. However, when PVA fiber content was 1.5%, the corrosion resistance coefficient of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE under WDC conditions was reduced, but it was still higher than that without PVA fibers. It indicates that excessive PVA fibers will damage the compactness of the matrix, which is not conducive to the chloride corrosion resistance of CBC under WDC conditions.

4 Effect of PVA fibers on microstructure of NRCC subjected to WTCSE

4.1 Pore structure

The effect of pore proportion and porosity of different diameters on durability of CBC can be analyzed by the mercury injection test [63,67]. The pore volume ratio and porosity of “M-0,” “N-1.5,” and “PN-1.2-1.5” are illustrated in Figures 16 and 17. From Figure 16, the number of less harmful pores and harmless pores (<50 nm) increased and the percentage of capillary pores decreased with the incorporation of NS and PVA fibers [68]. The overall porosity decreased (Figure 17).

Figure 16 Pore volume ratio of different pore sizes.
Figure 16

Pore volume ratio of different pore sizes.

Figure 17 Pore volume and overall porosity.
Figure 17

Pore volume and overall porosity.

For chloride salt attack under WDC conditions, Sun et al. [64] concluded that the percentage of pores (2.5–50 nm) increased and the percentage of large pores (>50 nm) decreased in the CBC after WDC. It suggested that WDC reduced the pore size. They also reported that pores less than 100 nm increased the capillary suction of the matrix, which precisely accelerated the erosion of chloride ions into the matrix [50]. It confirmed that WDC conditions accelerated the erosion of chloride salts. From Figure 16, it is concluded that the incorporation of PVA fibers increases the proportion of pores larger than 100 nm and reduces the proportion of large pore sizes and the overall porosity. It makes NFRCC subjected to WTCSE more resistant to chloride attack under WDC conditions [50,64]. Pores greater than 300 nm in diameter may contribute to the retention of freeze–thaw resistance in CBC according to Nam et al. [21]. As seen in Figure 16, the incorporation of PVA fibers increased the percentage of pores with a pore size greater than 300 nm, which may have improved the frost resistance of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE. However, Li et al. [56] suggested that pores above 200 nm reduced the frost resistance of geopolymer due to their susceptibility to icing, which differed from the previously mentioned studies. The reasons for the discrepancy may be attributed to (1) the difference in the number of freeze–thawing and WDC, (2) the difference in properties of the geopolymer and CBC, and (3) the effect of the incorporation of nanomaterials on the pore structure. The effect of PVA fibers on the relationship between capillaries and pores was analyzed by Wang and Dong [46]. A low dose of PVA fibers reduced the conversion of capillaries to pores and microcracks, thus maintaining the capillary occupancy. Therefore, the incorporation of PVA fibers can inhibit the rupture of capillaries, thus improving the durability of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE.

4.2 Microscopic morphology

The morphology of NS and C–S–H gels in NRCC under high magnification is shown in Figure 18(a) and (b). From Figure 18, the NS acted as a filler, refining pores of the CBC. At the same time, the C–S–H gels compensated cracks and made the cement matrix structure denser [56]. Figure 18(c) and (d) shows the SEM images of “N-1.5” samples before and after FTC subjected to WTCSE. NRCC samples treated subjected to WTCSE could be observed under electron microscope with obvious cracks, accompanied by the production of chemical reaction products. After 125 FTC, cracks in the matrix around the FA expanded and the porosity increased.

Figure 18 Microstructure of NRCC and NFRCC: (a) the micromorphology of NS, (b) microscopic morphology of C–S–H and FA, (c) “N-1.5” without FTC, and (d) “N-1.5” after FTC.
Figure 18

Microstructure of NRCC and NFRCC: (a) the micromorphology of NS, (b) microscopic morphology of C–S–H and FA, (c) “N-1.5” without FTC, and (d) “N-1.5” after FTC.

The microscopic morphology of “PN-1.2-1.5” specimens before and after 125 FTC is presented in Figure 19. The surface of PVA fibers after FTC still adhered to a number of cementitious matrices [21,69]. It indicated that PVA fibers not only acted as bridging matrix cracks themselves, but also enhanced the adhesion between NRCC matrices in the form of adsorbed some hydration products. Therefore, it is possible to improve the durability of CBC such as freeze–thaw resistance in synergy with NS. In fact, PVA fibers bonded to the concrete in the same way in the SEM study of chloride salt attack under WDC conditions, which improved the matrix compactness [51]. At the same time, the finer FA particles promoted the ability of PVA fibers to join with the matrix [46]. Using SEM images, Li et al. [61] concluded that the stable accumulation of salt crystals and the filling of hydration products with ages were responsible for the weaker chloride salt attack under full immersion conditions than under WDC conditions. When the content of PVA fibers was 1.5%, it gathered into clusters due to uneven dispersion as shown in Figure 19(c). In this case, the embedding of PVA fibers amplifies defects in the matrix and produces larger cracks [46,70]. The increase in structural defects leads to a reduction in the ability of PVA fibers to improve the durability of NRCC subjected to WTCSE.

Figure 19 Microstructure of PVA fibers: (a) before FTC, (b) after FTC, and (c) aggregation.
Figure 19

Microstructure of PVA fibers: (a) before FTC, (b) after FTC, and (c) aggregation.

5 Conclusions

In this work, the effect of PVA fibers on the durability (including impermeability, chloride penetration resistance, freeze–thaw resistance, and chlorine salt attack resistance under WDC conditions) of NRCC subjected to WTCSE was explored. The conclusions are as follows:

  1. Compared with NRCC subjected to WTCSE, PVA fibers improved the impermeability and chloride penetration resistance of CBC subjected to WTCSE. The impermeability pressure was increased by 150% and the flux value was decreased by 31.71%. When the content of PVA fibers was less than 1.2%, the resistance of NFRCC subjected to WTCSE to chlorine salt attack resistance increased with increasing of PVA fiber content at 30 WDC. The compressive strength corrosion resistance coefficient was increased by 9.15%.

  2. Compared with “M-0” and “N-1.5,” NRCC had better freeze–thaw resistance subjected to WTCSE. On this basis, with the increase of PVA fiber content, the mass loss rate and compressive strength loss rate of NFRCC after 125 FTC decreased. When the PVA fiber content was 1.2%, the loss rate was the lowest. The Weibull probability distribution model was more suitable for fitting freeze–thaw damage data. By drawing the freeze–thaw damage curve, the freeze–thaw damage degree of NFRCC after 300 FTC was predicted. The results showed that the damage degree of CBC subjected to WTCSE was less than 0.4 after 300 FTC. The damage degree of “PN-1.2-1.5” sample was the lowest, not more than 0.35.

  3. The addition of PVA fibers reduced the large porosity ratio and the overall porosity of CBC subjected to WTCSE. It enhanced the chlorine salt attack resistance of CBC under WDC by inhibiting chloride ion absorption. The increase of pore proportion with diameter greater than 300 nm was related to the improvement of freeze–thaw resistance of CBC.

  4. PVA fibers bridged the matrix microcracks. Meanwhile, the hydration products of NS and C–S–H gums attached to the surface of PVA fibers, which enhanced the bonding of PVA fibers to the matrix. Finer FA particles may also promote the bonding between the two. The clustered PVA fibers caused matrix defects, which increased the risk of cracking and porosity, which reduced the durability of CBC subjected to WTCSE.

  1. Funding information: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support received from National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. U2040224), Natural Science Foundation of Henan (Grant No. 212300410018), and Project Special Funding of Yellow River Laboratory (Grant No. YRL22LT02).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-07-13
Revised: 2023-09-26
Accepted: 2023-09-27
Published Online: 2023-11-02

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0140
Keywords for this article
cement-based composites; PVA fibers; nano-SiO2; coupled environment; durability; microstructure
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
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