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Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification

  • Jun Ren , Shuo Yan , Yunhui Fang EMAIL logo , Zhenhe Tian , Hao Li , Jinyi Guo , Feng Xing , Yiding Fan , Xianfeng Wang and Zengle Ren EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: August 7, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

The performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers (PCE) in cement blended with seawater (SW) depends on its molecular structure since large ions in SW significantly influenced its mechanism. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the molecular structure of PCE on the fresh properties of SW-blended cement pastes. A series of six PCEs with different charge densities, side chain lengths, and anchor groups were modified by introducing nanosilica and their physicochemical properties were characterised, and the performance was evaluated by determined by minislump, rheological behaviour and setting time. Finally, the potential mechanism was proposed via measurement of adsorption amount and layer thickness, and water film thickness (WFT). The results showed that the PCE with longer side chains and higher AA:HEPG ratio provided a significant improvement in the workability of cement pastes mixed with SW. According to the flow curves from the rheology experiments, analysis of the rheological behaviour of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in SW-blended cements paste by three rheological models. By adsorption measurement and WFT testing, high higher AA:HPEG ratio exhibits high sorption and WFT indicating less inhibition by ions in SW.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: polycarboxylate superplasticiser; nanosilica; rheological behaviour; seawater; molecular architecture; adsorption

1 Introduction

As one of the most widely used materials in the world, concrete is widely used in infrastructure construction and is a crucial material in the global urbanisation process [1,2,3,4]. The tremendous production of concrete not only emits large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions [5,6], but also consumes the great amountof natural resource, i.e., freshwater, minerals, and energy [7,8,9]. Therefore, the utilisation of seawater (SW) and seas in manufacturing concrete has been aroused by many countries, which can, at least, partially, solve the severe sustainability issue for the construction industry, especially in the marine area or remote islands [10,11].

However, the feasibility of the utilisation of SW in many fields, particularly, in concrete has been debated for a long time [12,13], due to the presence of chlorides (Cl−), sodium ions (Na+), sulphate (SO4 2−), magnesium ions (Mg2+), and other substances in SW, which may introduce the intractable issues for concrete materials and structures, i.e., ions permeability and corrosion of reinforcement [14,15,16,17,18,19,20]. It is generally accepted that different properties of cement and concrete are observed in SW than in fresh tap water (TW). For example, the abundant chloride ions in SW can precipitate in the hydration process of C3S and come into being calcium oxychloride with humidity instability and Friedel’s salt that densifies the cement-based materials, which leads to the quicker setting and faster strength development [21,22,23,24]. Moreover, the accelerated hydration process reduces the workability of the cement [25], which requires the employment of a superplasticiser to compensate and ensure sufficient fluidity [26].

Noticeably, the performance and working mechanism of polycarboxylate superplasticisers (PCEs) highly depend the molecular architecture of the polymers, nanoparticle-grafted PCE will affect the workability, mechanical properties, and durability of cement paste, mortar, and concrete [27,28,29,30]. Many studies have shown that the properties of PCE in cementitious materials can be modified by adjusting the molecular structure by means of free radical polymerisation [31,32,33,34]. Winnefeld et al. [35] reported that the processability is improved by reducing the side chain density of PEO and high charge density produces more adsorption. On the contrary, Houst et al. [36] illustrated that longer side chains of PCEs raised the dispersion ability of PCEs. Ng et al. [37] reported the high charge density improved the adsorption rate of PCE polymers on cement particles. Altun et al. [38] revealed that the graft of different anchor groups can affect the performance of PCE. Zhang et al. [39] revealed that the dispersion ability was reduced by altering the grafted anchor groups of the backbone of PCE from negative to positive group, compared to the PCE with positive group, it makes out that with the adsorption amount was in a descending order of COO− > SO3 − > N+. Qi et al. [40] introduced 2-hydroxylethyl methacrylate phosphate as a side chain to modify polycarboxylate superplasticisers (PCEs), which increased the water reduction ratio from 24 to 58%, and also extend the final setting time, showing excellent dispersing ability and retarding effect. Li et al. [41] showed that the compatibility retention of PCE can be controlled by changing the main chain and side chain structures of polymers.

On the other hand, it has been agreed that the properties of PCEs were affected by the solution ions [42,43,44]. For example, the competitive adsorption due to the introduction of sulphate is between the sulfonic group and the carboxylic group, which can be minimised by employing the PCEs with high charge density or the enhanced backbone with grafting alkoxysilane group [45,46]. Furthermore, the cation Ca2+ and Mg2+ form complexes with the carboxylates contained in PCE; this approach improves the adsorption of cement particles by PCE [47,48], which consequently requires the PCEs with low charge density [49,50].

Regardless of the resource of the SW, compared to the TW, enormous ions, i.e., chloride, calcium, magnesium, sulfate, etc., are existed in SW, which therefore lead to the different acting behaviour of PCEs in cement with SW [51,52,53,54]. Ren et al. [55,56] studied the two commercial PCEs in SW-blended cementitious materials and reported that the water-reducing PCEs performed better than slump-retaining. Pang et al. [57] studied the effect of SW-blended cement on the dispersion performance of PCE and found that the SO4 2− and Mg2+ ions decreased the effectiveness dispersion of PCE dispersion in SW. Consequently, despite the fact that some innovative work has previously been done on evaluating the efficacy of PCE in SW-blended cementitious materials, the effect of the molecular structure of PCE on the property of SW-mixed cementitious materials has not been systematically investigated [58].

Many studies have been presented by researchers on the influence of the molecular architecture of PCE on cement systems. However, there are fewer studies on the molecular architecture of PCE in SW. The point of this research was to systematically investigate the effect of the molecular structure of PCE (including its charge densities, side chain lengths, and anchor groups) on the fresh properties and working mechanism of cement paste co-blended with SW. The properties of TW or SW cement paste corporate with six different types of PCEs were then determined by the rheological behaviour and setting time of the SW hybrid gelling materials. In addition, possible mechanisms are suggested by measuring the adsorption and water film thickness (WFT), which establish design guidelines for innovative PCE in SW-blended cement paste.

2 Materials and experiments

2.1 Materials

Fushun Aosaier Co, Ltd. provided the standard cement in compliance with GB 8076-2008; the chemical and mineral compositions of which are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Chemical and mineral compositions of cement (mass, %)

SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 MgO R2O f-CaO SO3 Loss Cl−
21.12 5.23 3.58 64.44 2.11 0.52 0.95 0.90 1. 40 0.03
C3S C2S C3A C4AF
58.93 14.42 7.81 10.88

For the synthesis of the PCEs, reagent grade acrylic acid (AA), mercaptoethanol, sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium persulphate (KPS), and nanosilica (NS) suspension with a diameter of 10 nm and solid content of 28% by mass were provided by Tianjin Fuchen Chemical Reagents Manufacture. Through radical polymerisation, NS was introduced and grafted onto the molecular chains of PCE between 2,400 g mol−1 (EO52) and 3,000 g mol−1 (EO66) and NS content is 10% (PCE-V) and 5% (PCE-VI) respectively, which were produced by Yunnan Jian tou Chemical Group Co., Ltd., China.

During the manufacture of polymers, deionised (DI) water was employed, while the TW was used for manufacturing cementitious materials. The concentrations of the prime ion of the TW and SW based on data from an inductive coupled plasma emission spectrometer are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Prime ions concentrations in TW and SW (mg l−1)

Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl− SO4 2−
TW 4.37 14.04 19.64 1.76 17.29 13.63
SW 1.05 × 104 393.27 383.02 1.28 × 103 1.66 × 104 2.15 × 103

Note: TW stands for tapwater, SW for natural seawater.

2.2 Synthesis of PCEs

The six PCEs used in this study with varied molecular structures were synthesised and determined by free radical polymerisation reaction using KPS as initiator, which followed the procedure proposed by Ren et al. [26] After synthesised, a 30% solution of NaOH was used to neutralise the polymer solution. Information on the synthesis parameters of the six PCEs is shown in Table 3 and the chemical structures of the six PCEs as shown in Figure 1.

Table 3

Molar ratio of the monomer and solid content of the PCEs

Code AA HPEG NS (wt%) Solid content (%)
2,400 3,000
PCE-I 4.00 1.00 50.20
PCE-II 8.00 1.00 50.21
PCE-III 4.00 1.00 50.18
PCE-IV 8.00 1:00 50.16
PCE-V 4.00 1.00 10 50.14
PCE-VI 4.00 1.00 5 49.07
Figure 1 Chemical structures of six PCE: (a) PCE-I, (b) PCE-II, (c) PCE-III, (d) PCE-IV, (e) PCE-V, and (f) PCE-VI.
Figure 1

Chemical structures of six PCE: (a) PCE-I, (b) PCE-II, (c) PCE-III, (d) PCE-IV, (e) PCE-V, and (f) PCE-VI.

2.3 Characterisation of PCEs

2.3.1 Gel permeation spectroscopy (GPC) analysis

The molecular weight and polydispersity index (PDI) of the PCEs were determined by GPC according to Sun’s method [59], in which the eluent utilised in the test, 0.1 N NaNO3, had a flow rate of 1.0 ml min−1.

2.3.2 FTIR measurement

The FTIR spectra of PCE samples were measured by an FTIR with ATR mode (PerkinElmer, Boston, MA, USA). All samples were dried, crushed into powder, and scanned 15 times with wavenumbers ranging from 500 to 4,000 cm−1.

2.3.3 Hydrodynamic radius analysis

The hydrodynamic radius (R h) of the PCEs in TW and SW solutions was measured by Dynamic Light Scattering using an ALV machine (Germany). The characterisation was conducted under a concentration of 1 mg mL−1 and a testing angle of 90° followed by Shu et al. [60].

2.4 Performance of PCEs in cementitious materials

2.4.1 Preparation

According to the Chinese standard GB8077-2012, the water-to-cement (w/c) ratio was fixed at 0.29, and the mixing procedure was followed the recommendation from the same standard. The concentration of PCE was 0.15% of PCE (bwos), which offered sufficient workability for rheology tests.

2.4.2 Workability test

According to the Chinese standard method GB/T 8077-2012, the determination of PCEs workability of TW- and SW-blended cement paste by minislump test. The blended cement paste was poured into a cone, the cone with the size of the top diameter of 38 mm, a bottom diameter of 60 mm, and a height of 60 mm. The average of two diameters in the perpendicular direction was measured. The initial minislump was measured at 5 min. Moreover, after testing the workability at 30 and 60 min, the workability retention was assessed.

2.4.3 Setting time test

In accordance with GB/T 1346-2011, a Vicat analyzer was used to examine the initial and final setting times of PCEs on blended cement slurries made from freshwater and SW.

2.4.4 Rheological test

The rheological properties of the cement pastes were obtained by determining the relationship between shear stress and shear rate, which was conducted via a Lamy Viscometer RM100 as shown in Figure 2. The shear rate increases from 2 to 200 s−1 in nine steps and then gradually decreases to 10 s−1, maintaining a steady state for 5 min at each speed. The thixotropy area of the cement was calculated from the area enclosed between the rising and falling curves from 0 to 200 s−1 [61]. During the test, after a high pre-shearing to break down the agglomerates, a circle measurement including both forward and backward processes was applied. Then via the Bingham model, modified Bingham model and Herschel–Bulkley model, which is shown in Eqs. (1)–(3), were used to fit the backward curve of shear rate from the details can be referred to Ren et al. [55].

Figure 2 Diagram illustrating the Lamy Viscometer RM100 and test procedure.
Figure 2

Diagram illustrating the Lamy Viscometer RM100 and test procedure.

Bingham model:

(1) τ = τ 0 + μ · γ ̇ .

Modified Bingham model:

(2) τ = τ 0 + μ · γ ̇ + c · γ ̇ 2 .

Herschel–Bulkley models:

(3) τ = τ 0 + K · γ ̇ n ,

where τ is the shear stress (Pa), τ 0 is the yield stress (Pa), μ is the plastic viscosity (Pa s), γ ̇ is the shear rate (s−1), c is the second-order parameter (Pa s2), K is the consistency factor (Pa s n ), and n is the fluid behaviour index (−).

2.4.5 Adsorption amount test

To determine the adsorption of PCEs in cement particle surface, the total organic carbon (TOC) in the pore solution was measured via TOC device (Multi N/C 2100 Germany). Following the widely accepted procedure [55,62], 1 g of cement and 20 g of TW, SW, and PCEs solutions were mixed in a centrifuge tube. Each sample being filtered by a quantitative filter paper. Then, the mixture was separated via centrifugation at 700 rpm for 3 min. The adsorbed amount of PCEs in cement particle surface were determined by comparing the concentrations of PCEs before and after they were blended with cement [55].

2.4.6 Adsorption layer thickness measurement

X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements (Thermo Scientific K-Alpha, Thermo Fisher Ltd, USA) were adopted to measure the adsorption layer thickness of PCEs. Following mixing, the cement paste suspension with or without PCEs was dried in a vacuum for testing. The silicon was tested with aluminium as an anode target, and the energy resolution was 0.05 eV. The adsorption layer thickness of the PCEs was calculated from the calculation of Si2p [63].

2.4.7 WFT measurement

To assess the intricate interplay between packing density and void ratio, the voids ratio is determined by the wet packing test, calculated by following Eq. (4) and using the wet packing test method to determine pack density [64,65]. The excessive water ratio can be determined as u w ′ = u w − u void .

(4) u void = 1 − ϕ ϕ ,

where u void is the voids ratio and ϕ is the packing density.

The WFT can be calculated by the excessive water ratio and the specific surface area of cement particles according to Eq. (5) [52]. The specific surface area of cement particles was conducted by the BET method.

(5) WFT = u w ′ A c ,

where WFT is the water film thickness and A c represents the specific surface area of cement particles.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Characterisation of PCEs

3.1.1 Molecular weight and weight distribution

The molecular weight (M w and M n) and PDI of PCEs are presented in Table 4. According to the table, the weights of PCE molecules (M n) were located in the range between 20,000 and 35,000 Da, except the PCE-VI, which was slightly lower at around 17,000 Da. The molecular weight of PCE grafted with NS decreases with decreasing NS content, which is caused by the particles present in NS. PCE-II and PCE-IV with high acid-ether ratio contain higher M w; on the contrary, the number of PCEs with the low acid–ether ratio is relatively low, and PCE-Ⅴ grafted with NS, due to NS. Higher concentration contains higher M w. The adsorption of PCE to cement particles increases with molecular weight, while PCE with lower molecular weights exhibits lower mobility and poorer workability, a phenomenon discussed in the analysis that follows. Moreover, the PDI of the six PCEs was between 1.79 and 2.35, which was similar to the reports from other researchers.

Table 4

M w and M n and PDI of the six PCEs

Type M n (Da) M w (Da) PDI
PCE-Ⅰ 22,395 39,489 1.79
PCE-Ⅱ 30,125 54,918 1.82
PCE-Ⅲ 24,416 42,900 1.76
PCE-Ⅳ 34,095 80,153 2.35
PCE-Ⅴ 33,568 81,510 2.43
PCE-Ⅵ 17,041 31,321 1.84

3.1.2 FTIR Analysis

As shown in Figure 3, for all FTIR spectra of the PCEs, the bump attributing to O–H vibration appeared at around 3,500 cm−1, and the existence of hydroxyl groups in PCE has been confirmed. Moreover, peaks near 2,885, 1,466, and 1,341 cm−1 were attributed to the methyl group from the backbone of the PCE. In addition, the peaks at 1,241 and 840 cm−1 were assigned to the stretching of C–O, which proved the existence of carboxylate groups in PCE. Moreover, the characteristic absorption peak for the ether bond (C–O–C) is at 1,110 cm−1. The FTIR spectra of PCEs exhibited an absorption peak at approximately 1,730 cm−1, distinguishing it from both NS and PCEs where NS particles have been grafted onto the PCE molecules. Noticeably, based on the observation from FTIR spectra, no new peaks have occurred, which indicated that the structures of the six PCEs did not change when they dissolved in TW and SW. Therefore, PCSs degraded in TW and SW solutions but did not result in performance differences between PCEs in TW- and SW-blended cementitious materials.

Figure 3 FTIR spectra of different PCEs in TW or SW: (a) PCE-Ⅰ, (b) PCE-II, (c) PCE-III, (d) PCE-IV, (e) PCE-V, and (f) PCE-VI.
Figure 3

FTIR spectra of different PCEs in TW or SW: (a) PCE-Ⅰ, (b) PCE-II, (c) PCE-III, (d) PCE-IV, (e) PCE-V, and (f) PCE-VI.

3.1.3 Hydrodynamic radius analysis

The hydrodynamic radii (R h) and PDI are depicted in Figure 4, which demonstrate how the PCEs are arranged in solutions. Whatever the solvent type, the differ PCEs showed different R h, which could not only be attributed to the molecular weight but also to the molecular structure. Generally, the decrease of both AA:HPEG ratio and side chain lengths led to a lower value of R h, which could be attributed to the factor that the side chain dominated the conformation of the comb-sharp PCEs. When the PCE was dissolved in SW, the R h values of all six types of PCEs decreased, which could be due to the distortion and shrinkage of the PCE molecule as a result of the aggregation of hydrophobic side chains and the precipitation of salt affecting the backbone. Those behaviours, therefore, may lead to poor dispersion of the PCEs, which will be discussed later. It should be noted, however, that when PCEs were grafted with NS, pronounced shrinkage was observed in SW, which was in conflict with the fact that NS may increase the rigidity of the PCEs. This could be explained as there was a chemical bonding between the NS particles and the polymer chains, which could enhance the compatibility between the two components and enable a more uniform distribution of the NS particles within the superplasticiser matrix [66]. The improved compatibility may reduce the size of agglomerates or clusters, resulting in a smaller hydrodynamic radius [55], the mechanism of which will be further explored. However, the presence of ions in SW can cause a charge screening effect that further compresses the PCE molecule and reduces its R h value. The more significant shrinkage observed in SW compared to other samples could be attributed to the high reactivity of SW cement, which leads to rapid hydration and a consequent reduction in pore volume. This reduction in pore volume results in an increase in capillary pressure, which, in turn, leads to increased shrinkage of the SW cement paste [55,67].

Figure 4 Hydrodynamic radius (R h) and PDI of the PCEs in TW and SW solutions.
Figure 4

Hydrodynamic radius (R h) and PDI of the PCEs in TW and SW solutions.

3.2 Workability

The results of the workability of PCEs by determined by the minislump test as shown in Figure 5. Moreover, the minislump at 5, 30, and 60 min was recorded and is reported in Table 5 to assess the workability. According to the figure, compared to the samples without PCE, the introduction of PCE increased the initial minislump of cement paste. Such as, in TW, the cement paste minislump was raised from 80 to more than 200 mm in the presence of the six PCEs. For the PCE with a longer side chain (PCE-I and PCE-II), the increasing acid–ether ratio caused the initial minislump to be higher, while for the PCE with a shorter side chain (PCE-III and PCE-IV), the lower minislump was observed with high acid-ether ratio. Moreover, the grafting of NS did not significantly enhance PCE dispersion performance. Despite the replacement of SW significantly reduced the initial minislump of the PCE-superplasticised cement paste, generally, the PCE-II and PCE-III still showed the highest initial minislump. Among the six PCEs, the best tolerance of SW was observed in PCE-II, in which the reduction was around 37%, while the PCE-I, the one with a longer side chain and lower acid–ether ratio, and PCE-V, the one with NS group (for slow-releasing), exhibited the higher reduction of more than 64%. Furthermore, as illustrated in Figure 4, PCE-II had the smallest drop in R h, indicating that it did not significantly shrink in the presence of big ions in SW. As a result, the steric repellence of PCE-II showed no discernible impact. For PCEs (I, IV, V, and VI) the SW significantly reduced the initial minislump from higher than 190 to less than 80 mm, indicating that those PCEs were not compatible with the SW-blended cement paste.

Figure 5 Effect of PCE type on initial minislump of cement paste with PCEs.
Figure 5

Effect of PCE type on initial minislump of cement paste with PCEs.

Table 5

Minislump of TW- and SW-blended cement paste with PCE

PCE type Solution Minislump
5 min 30 min 60 min
PCE-Ⅰ TW 227 275 300
SW 75 59 60
PCE-Ⅱ TW 285 297 270
SW 180 100 58
PCE-Ⅲ TW 280 270 265
SW 126 71 60
PCE-Ⅳ TW 192 180 181
SW 87 60 60
PCE-Ⅴ TW 200 198 190
SW 72 59 59
PCE-Ⅵ TW 200 185 167
SW 90 60 59

Table 5 shows that the workability retention of the six PCEs was satisfied in TW, in which the reduction after 60 min hydration was less than 33 mm. Generally, better workability retention was observed in the PCEs with longer side chains; this is more pronounced that the “delayed plasticising” effect was observed in PCE-I [68]. However, when changing the TW to SW, significant increase in minislump loss 60 min ago, which might be explained by the cross-linking between PCE molecules SO4 2− and Mg2+, which increased the mutual attraction between cement particles and the competitive adsorption of ions and PCE molecules reduces the minislump of SW mixed cement paste. The accelerated hydration by SW is caused by the faster dissolution of C3A in the presence of large ions from SW and increases the amounts of AFt formed, which consequently inhibited the workability and maintainability of the PCEs due to the formed AFt hydration product. Furthermore, the incorporation of the NS showed little effect on the retention of the minislump.

3.3 Setting time

The impact of PCEs on the initial and final setting times of cement paste made from TW and SW presented in Figure 6. According to a study of PCEs setting timings in TW and SW, PCEs hinder the formation of product nuclei and the proliferation of such nuclei afterward; these effects weaken the connectivity of the hydration products, leading to longer initial and final coagulation times, which due to the large number of ions (Ca2+ or Mg2+) generated by the dissolution of cement interacting with the anchoring group on the PCE, cement hydration delayed. This delayed setting was more pronounced when the PCE by PCE-V and PCE-Ⅵ, in which grafted NS, those groups can reacted with the calcium in the sulution and further slow down the hydration process of the cement. However, the controdictory results were observed, in which the PCE with higher AA:HPEG ratio delayed the setting when longer side chain was grafted, while PCE with lower acid-ether ratio led to setting time increases when the shorter side chain was used. To be noted, the TW-blended cement paste of the slurry containing PCE-III has longer initial and final setting periods than the slurry containing PCE-II, while in the SW-blended cement paste this changes, with the slurry containing PCE-II with long side chain PCE having a longer initial setting but a shorter final setting time, indicating that the shorter side chain length PCE in the TW-blended cement paste provides better dispersion and workability retention, while more fluidity and a quicker setting time are provided by the longer side chain PCE in SW-blended cement paste.

Figure 6 Influence of PCE type on setting time.
Figure 6

Influence of PCE type on setting time.

3.4 Rheological behaviour

3.4.1 Thixotropic behaviour

The flow curve was used to compute the thixotropic area, which is depicted in Figure 7. From the figure, in TW, The cement paste contained the lower thixotropic region with PCE-II and PCE-III. It is generally accepted that thixotropy includes structural build-up and structural disruption under shear in cement suspensions and is closely related to the flocculation state of the cement particles, so there are different responses to the adding PCE, which has different molecular structures, the results indicates that the PCEs with high acid-ether ratio or longer side chain has better effect in SW-blended cement paste. Due to the high electrostatic and steric repulsion, the cement particles are better dispersed and prevent the flocculation [69].

Figure 7 Effect of PCE type on thixotropic area of cement pastes.
Figure 7

Effect of PCE type on thixotropic area of cement pastes.

3.4.2 Rheological parameters

3.4.2.1 Dynamic yield stress

According to the three rheological theories, the dynamic yield stress as shown in Figures 8(a), 9(a) and 10(a), respectively. Figure 8(a) demonstrates that regardless of the PCEs and solution used, the obvious reduction in the yield stress was found in the figure. Noteworthy is the fact that the passive yield stress was observed in the paste with PCE-I, PCE-II, and PCE-III, which indicates a changed rheological behaviour, in specific, the shear-thickening, could be occurred as reported in the high-fluid cementitious materials with PCE [70,71]. It is worth noting that the modified Bingham model in equation (2), where the higher order term c·γ 2, is fitted to the equilibrium flow curve when the slurry is very fluid. In the modified Bingham model, dynamic yield stresses without negative values are clearly visible, suggesting that the different molecular structures of PCE influence shear thickening and that low acid-to-ether ratios and lengthy side chains in PCE-II-containing slurries result in lower dynamic yield stresses in both TW and SW. Obviously, in the case of different acid ether ratio, the long side chain structure of PCEs showed that better dispersion effect in the cementitious materials which might be due to the longer side chain providing a better steric repulsion. However, compared with the cement paste with other PCEs, incorporating of NS 10% (PCE-V) and 5% (PCE-VI) had less effect on reducing the yield stress. These results from the minislump analysis are shown in Figure 5 and will be expanded upon in the discussion section below.

Figure 8 The role of PCE type on yield stress and plastic viscosity of cement paste fitted to the Bingham model: (a) yield stress, (b) plastic viscosity.
Figure 8

The role of PCE type on yield stress and plastic viscosity of cement paste fitted to the Bingham model: (a) yield stress, (b) plastic viscosity.

Figure 9 The role of PCE type on yield stress, plastic viscosity, and c/μ value of cement paste fitted to the Modified Bingham model: (a) yield stress, (b) plastic viscosity, and (c) c/μ value.
Figure 9

The role of PCE type on yield stress, plastic viscosity, and c/μ value of cement paste fitted to the Modified Bingham model: (a) yield stress, (b) plastic viscosity, and (c) c/μ value.

Figure 10 The role of PCE type on yield stress, consistency factor, and exponent of cement paste fitted to the Herschel–Bulkley model: (a) yield stress, (b) consistency factor, and (c) exponent.
Figure 10

The role of PCE type on yield stress, consistency factor, and exponent of cement paste fitted to the Herschel–Bulkley model: (a) yield stress, (b) consistency factor, and (c) exponent.

3.4.2.2 Plastic viscosity and consistency factor

According to the three rheological theories, the plastic viscosity (consistency factor) is shown in Figures 8(b), 9(b) and 10(b), respectively. Plastic viscosity is another key parameter in the rheological performance of cement and water mixtures, reflecting the flow and compaction characteristics of fresh concrete. From all the figures, the addition of PCEs reduced the plastic viscosity regardless of the rheological models, indicating that based on the general trend that the addition of superplasticiser reduced both yield stress and plastic viscosity [72]. Generally, compared with the six PCEs, the lower value was observed in PCE-I, PCE-II, and PCE-III, indicating the PCEs with a longer side chain or lower AA:HPEG ratio could significantly affect the viscosity. Since the long side chain is beneficial for the dispersion of cement particles due to its influence on both water mobility and distribution of water molecules [73], the increased dispersion of cement particles may lead to the decrease of viscosity in the system. This indicates that longer PEO chains have lower apparent yield stress and lower plastic viscosity. However, when the SW was applied, the viscosity was significantly increased with higher viscosity at high salinity. This could be due to the promoted hydration of the SW cement paste, in which the hydration product can bridge the particles and form the agglomerates.

3.4.2.3 c/μ and exponent

Given that the presence of superplasticiser has modified the rheological behaviours, in particularly, PCE [70], the Modified Bingham model and Herschel–Bulkley models, were involved, and the index, in terms of c/μ and Exponent, are plotted in Figures 9(c) and 10(c), respectively. It can be clearly seen from Figure 9(c) the shift in the c/μ value from negative to positive indicates that the addition of PCEs was the cause of the shear-thickening. Meantime, as shown in Figure 10(c), additionally, based on the HB model and the increasing exponent to over one, the shear-thickening was seen. Since the shear-thickening is normally occurred under two conditions, on the one hand, the solids in suspension have a good volume fraction, and on the other hand, the state of the suspension must be non-flocculated, which means the high hydrodynamic causes agglomerates to form between particles by overcoming the repulsive forces between them [74,75]. As a result, a sudden increase in viscosity due to particle blockage in the shear zone occurs as the clusters become larger and larger, and shear thickening occurs.

3.4.3 Relationship between minislump and yield stress

The relationship between the workability and rheological parameter has been established by different researchers [55,76]. Since there are few collations between plastic viscosity and workability, Modified Bingham model and Herschel–Bulkley model were used in an effort to create contact between the dynamic yield stress and the minislump as shown in Figure 11. From the figure high R 2 values are observed for all two applied models, indicating a strong contact between the initial minislump and the yield stress. These findings showed that the two rheological models gave accurate predictions of workability. Additionally, the Bingham model was shown to have negative yield stress, indicating that it was unsuitable for assessing the rheological behaviour of cement paste containing PCEs, the similar but also high R 2 indicated the feasibility of MB and HB models for describing those properties.

Figure 11 Relationship between initial minislump and yield stress calculated under different rheological models: (a) modified Bingham model, (b) Herschel–Bulkley model.
Figure 11

Relationship between initial minislump and yield stress calculated under different rheological models: (a) modified Bingham model, (b) Herschel–Bulkley model.

3.5 Adsorption amount and layer thickness of PCEs

3.5.1 Adsorption amount of PCEs

Observed from Figure 12 and the schematic diagram of adsorption as shown in Figure 13 that a similar trend was observed in both TW and SW, in which the amount of adsorption in PCE-I, PCE-II, and PCE-III was higher. Clearly, the PCE with a long side chain exhibited a high adsorption amount, which higher adsorption in high AA:HPEG ratio. Due to its unique chemical structure, a denser and more stable adsorption layer could be formed on the surface of the cement particles. This adsorption layer is less susceptible to the negative effects of SW than PCEs with a lower acid-to-ether ratio or shorter side chains, which therefore shows a better working capacity as reported in Figure 5. The longer side chains in this PCE provided more spatial site resistance and inhibit the compression and substitution of counter-equilibrium ions in SW on the adsorbed layer. Moreover, for the PCE with a shorter side chain, contradicting the trend with a long side chain, the low AA:HPEG ratio facilitates the adsorption of PCEs. Observations revealed that PCEs grafted with NS (PCE-V and PCE-VI) exhibited higher adsorption capacity in SW compared to PCE-I and PCE-III. This could be attributed to the superior resistance of NS against ion action in SW, leading to better adsorption performance than PCE-I and PCE-II. However, excessive NS could form the agglomerates and consume lots of PCEs, and hydrate to form the hydration product. Those behaviours may reduce the adsorption amount of PCE and further reduce the workability as depicted in Figure 5. Although the general trend of the effect from different types of PCEs was similar to that in TW, when TW was substituted with SW, a noticeably decreased adsorption was seen. For instance, the reductions in PCE-II and PCE-V were 46.15 and 62.55%, respectively. Further, the higher charge density was often indicated by the high AA:HPEG ratio. Hence, PCEs with a larger AA: HPEG ratio ought to have a greater capacity for adsorption. Nevertheless, short-side chain PCE demonstrated lower adsorption, which was caused by the development of a complex between the divalent ions and the carboxylate group [34].

Figure 12 Influence of PCE type on adsorption amount.
Figure 12

Influence of PCE type on adsorption amount.

Figure 13 Schematic diagram of the adsorption of PCE-II and PCE grafted with nano-silica in TW- and SW-blended cement paste.
Figure 13

Schematic diagram of the adsorption of PCE-II and PCE grafted with nano-silica in TW- and SW-blended cement paste.

3.5.2 Thickness of adsorption layer

The thickness of the adsorbed PCE layer was determined by measuring the change in the Si2p XPS signal as shown in Figure 14. The disparity in adsorption conformation between TW and SW could be attributed to the variation in the ionic strength of these two solutions. SW typically contains a higher concentration of ions, which can impact the orientation of PCE molecules on the cement surface. Furthermore, the size and shape of PCE molecules and their interaction with the cement surface can also contribute to differences in the thickness of the adsorbed layer. With higher side chain lengths of PCEs, PCE-I and PCE-II exhibited a thicker adsorption layer. Compared with the PCEs with shorter side chains, the PCE-III with a low AA:HPEG ratio showed the highest thickness, while PCE-VI, showed the lowest thickness as shown in Figure 14. This result was well correlated to the result of workability and rheological property results that the thicker adsorption layer of superplasticiser may give the SW-blend cement paste a higher dispersing ability. Similar to the adsorption amount, the thickness of the adsorption layer was dramatically reduced when TW was replaced with SW. When PCEs with higher acid-to-ether ratios and longer side chain structures are adsorbed onto cement particles in tap water, they tend to adopt more extended conformations, resulting in thicker adsorption layers and better dispersion of cement particles. However, the presence of a large number of ions in SW can impact the adsorption conformation, leading to a denser adsorption layer and consequently reducing the performance of PCEs. Furthermore, grafted silica alters the surface charge of cement particles, diminishing their attraction to charged PCE molecules, thus leading to a decrease in the thickness of the adsorption layer. And for all PCEs, the thickness in SW was less than 50% of that in TW, except PCE-II, which consequently lead to the lower reduction in workability of SW-blended cement paste.

Figure 14 Effect of PCE type on thickness of adsorption layer of the cement paste.
Figure 14

Effect of PCE type on thickness of adsorption layer of the cement paste.

3.6 WFT

The average thickness of the water film that covers the surface of the cement particles known as the WFT of the cement paste was determined. Figure 15 and Table 6 display the outcomes. The packing density and WFT decreased significantly after replacing TW with SW. This change was attributed to the presence of chloride ions in SW, which accelerated the hydration of cement particles, causing them to agglomerate. The figure shows that no matter what kind of solution, PCE-II and PCE-III provided a thicker water film. Moreover, the film of PCE-II was, which promoted the fluidity of the cement paste, which was also due to the better dispersion effect of PCE-II, which provides a thicker water film resulting in better oiling to increase the fluidity. In addition, lower WFT was observed in all samples compared to TW, indicating poor lubrication of the cement particles and thus low machinability. This may be due to the accelerated hydration in the SW hybrid cement that reduces the internal pores and consumes the excess moisture wrapped around the particle surface. According to Table 6, the packing density of different types of PCE in TW- and SW-mixed cement paste changes. Among the six PCEs, PCE-II with longer side chains exhibited the highest packing density when the acid-ether ratio was high; however, the PCE-III type with short side chains shows a decrease in packing density even at high acid–ether ratios. In addition, The addition of nano-silica to a PCE structure causes spatial blocking, which affects the packing density of PCE molecules. When NS is grafted onto a PCE structure, it occupies space and prevents PCE molecules from packing as tightly as they would without NS, Therefore, PCE-Ⅴ and PCE-Ⅵ grafted with NS exhibited poor packing density.

Figure 15 Influence of PCE type on WFT.
Figure 15

Influence of PCE type on WFT.

Table 6

Excess water ratio and packing density of TW- and SW-mixed cement paste with PCEs

PCE Type Solution Voids ratio Excess water ratio Packing density WFT (μm)
PCE-Ⅰ TW 0.639 0.297 0.610 0.268
SW 0.722 0.213 0.581 0.193
PCE-Ⅱ TW 0.578 0.358 0.634 0.323
SW 0.636 0.3 0.611 0.271
PCE-Ⅲ TW 0.598 0.337 0.626 0.305
SW 0.697 0.238 0.588 0.215
PCE-Ⅳ TW 0.660 0.275 0.602 0.249
SW 0.725 0.211 0.579 0.190
PCE-Ⅴ TW 0.647 0.288 0.609 0.260
SW 0.740 0.193 0.573 0.174
PCE-Ⅵ TW 0.655 0.28 0.604 0.254
SW 0.733 0.203 0.577 0.183

3.7 Discussion

Generally, based on the results, the performance of PCEs depends on both molecular architecture and salinity of the SW. As presented in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, the replacement of TW by SW significantly decreases the fluidity, but the long side chain, high AA:HPEG ratio PCE-II, and the short side chain, low AA:HPEG ratio PCE-III, SW mixed cement paste performed better at all salinities.

Although there are more ions in SW than in TW, this did not have an impact on the molecular structure of the PCEs and then indeed changed the conformation of the PCEs, in which the hydrodynamic radius R h was significantly reduced from in TW to SW (Figure 4). Because steric barrier caused by the side chain is so important in PCE dispersion, the reduction of R h in SW of PCE may lead to the decrease of the dispersion performance of PCE.

Moreover, SW contains massive ions, particularly Mg2+ and SO4 2−, which significantly affect the adsorption behaviour of PCEs. PCEs with high acid-to-ether ratios and high side chain densities are less affected by inhibition and use of steric hindrance and dispersion mechanism to increase water encapsulation on the surface of particles and improve the compatibility of SW-blended cement paste; however, for NS-modified PCE (PCE-V and PCE-VI), the potential for interaction between the NS and cement particles is reduced, thus affecting its performance in cement paste. However, with the emergence of Mg-complexation, the interaction of PCE molecules from its carboxylate group may be detrimental to PCE adsorption. While this is happening, the enhanced cement particle repellence can help to release any trapped water. This surplus water can then be used to thicken the water film, lubricate the cement particles, and ultimately increase the workability of the cement paste. Given that steric repulsion is the foundation of the primary operating mechanism of PCEs, thus, the dispersion of the SW-blended cement particles can be improved by establishing a thicker barrier. Our findings suggest that the molecular structure of PCEs plays a key role in their performance in SW-blended cement paste.

Additionally, the dispersion characteristics of PCE in cement were similarly affected by the amount of PCE that was adsorbed and the thickness of the adsorption layer. Since it is based on either the literature [55] or the minislump discussion in Section 3.4.3, this was concluded in relation to the rheological parameters. Therefore, the connections between the initial minislump and the amount of adsorption, the initial minislump and the thickness of the adsorption PCEs layer, at the same time the initial minislump and WFT were used to assess and investigate the probable rheological parameter mechanism as shown in Figure 16. Generally, combining the results of minislump, adsorption, and thickness of the adsorption layer and WFT, it was noticed that all of those findings had a really tight linear relationship with the initial minislump of the cement paste, which is utilised to demonstrate the characteristics of several PCEs in a cementitious system.

Figure 16 Relationship between the workability and interaction of PCEs in cementitious material. (a) Relationship between initial minislump and adsorption amount, (b) relationship between initial minislump and thickness of adsorption layer, and (c) relationship between initial minislump and WFT.
Figure 16

Relationship between the workability and interaction of PCEs in cementitious material. (a) Relationship between initial minislump and adsorption amount, (b) relationship between initial minislump and thickness of adsorption layer, and (c) relationship between initial minislump and WFT.

Massive ions are known to exist in SW, especially Mg2+ and SO4 2−, which greatly impact how PCEs behave during adsorption. It is generally believed that SO4 2− can decrease the adsorption of PCE, while Mg2+ can hasten the adsorption. But the adsorption of PCE might be negatively impacted by the development of Mg-complexation between its carboxylate group and PCE molecules [57]. The enhanced cement particle repellency can allow the water that has been trapped to escape, and surplus water from which the procedure can thicken the water layer, lubricate the cement particles, and ultimately increase the workability of the paste. Due to steric repulsion being the primary functioning mechanism of PCE, the dispersion of the SW-blended cement particles can be improved by establishing a thicker barrier. Therefore, the long side chain and high acid-ether architecture of PCE-Ⅱwas performed the best amount for the six PCEs. In this study, PCE-V and PCE-VI grafted with NS, led to the formation of aggregates or agglomerates, which negatively affected their dispersion properties in SW. Although NS can provide new reaction sites for cement hydration and counteract the large number of ions in SW, its incorporation into PCE can also lead to the formation of aggregates or agglomerates, which can negatively affect dispersion performance and lead to reduced workability.

4 Conclusions

In this work, the effects of polymer molecular architecture on PCE performance in SW-blend cement paste were thoroughly investigated; the following conclusions can be drawn :

  1. There was no noticeable degradation or change in PCE solubility when SW was used in place of TW. However, a weak steric hindrance was greatly lowered by the hydrodynamic radius (R h) of PCEs.

  2. In cement paste combined with TW and SW, PCEs with distinct molecular architectures performed differently. The best dispersion performance is provided by PCE-II, which has long side chain and high AA:HPEG ratio, and incorporating 5% of NS by grafting can improve the workability of SW-blended cement slurry.

  3. Adding all six PCEs altered the rheological behaviour of the cement paste, in which a shear-thickening behaviour was observed. When multiple rheological models were compared, Herschel–Bulkley model showed a higher fitting optimisation index of PCEs in TW and SW mixed cement paste.

  4. The highest adsorption and the thickest adsorption layer were found in cement paste containing PCE-II, in SW-blended cement paste, despite the SW lowering the dispersion function of PCE, when PCE with a high acid-ether ratio and a long side chain is utilised, the initial and final setting times are shortened, and the flowability of slurry is increased.

  5. TW replaced with SW reduces the packing density and WFT, and the reduced WFT resulted in a decrease in the workability of cement paste. PCE-II has a higher WFT in SW-blended cement paste due to its high acid-ether ratio and lengthy side chains, thus providing better lubrication and increasing fluidity.

  6. Although the influence of PCE in SW-blended cement was studied, developing a SW-compatible superplasticiser is still essential for the extensive application of SW in manufacturing cement and concrete.

  1. Funding information: The financial supports from National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (52168038, 51908526, 51978409), Yunnan Fundamental Research Projects (202301AT070192), Scientific Research and Development Project of Yunnan Provincial Department of Housing and Urban-rural Development (K024082410, K029102336), The First Yunnan University Professional Degree Postgraduate Practice Innovation Project (2021Y064), the College Student Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Project (202210673087, 202210673019, S202210673064) are greatly acknowledged.

  2. Author contributions: Jun Ren: project administration, investigation, formal analysis, writing – review and editing, funding acquisition. Shuo Yan: Writing – original draft. Yunhui Fang: conceptualisation, resources, funding acquisition. Zhenhe Tian: project administration, supervision, resources. Hao Li: writing – original draft, investigation, formal analysis. Jinyi Guo: investigation, validation. Feng Xing: conceptualisation, supervision, resources. Yiding Fan: formal analysis, validation. Xianfeng Wang: conceptualisation, supervision, resources. Zengle Ren: conceptualisation, resources, funding acquisition. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All the data associated with this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Received: 2023-03-05
Revised: 2023-06-01
Accepted: 2023-06-26
Published Online: 2023-08-07

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0573
Keywords for this article
polycarboxylate superplasticiser; nanosilica; rheological behaviour; seawater; molecular architecture; adsorption
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
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  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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