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High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities

  • Lu Zhang EMAIL logo , Minghua Wu , Qun Liu and Haidong Wang
Published/Copyright: October 10, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Wearable flexible strain sensors have attracted considerable attention in recent years, while it is still a significant challenge to fabricate wearable flexible strain sensors with high sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously. In this work, a high-performance wearable flexible strain sensor based on a thermoplastic polyurethane electrospun nanofibers (TPUNFs) film embedded with a silver nanowires/reduced graphene oxide (AgNWs/rGO) composite conductive material was fabricated via a simple drop-coating technique. The effect of the amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material on the strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was investigated, the strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was compared with that of the AgNWs/TPUNFs and GO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor, and the strain sensing properties of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor were measured. The results showed that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously was achieved by compounding AgNWs and the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) conductive material. The strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor could be improved by increasing the amount of the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, and it was obviously better than that of AgNWs/TPUNFs and the rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. The obtained AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor possessed high sensitivity (the gauge factor could reach a maximum of 2513.23.) as well as a wide sensing range (∼187%). Furthermore, the obtained AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had a fast response/recovery time (200 ms/300 ms) and good cycling stability (∼3,000 cycles). Benefitting from the outstanding strain sensing performance, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor could detect large human motions such as finger, wrist, and knee bending as well as expression, which demonstrates great potential applications in wearable devices.

Keywords: silver nanowires; reduced graphene oxide; electrospun nanofibers; flexible strain sensor; human activities

1 Introduction

Wearable devices have promising applications in personal healthcare, human motion monitoring, disease diagnosis, human–machine interface, and virtual reality [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. Among wearable devices, wearable strain sensors are recognized as one of the most indispensable sensors, as they can transduce mechanical strain into electrical signals and integrate into some smart devices to detect useful information about people [8,9,10,11]. However, conventional strain sensors were composed of semiconductor material or metal foil, the application range was seriously restricted due to their rigidity, low sensing range, and resolution [12,13]. To satisfy the requirements of wearable, numerous efforts have been devoted to fabricating wearable flexible strain sensors, while it is still a significant challenge to fabricate wearable flexible strain sensors with excellent sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously [14,15].

However, the sensitivity and strain sensing range of wearable flexible strain sensors are closely related to their compositions [12,16,17,18]. Generally, wearable flexible strain sensors are composed of elastomers and active sensing materials [19,20]. The elastomers are usually insulation materials including silicone rubber (SR), Ecoflex, styreneic block copolymer (SBC), poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), etc. [14,21]. TPU exhibits relatively higher tensile properties and better stretchability compared to other elastomers, and it was widely used in the fabrication of wearable flexible strain sensors [22,23]. However, the active sensing materials are conductive materials including metal (e.g., silver, copper, zinc, etc.) nanoparticles/nanowires, carbon materials (e.g., carbon nanotube, graphene, carbon black, etc.), and conductive polymers (e.g., polyaniline, polythiophene, polyphenylenevinylene, polypyrrole, etc.) [24,25,26]. Among these conductive materials, silver nanowires (AgNWs) with outstanding conductivity, flexibility, and easy preparation were considered the most promising candidates for wearable flexible strain sensors [23,27,28], whereas they tended to entangle because of their high aspect ratio and one-dimensional structure, which would increase contact resistance of AgNWs and affect the sensitivity of wearable flexible strain sensor [29]. Through further research, it was found that constructing a susceptible conductive network that had a low initial resistance was profitable in increasing the sensitivity of wearable flexible strain sensors [28,30,31]. Graphene oxide (GO) is a two-dimensional conductive material, it has attracted considerable attention owing to its unique properties (such as mechanical properties, thermal and flexibility, etc.), and it was often composited with other conductive materials to fabricate wearable flexible strain sensors [32,33]. While the additive amount would increase when GO was used alone because of its poor electrical conductivity, then the mechanical property and sensitivity of wearable flexible strain sensor would be affected. Fortunately, AgNWs have good conductivity, and GO has many functional groups that could form hydrogen bond with carbonyl and acylamino on the surface of AgNWs [34,35,36,37], by compounding AgNWs and GO, the dispersibility of AgNWs and conductivity of AgNWs/GO and AgNWs/rGO composite conductive materials could be improved. At the same time, it was found that the formation of the conductive network by AgNWs/rGO was more susceptible than that of AgNWs or rGO [28], and the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material could exploit the properties of both AgNWs and rGO synergistically endowing good conductivity and better sensing performance for wearable flexible strain sensor [25,38]. Through further research, it was found that the interaction between elastomers and active sensing materials directly influenced the stability of wearable flexible strain sensors. Yin et al. [28] spay-coated AgNWs and GO on the surface of the TPU electrospun nanofibers mat to fabricate rGO/AgNWs/TPU flexible strain sensor, and the sensor showed good stability. Lu et al. [25] loaded rGO and AgNWs on high-elastic PBT melt-blown non-woven fabric to fabricate rGO/AgNWs@PBT MB flexible strain sensor, which showed excellent stability in 1,200 stretching-releasing cycles. This may be because of that the PBT melt-blown non-woven fabric and TPU electrospun nanofibers mat had rough surfaces. Through the interface mechanical interaction and strong physical interaction between the conductive active material and the rough surface, the interface stability between the active material and the substrate material would be increased, thus the obtained wearable flexible strain sensor had excellent stability.

Therefore, in order to fabricate a wearable flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously in this study, the hydrogen-bond interaction between AgNWs and graphene oxide was utilized to fabricate AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, and the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material dispersion liquid was drop-coated on the surface of TPU electrospun nanofibers (TPUNFs) film to fabricate AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. Benefitted by the lower initial resistance of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material and high extensibility of TPUNFs film, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously was achieved. The strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor could be improved by increasing the amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material. Through the compositing of AgNWs and GO, the strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was broadened remarkably compared with that of AgNWs/TPUNFs and GO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. The interface mechanical interaction and strong physical interaction between elastomers and active sensing materials endowed the flexible strain sensor with excellent stability. In addition, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was successfully applied to detect large human motions such as finger, wrist, and knee bending as well as expression.

2 Experimental section

The experimental section is displayed in the Supplementary Information document.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Fabrication and characterization of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film

In order to fabricate a wearable flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously, AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film was fabricated via a simple drop-coating technique, and it was used as an active sensing material to fabricate an AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. The AgNWs that we used in this study were homemade, which were fabricated by the solvothermal method, are longer and uniform, the length of AgNWs is about 158 μm, the diameter is about 77 nm, and the details were presented in our previous study [39]. The morphology structures of GO and AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material are shown in Figure 1. The GO was fabricated by the modified Hummers method, it showed a two-dimensional lamellar structure with wrinkles on the surface of the lamellar structure, which was beneficial to composite with AgNWs (Figure 1a and d). The SEM and TEM images of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material (Figure 1b, c, e, and f) revealed that AgNWs and rGO were compounded successfully, and the AgNWs were not only distributed on the surface of rGO but also inserted into the gap between rGO sheets forming uniform AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, which was advantageous to the sensitivity and strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor.

Figure 1 SEM images of GO (a), AgNWs/rGO (b), and the amplifying SEM image of AgNWs/rGO (c), TEM images of GO (d), AgNWs/rGO (e) and HRTEM image of AgNWs/rGO (f).
Figure 1

SEM images of GO (a), AgNWs/rGO (b), and the amplifying SEM image of AgNWs/rGO (c), TEM images of GO (d), AgNWs/rGO (e) and HRTEM image of AgNWs/rGO (f).

In order to certify the successful fabrication of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, the XRD patterns and Raman spectra were used to characterize the structure of GO, rGO, and AgNWs/rGO, and the results are displayed in Figure 2. As shown in Figure 2a, the GO presented a distinct diffraction peak at 10.9°, which could correspond to the (001) plane of graphite [40]. While the diffraction peak located at 10.9° disappeared after the reduction reaction, a new wide diffraction peak appeared at about 24.5°, which could be assigned to the (002) crystal plane of graphite. For the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, the diffraction peak located at about 20.84° could belong to the characteristic peak of rGO, the diffraction peak located at 38.1°, 45.6°, 64.3°, and 77.6° could be ascribed to the (111), (200), (220), and (311) crystal plane of AgNWs, respectively. These characteristic peaks confirmed the combination of AgNWs and rGO [41,42]. Raman spectra of GO, rGO, and AgNWs/rGO are shown in Figure 2b, which exhibited two main dominant peaks (D and G peaks) that appeared at 1,350 and 1,590 cm−1, respectively. The D band reflected the disorder between graphite sheets and indicated the presence of defects in the sample. The G band represented the structure of sp2 carbon and reflected its symmetry and degree of crystallization [43]. The intensity ratio of I D/I G of rGO (1.47) and AgNWs/rGO (1.44) increased compared to that of GO (1), indicating the successful reduction of GO.

Figure 2 XRD patterns of GO, rGO, and AgNWs/rGO conductive materials (a) and Raman patterns of GO, rGO, and AgNWs/rGO conductive materials (b).
Figure 2

XRD patterns of GO, rGO, and AgNWs/rGO conductive materials (a) and Raman patterns of GO, rGO, and AgNWs/rGO conductive materials (b).

Considering that the mass ratio of AgNWs to rGO has an important influence on the conductivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, and the conductivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material directly affects the sensitivity and strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. Therefore, the effect of the mass ratio of AgNWs to GO on the conductivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material was investigated. As shown in Figure S1, the resistivity of pure AgNWs was about 68 Ω cm, and the resistivity of pure GO was about 37 kΩ cm. As the amount of GO increases, the resistivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material showed a downward trend, when the mass ratio of AgNWs to rGO was 1:1, the resistivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material could reach 10.4 Ω cm. After that, the resistivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material increased as the amount of GO increased. This may be because of that the conductivity of AgNWs had a significant role when a bit of GO was added into the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, a small amount of GO could decrease the contact resistance of AgNWs, thus the resistivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material was reduced. When the amount of GO was excess, the amount of AgNWs was decreased obviously, the conductivity of rGO played an important role, thus the resistivity of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material was increased. Hence, it was chosen that the mass ratio of AgNWs to rGO was 1:1 to fabricate the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material.

After that, the TPUNFs film was prepared by electrospinning process, and AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material dispersion liquid was drop-coated on the surface of TPUNFs film to fabricate AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film active sensing material. The surface morphology structure of pure TPUNFs and AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film is shown in Figure 3. As shown in Figure 3a, the pure TPUNF film revealed a network structure, and the diameter of the TPUNF film is about 0.5–1 μm (Figure 3b). After drop-coating AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material dispersion liquid on the surface of TPUNFs film, the network structure of TPUNFs film disappeared and a denser covering layer was formed on the surface of TPUNFs film (Figure 3c). By further magnifying the SEM image of the denser covering layer, it could be seen that the AgNWs were dispersed uniformly in the denser covering layer, which was beneficial to improving the conductivity of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film (Figure 3d), thus the sensitivity and strain sensing range of the flexible strain sensor would be improved. In order to test the strain responsiveness of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film, the film was inserted into a circuit as part of the traverse (Figure S2). The circuit was able to light an LED lamp indicating that the resistivity of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film was small. The LED lamp showed different brightness levels while being stretched after the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film was inserted into the circuit. This demonstrates that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film had great potential for preparing wearable flexible strain sensors.

Figure 3 (a) SEM image of the pure TPUNF film; (b) the histograms of diameter distribution of the pure TPUNF film; (c) SEM image of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film; and (d) the amplifying SEM image of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film.
Figure 3

(a) SEM image of the pure TPUNF film; (b) the histograms of diameter distribution of the pure TPUNF film; (c) SEM image of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film; and (d) the amplifying SEM image of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film.

3.2 Strain sensing performance of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor

Except for the mass ratio of AgNWs to GO, the drop-coating amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material on the surface of TPUNFs film has a great impact on the sensitivity and strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. When the drop-coating amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material was fewer, the strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor may be narrower, and the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material would peel off the TPUNFs film when the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material was excess. Therefore, the effect of the drop-coating amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material on the strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was investigated. From Figure S3, it could be seen that the strain sensing range increased gradually with the increase in the drop-coating amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material, the strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was less than 60% with AgNWs/rGO-1mL composite conductive material, when the drop-coating amount of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive materials was 5 mL, the strain sensing range of AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor could reach 187%, which could be due to the fact that the interaction of AgNWs and GO enlarged the strain sensing range (as shown in Figures 1 and 2 the successful fabrication of AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material). Therefore the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film active sensing material with AgNWs/rGO-5mL composite conductive material was used to fabricate the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor.

To further measure the sensitivity of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor, it could be found that the relative resistance change (△R/R 0) increased with the increasing applied strain (as shown in Figure 4a). The strain sensing range of the flexible strain sensor could reach 187%, and the gauge factor (GF) could reach a maximum of 2513.23, demonstrating that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had high sensitivity and wide strain sensing range simultaneously, which benefitted from the high extensibility of the TPUNF film and the low initial resistance and structure of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs composite conductive material. After that, the stress–strain properties of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs active sensing material and the strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor were compared with that of AgNWs/TPUNFs and GO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensors. As shown in Figure S4a, it had little effect on the stress–strain properties by drop-coating AgNWs, GO, and AgNWs/rGO on the surface of the TPUNF film. Apparently, the strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was broader than that of AgNWs/TPUNFs and the GO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor (as shown in Figure S4b), indicating that the combination of AgNWs and rGO could produce synergistic effect during being stretched; therefore, the strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was broadened. Compared with similar sensors reported in the literature (as shown in Figure 4b), our obtained flexible strain sensor had higher sensitivity and wider sensing range, indicating that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had excellent properties, which benefitted from the high extensibility of the TPUNF film and the low initial resistance and the structure of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs composite conductive material [15,40,44,45,46]. Subsequently, the relative resistance changes in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor during cyclic stretching release to different strains (20, 25, 30, 35, and 40%) at the same frequency were investigated, and the results are shown in Figure 4c. It could be seen that △R/R 0 increased with the increase in stretching strain, and it showed negligible change for the same stretching strain during cyclic stretching–releasing, indicating that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had excellent repeatability and stability. The relative resistance change in the flexible strain sensor under different working frequencies is shown in Figure 4d, in which the invariable amplitude of the curves demonstrated that the resistance of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was not affected by the stretching rate. As shown in Figure 4e and f, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor exhibited excellent stability and durability, which benefitted from the interface’s mechanical interaction and strong physical interaction between the conductive active material and the rough surface.

Figure 4 (a) Relative resistance change in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor under various applied strains. (b) Comparison of GF and maximum strain sensing range with similar sensors reported in the literature. (c) Relative resistance changes in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor during cyclic stretching–releasing to different strains (20, 25, 30, 35, and 40%). (d) Relative resistance change in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor under different working frequencies (5, 10, 50, 100, and 200 mm/min). (e) Relative resistance change in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor during repeated stretching to the strain of 25% for 3,000 cycles, and (f) the amplifying view of the marked region of (e).
Figure 4

(a) Relative resistance change in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor under various applied strains. (b) Comparison of GF and maximum strain sensing range with similar sensors reported in the literature. (c) Relative resistance changes in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor during cyclic stretching–releasing to different strains (20, 25, 30, 35, and 40%). (d) Relative resistance change in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor under different working frequencies (5, 10, 50, 100, and 200 mm/min). (e) Relative resistance change in the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor during repeated stretching to the strain of 25% for 3,000 cycles, and (f) the amplifying view of the marked region of (e).

The response/recovery time is another important parameter of the flexible strain sensor for the real-time detection of human motions. As shown in Figure 5, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was stretched to 25% and then recovered to its original state, and the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor showed rapid response with negligible hysteresis. The response/recovery time was about 200 and 300 ms, respectively.

Figure 5 Response and recovery time of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor.
Figure 5

Response and recovery time of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor.

3.3 Stretching mechanism of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor

Based on the structure and performance detection of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor, the flexible strain sensor had higher sensitivity and wider detection range compared to similar flexible strain sensors reported in the literature (Figure 4b), which benefitted from the composite conductive material design of two-dimensional GO and one-dimensional AgNWs, the high extensibility of TPUNFs film, and the interface mechanical interaction and strong physical interaction between the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material and the rough surface of the TPUNF film (Figure 6). Using the composite of two-dimensional GO and one-dimensional AgNWs, the AgNWs were not only distributed on the surface of rGO but also inserted into the gap between rGO sheets (Figure 1b and c), which could significantly improve the conductivity of AgNWs, expand the conductive path of the conductive material, reduce the initial resistance of the AgNW-based wearable flexible strain sensor, and improve the sensitivity of the flexible strain sensor. The high extensibility of the TPUNF film could endow the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor wide detection range. The AgNWs/rGO dispersion was drop-coated on the surface of the TPUNF film forming a staggered interface structure between AgNWs/rGO and the TPUNF film, which could increase the interaction force between the interfaces. In addition, the amide group of the PVP pyrrolidone ring on the surface of AgNWs and the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups of rGO could form hydrogen bonding with the carbamate group of TPU. The interface mechanical interaction and strong physical interaction between AgNWs/rGO conductive materials and the rough surface of the TPUNF film could prevent the AgNWs/rGO conductive materials from peeling from the surface of the TPUNF film while being stretched, which could endow the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film flexible strain sensor with excellent stability. In normal application stretching, the interface structure between AgNWs/rGO conductive materials and the TPUNF film was not damaged, and the number of conductive paths of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film flexible strain sensor changed with the change in stretching strain indicating that the flexible strain sensor had high sensitivity. However, when the stretching strain was too large beyond the scope of normal application stretching, the AgNWs/rGO conductive material would be irretrievably separated and broken destroying the conductive path of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor, and the failure of the sensor.

Figure 6 Schematic diagram of the possible stretching mechanism of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor while being stretched.
Figure 6

Schematic diagram of the possible stretching mechanism of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor while being stretched.

3.4 Application performance of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor

Due to the excellent mechanical properties, high sensitivity, and wide sensing range, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was attached to the surface of the human body for the real-time detection of human activities. In order to detect the response of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor to subtle motion, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was attached above the eyebrow (Figure 7a), and the motion of frown could be distinguished indicating that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor could be used to detect facial expressions. As shown in Figure 7b, when the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was fixed on the finger, the relative resistance increased promptly with the change in the bending degree of the finger. At each bending cycle, it was found that the variation in the relative resistance was repeatable and reliable during the cyclic bending process of the finger. Also, the bending of the wrist could be distinguished by the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor (as shown in Figure 7e), and the differences between the pattern of wrist bending and the pattern of finger bending indicated that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had great potential in the application of gesture recognition. Additionally, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor could be used to detect the motions such as walking and running (Figure 7c and d), when it was attached to the knee of a volunteer. Walking, running in place, and running forward showed different relative resistance values, which could be due to the different stretching degrees of leg muscles caused by inconsistent steps, indicating the high sensitivity of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. These results showed that the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor has great potential in the application of full-range human activities.

Figure 7 Application of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor for real-time detection of human activities by adhering it onto the surface of skin: (a) eyebrow, (b) index finger, (c, d) knee, and (e) wrist. The insets show photographs of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor attaching to the skin at different bending degrees.
Figure 7

Application of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor for real-time detection of human activities by adhering it onto the surface of skin: (a) eyebrow, (b) index finger, (c, d) knee, and (e) wrist. The insets show photographs of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor attaching to the skin at different bending degrees.

4 Conclusions

In summary, a highly sensitive and wide-sensing range flexible strain sensor based on the TPUNF film embedded with the AgNWs/rGO composite conductive material was fabricated via a simple drop-coating technique. Through compounding AgNWs and GO, the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor with high sensitivity and wide sensing range simultaneously was achieved. The strain sensing range of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor was broadened remarkably compared with those of AgNWs/TPUNFs and the GO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor. Benefitted from the high extensibility of TPUNFs and the low initial resistance and structure of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film, the obtained AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor possessed high sensitivity (the GF could reach a maximum of 2513.23) as well as wide sensing range (∼187%). The GF and strain sensing range of the obtained AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor were higher than the similar sensors reported in the literature. Benefitted from the interface mechanical interaction and strong physical interaction between the AgNWs/rGO conductive film and the rough surface of the TPUNF film, the obtained AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had good cycling stability (∼3,000 cycles). Furthermore, the obtained AgNWs/rGO/TPUNFs film flexible strain sensor had a fast response/recovery time (200 ms/300 ms), and it could be used to detect large human motions such as finger, wrist, knee bending as well as expression. These results demonstrated the excellent potential of the AgNWs/rGO/TPUNF film flexible strain sensor for applications in wearable devices.

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

  1. Funding information: This study was supported by the foundation of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology (No. 222012212012) and Development Plan Project of Jilin Province Science and Technology Department (YDZJ202201ZYTS623).

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-05-18
Revised: 2023-08-15
Accepted: 2023-08-20
Published Online: 2023-10-10

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0119
Keywords for this article
silver nanowires; reduced graphene oxide; electrospun nanofibers; flexible strain sensor; human activities
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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