Startseite Technik A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
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A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor

  • Dena N. Qasim Agha EMAIL logo und Zahraa Yahya
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 9. August 2024
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Abstract

This article evaluates SiGe/Si heterojunction vertical tunnel field-effect transistor (VTFET-hetero) biosensors, using SiGe in the source region to enhance sensitivity. It detects smaller analyte concentrations for biomedical applications. Non-ideal sensor behavior is explained by steric hindrance and irregular probe/receptor positions. Based on the simulation results, sensitivity is determined for four different cases in which partially filled nanogaps have decreasing, increasing, concave, and convex profiles. Simulation shows concave step profiles having the highest sensitivity. The VTFET-hetero structure exhibits higher sensitivity than horizontal biosensors, achieving a sensitivity of 8.64 × 107 for immobilized charged biomolecules.

Keywords: vertical TFET-based biosensor; steric hindrance; heterojunctions structure; drain current sensitivity; biomolecules

1 Introduction

A significant amount of attention has been paid to biosensors for identifying biological molecules, such as proteins and glucose, using label-free technology in various fields, such as medical, environmental, and agricultural fields, as well as criminal identification [1]. The accuracy of biosensors depends on the type of molecule being detected, its concentration, and the specificity of the sensor. In addition, biosensors require minimal sample preparation and are simple to operate. A comparison of different possible devices for bio-sensing functions shows that the field-effect transistor (FET) exhibits classic performance as a label-free bio-sensor because it is compatible with CMOS technology, has higher scaling capabilities, is more cost-effective, and is extremely sensitive [2]. A wide range of applications are available for biosensors, including in the food sector, the environment monitoring domain, and the medical field. FET-based biosensors are also suitable for real-time monitoring and rapid detection of pathogens, toxins, and other contaminants. Furthermore, they are capable of measuring several signals, such as electrical, optical, and chemical [2–4]. A biomolecule’s neutral or charged charge can alter the oxide capacitance, altering the drain current or threshold voltage when it occupies the nanogaps. The charge of the biomolecule can affect the electric field in the nanogaps, which can affect the drain current or threshold voltage. This change in voltage can be used to detect the biomolecule. Aspartic acid (Asp), lysine (Lys), arginine (Arg), glutamic acid (Glu), and aspartic acid (Asp) have dielectric constants [5] ranging from 11 to 25.6, whereas gluten, keratin, and zenin have dielectric constants ranging from 5 to 10 [6–8]. These differences in dielectric constants can be used to distinguish between different types of biomolecules, allowing for more sensitive and accurate detection [9]. In addition, they can be used to optimize the design of nanogap-based biosensors. Dielectric-modulated biosensors can perform biosensing by etching a nanogap in the gate dielectric material, resulting in a change in the dielectric constant, which in turn changes the drain current [10–13]. Because of this, the analyte can be detected in a sample since the dielectric constant changes with the analyte’s concentration. Biomolecules induce this change, which can be used to determine whether or not they are present in a sample. Nanogap-based biosensors can also be used to measure biomolecule concentrations. This inductive coupling, which is made possible by a nanogap between the gate electrode and the channel, is what drives the operation of dielectric-modulated FETs. This allows the conductance of the nanogap to be modulated, hence allowing control over the transistor’s performance. The nanogap can detect various small particles in addition to molecules. Biomolecule concentrations can be determined by varying the electrical current flowing through the nanogap [14].

Tunnel field-effect transistors (TFETs) with source pockets perform better than ordinary TFETs in terms of sub-threshold properties [15]. The suppression of short-channel effects in the source pocket area is the cause of this improved performance. As a result, it is possible to manage the sub-threshold current more precisely, which increases energy efficiency [16]. Low-band-gap materials like Ga and InAs are frequently employed in the source region of TFETs with silicon channels to decrease the tunneling width and boost the drain current. TFETs are perfect for low-power applications because of their increased energy efficiency, and they can occasionally take the place of MOSFETs due to their superior energy efficiency. OFF Current, however, exceeded its ideal value due to the tunneling breadth. To further enhance source pocket-engineered TFETs, the drain-to-source extension (DSE) was implemented. By decreasing IOFF, the DSE lowers the tunneling width while maintaining appropriate current flow, increasing TFET efficiency. At low voltages, energy consumption and performance are balanced in III–V materials by using staggered hetero-junctions at the source-channel junctions. This produces a highly efficient, low-power gadget that is perfect for low-power applications. In addition to offering increased on-current and improved performance at lower voltages, the DSE reduces tunneling current, which helps to reduce power consumption [17–21].

A vertical tunnel field-effect transistor (V-TFET) based on staggered heterojunctions for SiGe/Si heterojunctions is thus proposed in this study. V-TFETs consume less power than conventional MOSFETs and can be fabricated using existing semiconductor fabrication techniques. V-TFETs are promising candidates for energy-efficient integrated circuits in the future. With and without source pockets, SiGe/Si-staggered heterojunction V-TFETs were analyzed using the commercial SILVACO ATLAS TCAD simulation system [22]. The proposed V-TFET is fabrication-feasible since SiGe can be fabricated on clean Si substrates. The energy efficiency and switching speed of V-TFETs were improved. In addition, the SiGe/Si-staggered heterojunction design allows for an ultra-thin source channel, resulting in a lower leakage current [23].

The purpose of this study was to comprehend and explain the effects of partially filled cavities on the performance of potentiometric biosensors in a dry environment and their implications for practical applications.

2 Proposed device structure

According to Figure 1(a), two different cavities have been created in the gate oxide region to represent the real-life situation. In Figure 1(b)–(e), the steps within the cavity are nonuniformly concave, decremented, convex, and increased. This is done to simulate the effects of different voltages on the gate oxide region and to observe how it affects the breakdown voltage of the transistor. By varying the shape of the step patterns, it is possible to study the effects of different voltages on the breakdown voltage.

Figure 1 Schematic representation of SiGe/Si heterojunction vertical tunnel FET (VTFET-hetero structure) based label-free biosensors having (a) fully filled cavity, (b) concave step pattern, (c) decreasing step pattern, (d) convex step patterns, and (e) increasing step of bioanalytes.
Figure 1

Schematic representation of SiGe/Si heterojunction vertical tunnel FET (VTFET-hetero structure) based label-free biosensors having (a) fully filled cavity, (b) concave step pattern, (c) decreasing step pattern, (d) convex step patterns, and (e) increasing step of bioanalytes.

A nanogap cavity is formed by etching a certain part of the gate oxide for heterojunction vertical tunnel FET (VTFET-hetero) structures. The nanogap cavity provides a path for electrons to travel through the transistor, allowing it to switch faster. This increased switching speed is important for modern electronic devices. In the source, channel, and drain regions, the uniform doping concentrations are 5 × 1020, 1 × 1016, and 5 × 1018/cm−3, respectively. The nanogap cavity is then filled with a dielectric material, and the gate electrode is fabricated. A high I ON current, when source region with a low bandgap SiGe is projected in the proposed structure. The gate electrode controls the current flow, allowing control of the amount of charge stored in the nanogap cavity. The oxide layer is HfO2, and the gate metal is aluminium (4.0 eV).

An implementation of a hetero-TFET [8] is preferred to enhance the I ON and steepen the SS. Researchers have studied completely filled cavities [10,12,13]. Completely filled cavities can provide better electrostatic control and can also be used to reduce parasitic capacitance. They also allow for higher electric field strengths, which can help to enhance I ON and steepen the SS. Finally, completely filled cavities can provide better isolation between the source and drain regions, which is important for device performance. The low-binding probability and the functionality of the surface of the cavity have led to the assumption that in the proposed architecture, the array of bioanalytes inside the cavity is uneven and composite due to the low-binding probability and functionality of the surface. Practicality would dictate this approach. Additionally, steric hindrances do not permit the cavity to be completely filled. Therefore, the array of bioanalytes in the cavity needs to be carefully optimized to achieve desired performance. Moreover, the bioanalytes should be chosen based on their binding properties to ensure efficient isolation between the source and drain regions.

ATLAS-TCAD simulations for the SiGe/Si-based VTFET-hetero structure biosensor with source pocket presented in this article are illustrated in Figure 1(a). Based on the simulation results of conventional vertical TFETs [24], Figure 2 shows their metrics. A non-local band-to-band tunneling (BTBT) accounts for local variations within the energy band to improve tunneling accuracy. When SiGe and Si have different lattices and thermal coefficients, defects can form in SiGe–Si heterojunctions [25]. These defects can degrade the device performance and reduce its lifetime. The BTBT helps to reduce the defects and improve TFET performance. This prompted us to include non-locally trap-assistive models, such as TAT.NLDEPTH, in our model. This model helps to capture the non-locality of the defects and accurately simulate the SiGe–Si heterojunctions. This helps to improve the performance of the device, increase its lifetime, and reduce its cost. These statements improved the relevance of the results. There is also a Shockley–Read–Hall generation–recombination architecture, a Fermi–Dirac statistical model, and a field-dependent mobility structure included [26–28]. To improve the drain current and fabrication compatibility of the proposed V-TFET device, a high-k HFO2 material is used as a gate oxide in the proposed VTFET-hetero structure. In Table 1, you can find a summary of the different parameters used to simulate the device.

Figure 2 TFET output curves simulated for conventional vertical structures [24].
Figure 2

TFET output curves simulated for conventional vertical structures [24].

Table 1

The proposed VTFET-hetero structure: different values

Parameters Values
Source region concentration 5 × 1020 cm−3
Drain region concentration 5 × 1018 cm−3
Channel concentration 1 × 1016 cm−3
Source length 30 nm
Drain length 50 nm
Channel length 20 nm
Oxide width (SiO2 and HfO2) 0.5 and 3.5 nm
Shape of the cavity Convex, Concave, Increasing and decreasing pattern
Gate metal work function 4.0 eV
Length of cavity 15 nm
Thickness of cavity 3.5 nm

3 Results and discussion

The VTFET heterostructure biosensor is examined in this section for its performance in sensing neutral and charged biomolecules according to different metrics like energy band diagram and drain characteristics. The VTFET heterostructure biosensor showed good performance in sensing neutral and charged biomolecules. The drain characteristics also changed significantly in the presence of biomolecules, indicating that the biosensor could detect the biomolecules. A conventional vertical TFET simulation environment (models and dimensions) was used to validate the simulation. Nanocavities are built to recognize biomolecules in the proposed structure model, which has the same parameters as conventional models. A VTFET-hetero structure biosensor simulation was performed using the Silvaco Atlas system [22]. Using a dielectric constant (=1) value to represent air-filled cavities, the cavity is represented as being filled with air. There is no biomolecule in the cavity, which is fundamentally true. Similarly, the value of the dielectric constant increases as the dielectrics of the biomolecule increase (κ > 1). The increased dielectric constant changes the electrostatic field in the device, which affects the tunneling current and sensing performance of the device. Therefore, it is important to consider the dielectric constant when simulating VTFET heterostructure biosensors.

3.1 Assessing the performance of the proposed biosensor under partial filling of the cavity with neutral bioanalytes

A nanogap cavity region is formed by removing the gate oxide from the device, enabling proper surface functionalization of the target biomolecules. The nanogap cavity regions were filled with air without the target biomolecules. The nanogap cavity regions were then used as a platform for attaching biomolecules. The biomolecules can then be used for sensing, imaging, and drug delivery applications. In this scenario, target biomolecules (such as streptavidin and biotin) are present within a cavity with 0.8 V and N f = 0 to capture the biotarget in the cavity. Figure 3 illustrates the variations in energy band intensity at different dielectric constants for different patterns of biomolecules demonstrated at 15-nm cavity length for (a) decreasing, (b) increasing, (c) concave, and (d) convex patterns. Biomolecule conjugation is also impacted by band bending that occurs under the cavity region because of the intrinsic material properties of the samples. The dielectric constant value for biomolecules inside the nanogaps increased, resulting in an increase in hole density in the source region. SiGe–Si layers generate a conduction band arrangement between the source and channel valence bands beneath the cavity for the source region. This band bending is beneficial for biomolecular conjugation because it creates a large electrostatic field inside the nanogap. This field can be used to effectively attract and bind biomolecules to the nanogap. The field can also be used to control the charge transport properties of the nanogap. Reduced tunneling barriers increase electron tunneling rates. The ON current of the device improves as tunneling increases.

Figure 3 Energy band variation at different dielectric constants, κs of the proposed structure with a cavity length of 15 nm. Here, (a) decreasing, (b) increasing, (c) concave, and (d) convex patterns of biomolecules.
Figure 3

Energy band variation at different dielectric constants, κs of the proposed structure with a cavity length of 15 nm. Here, (a) decreasing, (b) increasing, (c) concave, and (d) convex patterns of biomolecules.

A high capacitive effect results in significant band bends at the source/pocket interface in the proposed VTFET-hetero structure as k increases. This bend shifts the conduction band edge closer to the interface, resulting in higher current densities at the interface. As a result, a more efficient device can be realized with higher on-currents and improved gate control. Thus, V TH is reduced and I ON is increased in Figure 4 with a cavity length of 15 nm, the proposed structure has different I DS–V GS characteristics at different dielectric constants. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules. The simulation results showed that the VTFET-hetero structure has an improved drain current and leakage current compared with the conventional structure. The VTFET-hetero structure has potential applications in low-power and energy-efficient electronic devices. Elevated steps near the tunneling interface are more electrostatically coupled to the gate as “k” of bioanalytes increases [29]. This increases the gate voltage sensitivity and reduces the threshold voltage of the VTFET-hetero structure. Furthermore, the VTFET-hetero structure is suitable for bio-sensing applications due to its high sensitivity to biomolecules.

Figure 4 I DS–V GS characteristics at different dielectric constants, κs of the proposed structure with a cavity length of 15 nm. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.
Figure 4

I DS–V GS characteristics at different dielectric constants, κs of the proposed structure with a cavity length of 15 nm. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.

3.2 Assessment of the sensitivity of a proposed biosensor considering the irregular arrangement of bioanalytes

Previous research assumed that biomolecules filled all nanogaps in nanostructures. This new research, however, suggests that biomolecules may not be the only molecules that can form these gaps. Ions and other materials can also be used to fill them. By understanding these properties, new nanomaterials with improved properties may be developed. Nevertheless, this assumption is not often made in practice. Partial hybridization of biomolecules can occur in four possible patterns, including decreasing, increasing, concave, and convex, as described in this article. By analyzing these patterns, scientists can gain a deeper understanding of nanomaterial interaction and gap formation. With this understanding, nanomaterials with desirable properties, such as electrical conductivity, optical transparency, and strength, can be created. This could lead to new applications in fields such as nanotechnology, medicine, and energy production. Additionally, this knowledge can be used to improve the performance of existing nanomaterials. Due to steric hindrance, biomolecules show nonuniform step patterns [18–20]. Using the formula below, you can estimate the sensitivity factor

(1) S Drain current ( % ) = I D bio − I D air I D air × 100 .

It is considered a reference to have a cavity completely filled with air. At fully filled conditions, the sensitivity parameters increase as the percentage of the filling factor increases. With an increasing filling factor, the cavity becomes more sensitive to external forces. In certain applications, such as accelerometers based on MEMS, this sensitivity can be advantageous.

3.2.1 Impact of neutral biomolecules on sensitivity for irregular arrangement of bioanalytes

Depending on the biological molecule, the dielectric constant of the target biomolecule (neutral) within the nanogap is changed from k = 1 to k = l to detect its reflective nature. By adjusting the distance between the electrodes, we can adjust the performance of the system. The current flow between the two electrodes can be used to measure the change in the dielectric constant. A biological sample is tested for the presence of various molecules using this technique. As a result of confined biological molecules with a high dielectric constant, ON current appears to increase. Biomolecular sensors can be designed using this increase in ON current. A solution sample can be measured for a specific molecule’s concentration using the sensor and a specific molecule can also be detected using it. The gate bias’ effective field forces the channel to become more capacitive across the nanogap as the dielectric constant of the nanogap increases. When the field effects increase, the barrier width between the source and channel decreases, resulting in an increase in drain current and band bending. This increase in drain current and band bending results in improved performance of the nanogap transistors. Additionally, the gate bias can be used to control the performance of nanogap transistors [20].

As shown in Figure 5(a)–(d), sensitivity is evaluated for different patterns. As neutral bioanalytes are immobilized inside the cavity, N f = 0 when the different biomolecules are immobilized. Elevated steps nearer the tunneling interface exhibit enhanced electrostatic coupling with the increase of k of bioanalytes. As the elevated steps are positioned far from the source-to-channel tunneling interface, the sensitivity of the biosensor is superior in decreasing and convex step patterns. The sensitivity of the biosensor is maximized when the steps of the pattern are located at the interface between the tunneling interface and the bioanalytes.

Figure 5 Assessment of VTFET-hetero structure biosensor drain current sensitivity in the presence of neutral bioanalytes (N f = 0) at V ds = 0.8 V. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.
Figure 5

Assessment of VTFET-hetero structure biosensor drain current sensitivity in the presence of neutral bioanalytes (N f = 0) at V ds = 0.8 V. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.

A neutral biomolecule enters a nanogap and receives immobilization and hybridization from a receptor or probe. In this case, the hybridization process [29] may stop before the nanogaps have been fully filled, resulting in steric hindrance, which prevents more biomolecules from entering. A steric hindrance creates non-uniform step profiles inside nanogaps due to steric hindrance. The step profiles can then be used to detect biomolecules of interest. This technique can be used to detect and localize single molecules in nanogaps. An irregular hybridization profile along the nanogap length is shown in Figure 5 for the VTFET-hetero structure. The assessment of drain current sensitivity between nonuniform step patterns (at V ds = 0.8 V, V gs = 1.2 V) is illustrated by Figure 5(a)–(d), which shows the linker immobilized in the cavity at an N f = 0 charge density as a neutral bioanalyte. The results indicate that this method is able to detect and localize a single molecule in a nanogap. All the steps of nanogaps were compared for their sensitivities while maintaining the same fill factor for the VTFET heterostructure biosensor. Biomolecules have been considered in various nonuniform step patterns due to steric hindrance issues [29–31]. For the remainder of this paper, we will analyze the VTFET-hetero structure biosensor using the convex step pattern since this pattern produces the best results.

3.3 Proposed biosensor performance assessment considering the irregular arrangement of charged bioanalytes after partial filling

According to Figure 6(a)–(d), the drain current varies with respect to the V GS for positively and negatively charged biomolecules having k = 8 for all four structures. With increasing positive (negative) charges on biomolecules, the drain current is observed to increase (decrease). Biomolecules that occupy the nanogaps affect the surface potential of the biosensor, which further impacts the drain current when the nanogaps are occupied by positive (negative) charged biomolecules. This indicates that the biosensor is sensitive to the charge density of the biomolecules. Furthermore, this suggests that the biosensor can be used for a wide range of applications, such as sensing the concentration of biomolecules in solution.

Figure 6 Assessment of VTFET-hetero structure biosensor in the presence of charged bioanalytes (N f = −1 × 1012, 0, 1 × 1012) at V ds = 0.8 V. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.
Figure 6

Assessment of VTFET-hetero structure biosensor in the presence of charged bioanalytes (N f = −1 × 1012, 0, 1 × 1012) at V ds = 0.8 V. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.

For partially filled nanogaps of the proposed VTFET-hetero structure biosensor, Figure 6(a)–(d) shows sensitivity plots versus magnitudes of negative charges. It can be seen that the sensitivity of the nanogap increases with the negative charge magnitude. Furthermore, the sensitivity also increases with the decreasing thickness of the nanogap. These results show that the proposed VTFET-hetero structure biosensor is highly sensitive and efficient. The graphs show that sensitivity decreases as negatively charged biomolecules are magnified. This indicates that the sensitivity of the nanogap is highly dependent on the size of the biomolecules. This indicates that the biosensor can be used to measure a variety of biomolecules of different magnitudes. Additionally, the nanogap can also be used to measure biomolecules of different thicknesses. Although concave pattern biosensors possess higher sensitivity than others due to their different pattern of cavity filling. A higher I ON and therefore a higher sensitivity are achieved by increasing pattern assessment of proposed structures.

3.4 Impact of positively and negatively charged biomolecules on sensitivity:

In this section, we investigate whether biomolecules with positive or negative charges are more sensitive to drain currents. According to Figure 7, the steepest and concave step profiles are generally more sensitive than the steepest and convex profiles. In TFETs, the drain current results mainly from electron tunneling at source-channel junctions whose tunneling probability is influenced by gate oxide dielectric constants. Since the dielectric capacitance around the tunneling junction is increased by the increasing step profile, the sensitivity is increased as well. The dielectric constant increases with increasing gate-channel coupling, which increases sensitivity. The increased sensitivity allows for more accurate control of the drain current, allowing for better performance in TFETs. Furthermore, the gate-channel coupling allows for better control over device operation, resulting in better energy efficiency.

Figure 7 Assessment of VTFET-hetero structure biosensor sensitivity in the presence of charged bioanalytes (N f = −1 × 1012, 0, 1 × 1012) at V ds = 0.8 V. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.
Figure 7

Assessment of VTFET-hetero structure biosensor sensitivity in the presence of charged bioanalytes (N f = −1 × 1012, 0, 1 × 1012) at V ds = 0.8 V. Here, (a) convex, (b) increasing, (c) decreasing, and (d) concave patterns of biomolecules.

It can be seen in Figure 7 that the steps that decrease and have convex profiles exhibit low sensitivity, whereas the steps that increase and have concave profiles exhibit a greater response. This agrees with the principle that increasing the slope of the graph also increases the sensitivity of the system. This is reflected in the response of the steps, which have a greater response when the graph is concave than when it is convex. Tunneling electrons at the source-channel junction are mainly responsible for the TFET drain currents.

Thus, based on the variation in the fill-in factor and the position of biomolecules in the cavity region, we can draw the following conclusions: DG-VTFETs detect biomolecules more sensitively when a biomolecule has a higher fill-in factor. This is because the higher filling in the channel of the proposed device allows more electrons to pass through and be detected [30]. In addition, the smaller size and higher mobility of the electrons in the DG-VFETs allow them to be detected more easily.

An overview of the performance of the TFET-based biosensors can be found in Table 2. By comparing the sensitivities of recently proposed TFET-based biosensors, an approximate idea can be provided as to which sensor will perform better in a certain operating range. Vertical TFET-based biosensors have higher sensitivities than horizontal TFET-based biosensors, making them a better choice for most applications.

Table 2

Analysis of published TFET-based biosensor’s performance

Sr. no. Name of the biosensors Paper reference Sensitivity
1. SiGe source DM PNPN TFET with 10% Ge [24] 6 × 103
2. DM JLTFET [27] 1.9 × 104
3. DM DG TFET [28] 2.84 × 105
4. DG TFET [29] 1.05 × 102
5. DM FET [31] [31] 3 × 104
6. VTFET-hetero structure [Our work] 8.64 × 107

4 Conclusion

In this study, a heterojunction vertical tunnel FET (VTFET-hetero structure) based on SiGe/Si heterojunctions is proposed. With this model, the drain current sensitivity is maximized to increase the step pattern of the proposed biosensor when charged biomolecules are immobilized. The performance of the sensor has been studied in relation to negatively and positively charged biomolecules. Compared with the other profiles, the concave step profile has the highest sensitivity. The lack of sensitivity was caused by the slopes of the decreasing step profiles and the convex partially filled profiles. A comparison table of published work is shown at the end, revealing that the proposed VTFET heterostructure biosensor can act as an excellent low-power biosensor with high sensitivity. Because of an analysis of the electrical parameters and device immunity of SCEs, the proposed model proves to be an effective biosensor for the detection of charged/neutral biomolecules. The biosensor is suitable for biomedical applications that require high sensitivity and low power consumption. In addition, the biosensor is low cost and can be easily integrated into existing technologies.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. DNQA and ZY: study conception and design, simulation carried out, analysis and interpretation of results, and manuscript preparation with a ratio of 60% to DNQA and 40% to ZY.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-03-24
Revised: 2024-05-21
Accepted: 2024-06-07
Published Online: 2024-08-09

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2024-0061
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
vertical TFET-based biosensor; steric hindrance; heterojunctions structure; drain current sensitivity; biomolecules
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
  7. Influence of unsupported sleepers on flange climb derailment of two freight wagons
  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
  13. Adaptive multidimensional trust-based recommendation model for peer to peer applications
  14. Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam
  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
  16. Advanced vibrant controller results of an energetic framework structure
  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
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  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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Heruntergeladen am 20.12.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/eng-2024-0061/html
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