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Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement

  • Zainab S. Maarij , Tahseen D. Saadoon EMAIL logo , Maan S. Hasan and Anmar Dulaimi
Published/Copyright: July 20, 2024
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

The present research investigates how incorporating waste concrete block aggregates (WCBA) in place of natural coarse (5–12 mm) aggregates (NCA) affect the characteristics of concrete pavement. The topography of the voids, water absorption, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity characteristics such as flexural and compressive strengths in addition to density were investigated. The consequences of replacement were looked at using four replacement percentages, 10, 30, 60, and 100% of the normal weight had been substituted with 0% functioning as the control value. Mix design of 1:1.41:2.52 (cement:fine aggregate:coarse aggregate) was used in the study with water to cement ratio of 0.43. As the replacement percentage of WCBA increased, water absorption, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity increased while density, compressive strength, and flexural strength decreased. The drop in values in comparison to control mixture were in the range of 10–30, 22–40, and 1–32% for density, compressive strength, and flexural strength, respectively. On the other hand, increase in values (16–33, 12–40, and 11–37%) have been identified for hydraulic conductivity, porosity, and water absorption, respectively. When designing rigid pavement, concrete with replacement percentages of WCBA 30% produces results that were acceptable. Porosity along with other hydraulic characteristics, such as hydraulic conductivity, are closely associated. There is an extremely significant correlation between porosity and all topological parameters. Finally, high level validation (R 2 > 0.9) and predictive models of hydraulic conductivity and porosity were established.

Keywords: recycled; aggregate; concrete; voids; models; topology; hydraulic conductivity

1 Introduction

On a global scale, 25 billion tons of concrete undergo manufacturing every year. Aggregate, a vital component that significantly impacts the qualities of concrete, make up to 80% of the volume of concrete [1]. The constructing industry’s explosive growth has resulted in sustainability issues as a result of over-mining and excessive utilization of natural resources like cement and aggregate [2]. Under such pressure, industries – particularly the construction industry, which has adverse environmental consequences due to its enormous consumption of natural resources and production of building wastes – are driven to seek out sustainable technology. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to use leftover construction debris to create environmentally friendly materials. Concrete may be manufactured by partially or entirely substituting recycled aggregate (RA) for natural aggregate (NA).

Due to its low compressive strength and high degree of variation, recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) is recommended for non-structural concrete or pavement applications [3,4,5]. The pores in the structures are enlarged and increased by the hardened mortar that is connected to the surface of the RAs, which lowers the density of the aggregate and raises its water absorption above NA [2]. Because of this, it is challenging to manage the toughened RAC’s durability and adaptability. The inferior performance of RAC in comparison to natural aggregate concrete has been supported by earlier studies [3,4,5]. Because aggregate makes up a larger portion of concrete’s components, its properties will have a significant impact on how voids and pores are arranged, which will affect how liquids are transferred into and out of concrete.

Specifically, in cement concrete pavement, due to high surface area and contact with base layer (unbound material), there is a significant chance to ingress aggressive materials inside pavement from upper and lower surface, in addition to the sides of the pavement. Durability is one of the basic and necessary items in continuity optimum performance of concrete. The major factor in durability is the concrete’s hydraulic characteristics.

Despite several studies on RAs for concrete production being conducted [6,7,8,9], the impact of RA concrete on the hydraulic properties and microstructure of the concrete voids created by RAC is yet unclear. Therefore, in this study, the effects of replacing some or all of the NA with waste crushed concrete block aggregates were evaluated in terms of compressive strength, topography of voids, water absorption, porosity, and hydraulic conductivity. After that, predictive models for the hydraulic properties of the stiff pavement created by RAC is developed.

2 Theoretical considerations

Distinct topology characteristics that have an impact on other distinct qualities of a concrete mixture, like hydraulic conductivity, can be used to define the air void structure within a concrete [10,11]. Tortuosity, circularity, roundness, aspect ratio, surface area, number of voids, voids class, and pore size distribution index are characteristics related to the topology of the voids structure. Based on measurements collected by X-ray computed tomography (CT) scans, these properties can be computed using universal equations (as detailed later in the current work).

3 Experimental details

3.1 Materials

The materials used in this experiment included sulfate-resisting Portland cement, sand and gravel (fine and coarse aggregate, respectively), tap water, and superplasticizer type F (SP). Every concrete component complies with the standards used in the current study [12,13,14,15].

Since there is a substantial volume of waste concrete block in the researchers’ region and because it is simple to crush, waste concrete block was crushed and sieved to produce 5–12 mm (Figure 1) sized recycled coarse aggregate. Based on past investigations, a 5–12 mm aggregate size was selected [16], which, when compared to another size (12–19 mm), demonstrated increased strength.

Figure 1 (a–d) Waste concrete block is recycled to create coarse aggregate (5–12 mm).
Figure 1

(a–d) Waste concrete block is recycled to create coarse aggregate (5–12 mm).

Figures 2 and 3, respectively, show the gradations of fine (sand) and coarse (natural and waste concrete block) aggregate. Figure 4 displays the particle size and texture of both natural and recycled coarse aggregates.

Figure 2 Gradation of fine aggregate.
Figure 2

Gradation of fine aggregate.

Figure 3 Gradation of coarse aggregate.
Figure 3

Gradation of coarse aggregate.

Figure 4 Samples of coarse aggregate: natural (a) and recycled (b).
Figure 4

Samples of coarse aggregate: natural (a) and recycled (b).

The mass per unit volume of dry aggregate that has been compressed by rodding under standardized conditions is known as dry-rodded density. This volume comprises both the volume of the individual particles and the space between them. The advantage of dry-rodding is that it gives a more precise indication of the density of the aggregate than other techniques. It also makes sure that the aggregate is compacted uniformly. The specific gravities of NA and waste concrete block aggregates (WCBA), which were their dry-rodded densities, were 2.70 and 2.53, respectively. Compared to NA, WCBA had around two times higher water absorption rate.

The resilience of aggregates to abrasion and impact is gauged by the Los Angeles abrasion loss value. Los Angeles abrasion values for good aggregates that are suitable for high-quality pavement materials should be lower than 30%. Loss values between 25 and 55% (or 45% in other states) are typically considered acceptable. NA and WCBA suffered Los Angeles abrasion losses of 33.2 and 48.0%, respectively.

According to earlier researchers, the RA’s low-density, high-water absorption, and high Los Angeles abrasion loss were caused by the material’s large porosity from the adhering cement mortar. For the aggregate test, AASHTO T19M, ASTM C127, and ASTM C131 [17,18,19] were used.

3.2 Designing a mix and preparing samples

Before mixing, the aggregates were brought to a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. WCBA was used in place of NA with a size range of 5–12 mm at weight percentages of 0, 10, 30, 60, and 100%. The ASTM C143 standard was followed to determine the fresh concrete slump test [20]. The slump measurements varied from 100 to 110 mm. Table 1 contains a list of all mixtures’ weights.

Table 1

Mix proportion of the concrete mixes (kg/m3)

Mix ID Cement (kg/m3) Aggregate (kg/m3) SP, (kg/m3) Water/cement
Fine Coarse
Natural Recycled
0% WCBA 450 635 1,135 0 2.4 0.33
10% WCBA 1021.5 113.5 0.34
30% WCBA 794.5 340.5 0.36
60% WCBA 454 681.0 0.37
100% WCBA 0 1,135 0.41

In two to three layers, the freshly prepared mixture was added to the mold. Then, a vibrating table was used to apply the compaction vibration for 15 s. All samples were demolded after 24 h and kept in a wet environment until testing.

3.3 Testing specifics

3.3.1 Density

According to ASTM C642 [21], the density was estimated. In this test, 150 mm diameter cube specimens were employed. This test was carried out at several times: 3, 7, 28, 63, and 90 days. From the following equation, the density can be determined:

(1) Dry density ( kg / m 3 ) = w 1 w 2 − w 3 × ρ w ,

where w 1 is the oven dried weight of the specimen, (kg) w 2 is the SSD of specimen, (kg) w 3 is the submerged weight of the specimen, (kg) ρ w is the density of water, (kg/m3).

3.3.2 Water absorption

According to ASTM C642, a water absorption test was conducted [22]. 100 mm cube specimens were tested at ages of 7 and 28 days. The following equation was used to determine the water absorption:

(2) Water absorption ( % ) = ( B − A ) A × 100 ,

where A is the oven dry weight, (g) B is the SSD weight, (g).

3.3.3 Vacuumed saturated porosity test

Particularly when the replacement amount is small, the standard vacuum analysis is susceptible to the substitution of WCBA for conventional coarse aggregate. Concrete disks measuring 60 × 10 ± 3 mm were vacuumed using 100 mb for 3 h, then were vacuumed for another 2 h with saturated Ca(OH)2 solution, and then left to dry for another day (Figure 5). This was done to make sure that all the pores in the concrete test specimens were completely saturated.

(3) P = B − A B − C × 100 % ,

where P is the porosity, B is the SSD weight, A is the oven-dry weight, and C is the saturated submerged weight.

Figure 5 Vacuum set up.
Figure 5

Vacuum set up.

3.3.4 X-ray CT scans

Using a Phoenix v|tome|xL scanner, the test samples utilized for the porosity tests were scanned. A current of 1,300 A and an acceleration voltage of 290 kV were used to run the X-ray source. The test samples were scanned on a rotating platform with a 906.84 mm gap between them and the X-ray source. The exceptional resolution, which also applied to consecutive slides, was 96 m/pixel. The 16-bit photos were converted into 8-bit greyscale resolution and cropped into a region of interest (ROI) of 664 cm3 using the programs Avizo 8.1 and ImageJ, Version 1.49 [23]. The noise in the photos was then reduced using a 3D Gaussian and Median filter with a 1 × 1 × 1 kernel size. Segmenting the materials in the ROI allowed for the preparation of reconstructions of the microstructure.

The BoneJ particle analyzer plugin (Version 1.3.11) in ImageJ software was used to ascertain the topological (microstructure) properties of voids that is defined and calculated later [24]. The analyze Skeleton and Skeletonize 2D/3D modules in ImageJ were used to measure the length of macropores [24].

3.3.4 Hydraulic conductivity test

At room temperature (20 ± 2°C), samples’ hydraulic conductivity was measured using the Florida Method (falling head method) [25] as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Scheme of hydraulic conductivity test.
Figure 6

Scheme of hydraulic conductivity test.

Concrete test samples were cured at a temperature of 20 ± 2°C and evaluated for various curing durations. Sample and testing water were preconditioned for 4 h at 20 ± 1°C before the test. The samples were then put into cylinders that were vertical and had the bottom side blocked. To completely saturate the sample, enough water was added from the top until a reference level was reached, then it was allowed to sit for 3 h. When that period was over, more water was injected to raise the reference level. After clearing the obstruction on the bottom side, the water was allowed to flow through the sample. 700 mL of water had to flow through the sample in a certain amount of time, or “t,” in order to determine the hydraulic conductivity, or “Ks,” according to Darcy’s law [25].

(4) K S = aL At ln h 1 h 2 ,

where a is the inner cross-sectional area of the graduated tube (cm2), L is the thickness of the test sample (cm), A is the test sample cross-sectional area (cm2), h 1 is the initial head across the test specimen (cm), and h 2 the is the final head across the test specimen (cm).

3.3.5 Mechanical strength

Compressive and flexural strength tests, which are key fundamental evaluations of mechanical performance, were used to examine the concrete as shown in Table 2 and Figure 7.

Table 2

Summary of the mechanical behavior tests

Test Specifications followed in the test Size of samples (mm) Age (days)
Compressive strength BS EN 12390 1881: part 116 [26] Cube: 150 3, 7, 28, 63, and 90
Flexural (modulus of rupture) Strength ASTM C78 [27] Prismatic (100 × 100 × 400) 7 and 28
Figure 7 Samples under compressive strength test (left) and flexural strength test (right).
Figure 7

Samples under compressive strength test (left) and flexural strength test (right).

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Density

Figure 8 displays the density test results for concrete. The specific gravity of recycled aggregates (WCBA) was significantly lower than that of NA, which is related to adhered mortar that was less solid and contained more voids than NA. As a result, the density of concrete decreased as the amount of RA increased. The drop was more pronounced when utilizing 100WCBA as its density (2,263), however it was still marginally lower than that of 10WCBA (2,610).

Figure 8 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and dry density relationship.
Figure 8

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and dry density relationship.

4.2 Water absorption

Considering Figure 9, the water absorption of all the WCBA-containing mixes was pretty similar at 5.33–6.67% in comparison to 4.49% of the control concrete. It should be underlined that all mixtures had the same mix proportion and particle sizes. A portion of the surface of WCBA was formed of dry mortar, which decreased its strength, as indicated by the largest Los Angeles abrasion loss value of 48%, which was previously mentioned. While being blended, the WCBA particles underwent surface abrasion and particle crushing, which caused a sizable loss. As a result, the paste content of WCBA-concrete increased. According to that, more paste filled the gaps as the WCBA level increased, giving rise to WCBA-concrete with water absorption roughly equivalent to that of the control concrete. This demonstrated that the substitution of WCBA for NA had no impact on the concrete void.

Figure 9 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and water absorption relationship.
Figure 9

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and water absorption relationship.

A correlation between density and water absorption of WCBA-containing concretes could be discovered using the variety of WCBA-containing concrete data, as illustrated in Figure 10. The relationship is best described by Equation (1), which has an R 2 value of 0.9. The preceding results that were reported are consistent with this equation [28,29,30].

(5) W A = [ − 12.23 × ln D D ] + 100.59 ,

where W A is the water absorption (%); and D D is the dry density (kg/m3).

Figure 10 Absorption of water and density.
Figure 10

Absorption of water and density.

4.3 Porosity

Concrete porosity is the ratio of the volume of the pores to the volume of the entire concrete. Because water must evaporate after curing, leaving pores behind, concrete is a porous material. Because pores cannot support a load, a concrete’s strength decreases with the increase in the porosity.

Data on the samples’ porosity that were used in the current investigations are shown in Figure 11. In this scientific article, similar findings from earlier studies were validated. When additional WCBA is used in the production of concrete, it is confirmed that the porosity values increase. Considering that the porosity of concrete typically ranged from 6 to 10%, porosity levels between 10 and 60% of WCBA are regarded as appropriate.

Figure 11 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and porosity relationship.
Figure 11

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and porosity relationship.

4.4 Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity, also known as permeability, is a measurement of how easily fluid and gas may pass through cracks and open areas. In determining the service life of concrete structures, a significant indicator is the hydraulic conductivity of the concrete. Since permeability typically exists independent of porosity, the same effect of WCBA will be felt by both, as shown in Figures 11 and 12. Age-related changes in porosity and mechanical strength are both caused by the cement’s continued hydration, which causes additional holes and voids to close and become more tightly sealed.

Figure 12 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and hydraulic conductivity relationship.
Figure 12

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and hydraulic conductivity relationship.

10% of WCBA is found in the samples, which are close replicas of the control samples. Additionally, the permeability of samples containing 30% WCBA may in certain cases be acceptable in the field. Samples with 60 or 100% WCBA can be used as the foundation layer of pavement in areas with low water table levels, but the surface layer’s concrete should be solid (low permeability).

4.5 Microstructure of air voids

Concrete’s mechanical performance and durability are significantly impacted by the amount of air void in the material. The typical air void content ranges from 4 to 10%. The air void of recycled mixtures is noticeably higher than that of reference concrete.

Figure 13 provides an example of data obtained from 2D CT scan slides of concrete samples with various percentages of recycled coarse aggregate.

Figure 13 Some 2D slides obtained from CT scan test of the concrete samples that contain different amounts of recycled coarse aggregate.
Figure 13

Some 2D slides obtained from CT scan test of the concrete samples that contain different amounts of recycled coarse aggregate.

Tortuosity, circularity, roundness, aspect ratio, surface area, number of voids, voids content, pore size distribution index, and vertical profile are characteristics related to the topology of voids structure. Using data from X-ray CT scans, these features can be estimated as given in Table 3.

Table 3

Parameters of the air void topology [10,31–35]

Parameter Formula No.
Air voids content A v = Total air voids Total image area * 100 6
Circularity C i = 4 × π × area of void ( perimeter of void ) 2 7
Roundness R = 4 × area of void π × ( major axis of void ) 2 8
Aspect ratio AR = Longer dimension Shorter dimension 9
Tortuosity T = Length of pore Shortest distance between bore ends 10
Pore size distribution index n = k s 0.003 0.154 11

Figures 14–18 and Tables 4 and 5 show the vertical profile, average, and standard deviation of air voids, respectively. In general, the air void profiles are uniformly distributed throughout all samples. Because of this, it is possible to conclude that the qualities (such as mechanical properties, volume-weight properties, hydraulic properties, and microstructure characteristics) of the samples, when tested in a particular area, are indicative of the entire substance.

Figure 14 Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of control concrete at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.
Figure 14

Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of control concrete at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.

Figure 15 Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 10% of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.
Figure 15

Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 10% of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.

Figure 16 Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 30% of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.
Figure 16

Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 30% of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.

Figure 17 Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 60% of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.
Figure 17

Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 60% of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.

Figure 18 Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 100% amounts of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.
Figure 18

Vertical profile of air voids content: (a–c) Samples of concrete that contain 100% amounts of recycled coarse aggregate at 20, 82, and 63 days, respectively.

Table 4

Mean value of vertical profile of air voids content

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate
0% 10% 30% 60% 100%
Age (days) 20 7.50% 7.58 9.90 10.50 12.80
28 6.70 7.30 8.50 9.00 10.10
63 5.90 6.40 7.20 7.70 8.10
Table 5

Standard deviation of vertical profile of air voids content

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate
0% 10% 30% 60% 100%
Age (days) 20 3.03 3.09 3.22 3.38 3.38
28 2.57 2.29 2.16 2.26 2.96
63 1.82 1.94 1.92 1.91 2.33

As can be observed, the content of voids increases as recycled WCBA are used in greater quantities. Because they are dependent on a combined component (the skeleton of pores and voids), the results of air voids content (Figures 13–17) are extremely compatible with the general conclusion of porosity (Figure 11). The majority of micropores in microstructures, particularly those that are challenging to measure in porosity tests, may be passed through and measured using CT scans. As a result, the voids content as determined by the CT-scan test was higher than the porosity test. In light of this, Figure 19 shows the proportion of small-scale voids in macrostructures.

Figure 19 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Small-scale void-size and WCBA.
Figure 19

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Small-scale void-size and WCBA.

The degree to which the routes created by the voids are twisted, winded, or turned is referred to as the tortuosity of voids in concrete. The length of the flow path is measured in relation to the length of a straight line connecting the two sites. Concrete’s tortuosity can be estimated using a variety of techniques, including CT imaging. It is crucial to explore the tortuosity in the current work in light of the impact of permeability on the longevity of rigid pavement since it is a significant property that affects the permeability of concrete.

In other words, by increasing the density, the circularity increases because there is more surface tension at the voids–mortar interface in a fresh mortar. The circularity of the voids and density closely correspond with one another. Additionally, the flexural strength of the concrete was significantly influenced by the circularity of the voids, but the compressive strength was mostly influenced by the quantity of porosity.

When the air voids’ circularity, roundness, and aspect ratio are all close to 1, the voids have a sphere-like structure; however, if the aspect ratio is larger and the circularity and roundness values are close to 0, the voids take on an elongated shape, as seen in Figure 20 [35].

Figure 20 Visual description of properties related to pore topology: roundness, circularity, and tortuosity.
Figure 20

Visual description of properties related to pore topology: roundness, circularity, and tortuosity.

The results of the topology of voids structure obtained from samples of the current work are shown in Table 6. With the exception of the roundness and aspect ratio parameters, all topology test variables were positively correlated with WCBA replacement quantity. Higher tortuosity, circularity, roundness, surface area, and pore size distribution index classes will result in higher porosity and/or hydraulic conductivity, as indicated in previous research [31].

Table 6

Mean value of the topology parameters of voids of the samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate at age of 28 days

0% 10% 30% 60% 100%
T (−) 1.00 1.20 1.26 2.23 2.78
Ci (−) 0.42 0.35 0.28 0.26 0.23
R (−) 0.11 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.23
AR (−) 2.00 1.89 1.62 1.58 1.55
A (mm2) 1.80 1.98 2.10 2.16 2.27
N (−) 240 267 329 360 423
n (−) 1.12 1.28 1.55 1.76 2.17

Tortuosity (T), Circularity (Ci), Roundness (R), Aspect ratio (AR), Surface area (A), Number of voids (N), Pore size distribution index classes (n).

4.6 Mechanical performance

Figures 21 and 22 show the results of tests on the compressive and flexural strengths of concretes at various ages. The strength of concrete is among its most important qualities. Because crushed concrete block aggregate (WCBA) is used, concrete should be suitably robust.

Figure 21 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and compressive strength relationship.
Figure 21

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and compressive strength relationship.

Figure 22 Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and flexural strength relationship.
Figure 22

Samples of concrete that contain various amounts of recycled coarse aggregate: Age and flexural strength relationship.

The strength of the concrete was decreased as a result of the WCBA microstructure. This was anticipated because the strength of concrete is usually decreased when broken concrete block aggregate is used [36–38].

Concrete with no WCBA had a suitable compressive strength at 28 days (38.9 MPa), whereas concrete with 10–100% WCBA had compressive strengths of 35.3 and 24.0 MPa, respectively. This shows that the 100% WCBA lowered the compressive strength of the control concrete to 38.3%.

As mentioned in Section 1, cement mortar is applied to RA. Because the interface between cement pastes and aggregate is weaker than the strength of aggregate, pervious concrete often cracks at the interface or the binder layer between the aggregate [39–41]. However, it is clear that the compressive strength is decreased at high levels of recycled material replacement, therefore this should be taken into consideration.

According to test results shown in Figures 21 and 22, RAs had an impact on compressive strength, though not as much as they had on flexural strength. These qualities have a tendency to significantly deteriorate due to the high replacement levels. For instance, the flexural strengths of the control and 100% WCBA concrete were 4.6 and 4.71 MPa. The ratios of flexural to compressive strength were 12.4–14.1%, with an average of 13.25%. These ratios were just a little more than the 12.7% ratio of the control concrete.

WCBA can consequently be used in concrete, but only as a partial and not a full replacement for NA.

4.7 Correlations between properties obtained for tested samples

Pearson’s correlation coefficients (R 2) were used to analyze and describe the correlation between the various parameters under investigation. The range of this correlation coefficient is 0–1. A very low correlation exists between 0 and 0.4, a moderate correlation exists between 0.4 and 0.7, and a high or very high correlation exists between 0.7 and 1 [42].

Table 7 displays the findings of a statistical analysis using Pearson’s correlation coefficients to examine the correlations between each pair of attributes.

Table 7

Pearson’s statistical analysis (Pearson’s correlation factor; R 2)

CS (MPa) FS (MPa) Φ (%) HC (km/h) AVC (%) T (−) Ci (−) R (−) AR (−) A (mm2) N (−) n (−)
CS (MPa) 1
FS (MPa) 0.94 1.00
Φ (%) −0.89 −0.96 1.00
HC (km/h) −0.95 −0.97 0.94 1.00
AVC (%) −0.91 −0.98 0.89 0.93 1.00
T (−) −0.82 −0.95 0.95 0.95 0.89 1.00
Ci (−) 0.98 0.91 −0.88 −0.96 −0.86 −0.83 1.00
R (−) −0.86 −0.95 0.99 0.95 0.87 0.98 −0.87 1.00
AR (−) 0.98 0.90 −0.81 −0.94 −0.89 −0.79 0.98 −0.80 1.00
A (mm2) −0.98 −0.93 0.92 0.97 0.87 0.87 −0.99 0.91 −0.96 1.00
N (−) −0.97 −0.99 0.96 0.99 0.96 0.93 −0.95 0.95 −0.93 0.97 1.00
n (−) −0.94 −0.99 0.98 0.98 0.95 0.95 −0.93 0.97 −0.90 0.96 1.00 1.00

Compressive strength (CS), Flexural strength (FS) [12], Porosity (Φ), Hydraulic conductivity (HC), Air voids content (AVC), Tortuosity (T), Circularity (Ci), Roundness (R), Aspect ratio (AR), Surface area (A), Number of voids (N), Pore size distribution index classes (n).

Porosity of porous materials is closely connected with the majority of other hydraulic parameters, including hydraulic conductivity, according to earlier studies in the field [10,31]. Additionally, it is quick and simple to determine. As seen in Table 7, there is a strong positive association between this characteristic (the porosity) and the hydraulic conductivity (R 2 = 0.94). Increases in porosity can therefore be interpreted as an increase in linked pores/voids. The roundness and aspect ratio of air voids have the highest and lowest correlations with porosity, respectively (R 2 = 0.99 and 0.81), among all topological constants, which have high to very high correlations with porosity.

Additionally, it has been discovered that the porosity has a positive association with all other parameters but that the circularity and aspect ratio have a negative correlation with this parameter. This phenomenon is connected to the increased porosity that occurs when the aspect ratio or circularity is decreased. Because of this, circularity or aspect ratio needs to be lowered when the purpose is to produce porous or permeable concrete pavement, and vice versa.

Concrete’s fundamental characteristic is its ability to withstand compression. There are slabs present in the concrete pavement that are supported by the soil’s foundation. Even though a high-quality system is used in construction, there is a good probability that the soil could collapse, which will cause the pavement to deflect downward. Therefore, when designing stiff pavement, flexural strength is taken into account as a necessary mechanical attribute.

Circularity and pore size distribution index classes in Table 7 had the most positive and negative effects on the flexural parameter (strength), respectively. This means that in order to increase flexural strength, voids’ aspect ratio and/or circularity must be increased, while other topological qualities must be decreased.

In Table 7, R 2, the correlation between the topological parameters ranged from 0.81 to 0.99. There was some positive association and some negative correlation. This indicates that they are not linked in the same way, making it challenging to obtain all necessary features simultaneously. That means it is important to concentrate on topological factors that have a greater impact on the desirable characteristics of stiff pavement, such as flexural strength and permeability.

4.8 Predictive models

According to the high area of the upper and lower surfaces of the concrete pavement that will be in contact with the weather and soil, there is a significant chance that aggressive materials (water table or rain) will infiltrate the concrete, which will lead to decreased performance, especially in reinforcement pavement that is caused by steel bar corrosion. Therefore, it is crucial to gauge the pavement’s permeability and porosity. Predictive models are one of the feasible, time-, effort-, and money-consuming approaches for measuring attributes.

It is possible to obtain statistically approved models based on the data from the current inquiry and as shown in Figures 9, 11 and 12. The test for measuring water absorption is simple and quick, and it is connected to the same variables that affect hydraulic characteristics (such as porosity and permeability). This increases the likelihood that other hydraulic features may be predicted using the data on water absorption as a known value.

Data on water absorption are correlated with porosity and permeability, respectively, in Figures 23 and 24. The power of correlation between the linked parameters is translated by the trust factor (R 2 = 0.95–0.97), respectively. High values of this factor confirm and strengthen the conclusion that the models (Equations (6) and (7)) obtained from the earlier Figures 23 and 24 are trustworthy functions.

(6) Porosity = 1.93 × ( Water absortion ) 0.85 ,

(7) Hydrulic conductivity = 1.74 × ( Water absortion ) 0.83 .

Figure 23 Correlation between water absorption and porosity.
Figure 23

Correlation between water absorption and porosity.

Figure 24 Correlation between water absorption and hydraulic conductivity.
Figure 24

Correlation between water absorption and hydraulic conductivity.

The validity of Equations (6) and (7) was discovered using new samples that contain 15, 55, and 95% WCBA. This sample can be seen as independent data because it was not utilized in the initial calibration of the model’s creation. Figures 25 and 26 show the obtained validation. This makes Equations (6) and (7) more appropriate for use in other research projects, as shown by eye inspection and the correlation factor (R 2 = 0.98).

Figure 25 Comparison between predicted and tested porosity by Equation (6).
Figure 25

Comparison between predicted and tested porosity by Equation (6).

Figure 26 Comparison between predicted and tested hydraulic conductivity by Equation (7).
Figure 26

Comparison between predicted and tested hydraulic conductivity by Equation (7).

5 Conclusion

Following is a summary of the study’s main conclusions:

  1. Compared to concrete made with NA, the density and mechanical strength of concrete including waste RA are lower.

  2. The hydraulic characteristics increased when waste concrete block aggregate was used in place of NA.

  3. When designing rigid pavement, concrete with replacement percentages of WCBA-30% produces results that are acceptable.

  4. The key variable affecting the hydraulic characteristics is the topology of the voids.

  5. Porosity and topological constants exhibit strong to extremely strong correlations.

  6. Predictive models for porosity and hydraulic conductivity were obtained with a high level of validation and a high trust factor (R 2 > 0.9).

  7. As an outcome, it is advised to research how aggregate gradations affect void topology.

Acknowledgements

For their general assistance in the preparation, production, and testing of the specimens, the authors would like to thank the Concrete Laboratory personnel in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Technology-Iraq and the staff at nmRC, Concrete laboratory/University of Nottingham/UK for their support.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript. ZSM: data collection, experimental lab, data analysis, interpretation, and writing – original draft. TDS: conception or design, methodology, writing – review and editing, supervision, and resources. MSH: methodology, writing – review and editing, supervision, resources, and visualization. AD: writing – review and editing, supervision, and resources.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analyzed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-10-20
Accepted: 2023-11-15
Published Online: 2024-07-20

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0564
Keywords for this article
recycled; aggregate; concrete; voids; models; topology; hydraulic conductivity
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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