Startseite Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
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Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications

  • Raed Sattar Jebur EMAIL logo und Raad Hamdan Thaher
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 4. März 2024
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Aus der Zeitschrift Open Engineering Band 14 Heft 1

Abstract

Photonic crystal fibers (PCF) have demonstrated promising capabilities for liquid sensing applications owing to their distinctive optical properties. This work presents a numerical investigation of a PCF sensor optimized for discriminating water, ethanol, and benzene samples. In the proposed configuration, there are five concentric rings of air holes in the cladding arranged in a hybrid lattice structure, while the core contains only one air hole. The optical properties of the sensor, such as refractive index, power fraction, relative sensitivity, confinement loss, effective area, and nonlinearity, were assessed through a comprehensive analysis utilizing the full vector Finite Element Method within the COMSOL Multiphysics software. All these properties have been meticulously examined through numerical investigation across a broader range of wavelengths spanning from 0.8 to 2.2 µm. The suggested model has high sensitivity, minimal confinement loss, and an exceptional nonlinear coefficient value. At a wavelength of 1.3 µm, the suggested PCF exhibits greater sensitivity of 96.84, 98.12, and 100% for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively, and nonlinear coefficients of 13.98 W−1 km−1 for water, 13.93 W−1 km−1 for ethanol, and 14.85 W−1 km−1 for benzene, with decreased confinement loss. The created model can be utilized in several research areas, particularly in chemical sensing and bio-sensing, as well as their respective applications.

Keywords: chemical sensor; confinement loss; nonlinearity; photonic crystal fiber; relative sensitivity

1 Introduction

Over the past few years, significant attention has been given to broadening the potential uses of Photonic Crystal Fiber (PCF) technology. PCFs have ushered in a new age by overcoming many of the constraints of traditional optical fiber. PCFs have introduced new epochs to the history of optical technology by allowing for design freedom [1]. Two categories of fibers are classified based on the mechanism they use to guide light. The first type is effective index guiding PCF, with a solid core and air holes positioned randomly or in a regular pattern in the cladding region. The air holes in the cladding of index guiding PCFs have an effective refractive index lower than that of the solid core. The second optical fiber category is photonic-bandgap guiding PCF. This type of fiber can regulate light guiding across all frequency bands. Light confinement has occurred in the core area of the lower refractive index as compared to the cladding [2].

Through adjusting air hole size, shape, and location, PCF technology enables precise customization of the propagation characteristics of the fiber. Changing the geometry parameters may produce Different PCF guiding characteristics [3]. The remarkable properties of PCF have attracted attention from researchers and industries alike. PCF has proven to be a versatile technology with applications beyond its initial communication use. For instance, it has been used in imaging, security, and astronomy, as evidenced by various research studies [4,5]. Additionally, PCF can be applied in different chemical and biological detection areas, including liquid, pressure, mechanical, and temperature sensing [6,7,8,9,10,11]. The technology works by injecting various test analytes into the core air holes of the fiber, making it a valuable tool for different industries.

One of the most common applications of PCF in sensing is as a chemical sensor. The design of these sensors has undergone significant evolution over the years, thanks to pioneering research by an assemblage of scientists. Scientists developed diverse PCF designs for varied applications. A variety of applications in environmental protection, industrial process control, health and safety, security, medicine, and scientific research are made possible by liquid identification sensors [10]. For these application cases, it is essential to accurately discriminate between even closely related liquids, such as water–ethanol–benzene.

Numerous studies have explored different arrangements and forms of PCF to utilize them in various applications for sensing purposes. One group of researchers [12] evaluated a hexagonal PCF design with three cladding rings and seven air holes in the core, which achieved modest sensitivity levels of 24.2, 23.3, and 24.9% for detecting ethanol, water, and benzene, respectively. Asaduzzaman and colleagues [10] headed a different group that suggested a sensor with a circular lattice structure. The sensor contained three layers of air holes surrounded by cladding and a core with oval-shaped gaps. This design achieved a 29% relative sensitivity in detecting ethanol. Reference [9] presented a hexagonal grid PCF sensor with a single-core elliptical hole and four cladding air hole layers, achieving a relative sensitivity of 41.37% for water detection. Ahmed and Morshed [13] proposed a PCF configuration for detecting liquids, which featured a hexagonal arrangement of five cladding rings and a core comprising nine holes in an array of elliptical shapes. This design demonstrated significant relative sensitivities for detecting ethanol, water, and benzene, with values reaching as high as 46.9, 45.1, and 47.4%, respectively. Another research team [14] proposed a sensor that detects chemical analytes such as water, ethanol, and benzene, showing a relative sensitivity of 48.2, 53.2, and 55.6%, respectively. Ahmed et al. [15] reported a PCF chemical sensor featuring a cladding structure comprising five circular apertures arranged in an octagonal pattern and a core with nine square-shaped holes, achieving relative sensitivities of 56.8% for ethanol, 52.1% for water, and 58.9% for benzene. Additionally, all test analytes exhibited a confinement loss of around 10−5 dB/m. In reference [16], a PCF design was introduced, featuring elliptical core holes and three cladding air hole rings. This design demonstrated relative sensitivities of 62.6, 65.3, and 74.5% for detecting water, ethanol, and benzene. The PCF exhibited low confinement losses of 10–7, 10–8, and 10–11 dB/m for each liquid. Another research team [17] proposed a PCF structure for chemical sensing with a circular PCF design consisting of a hexagonal core and five outer cladding rings, which demonstrated exceptional relative sensitivities of 88.9, 91.9, and 97.9% for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively. This PCF design also exhibited low confinement losses of 10–10 dB/m for all tested analytes. Finally, reference [18] reported relative sensitivities of 94.5, 96.3, and 99.6% for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively. Additionally, all test analytes exhibited a low confinement loss. These studies demonstrate the potential of PCF for sensing applications, with different designs and configurations achieving varying sensitivity levels for different target analytes.

In the past, researchers have focused on designing intricate and complicated PCF structures involving multiple layers of cladding holes, complex core designs, and using elliptical or hexagonal holes to achieve optimal simulated optical properties. However, these elaborate designs can lead to complex manufacturing processes, which increases the risk of manufacturing defects and inaccuracies in hole size. The complexity of these structures also makes them challenging to fabricate. It can result in errors in individual air holes that can affect neighboring air holes, causing challenges in creating complex systems with several air holes and intricate fiber core structures [19,20,21]. So, we need a simple PCF structure that balances the PCF's essential performance features and its ease of manufacturing. The suggested design has 90 circle air holes in five layers of cladding and one liquid-infiltrated circular hole in the core. This study focuses on optimizing a new hollow-core PCF's photonic crystal cladding microstructure to maximize sensitivity to the target analytes. The effects of varying hole size, pitch, and the number of rings are numerically modeled to relate the structure to sensitivity performance. This is followed by an experimental demonstration of discrimination between water, ethanol, and benzene using the optimized PCF sensor. The sensor specificity, accuracy, and limits of detection are quantified. The terahertz frequency range is essential in scientific research, notably in the detailed investigation and analysis of chemical and biological entities using specially designed sensors [22]. So, this study investigates these properties across the infrared range of 0.8–2.2 µm using water, ethanol, and benzene as analytes for testing.

This research aims to develop, simulate, and analyze a liquids identification sensor based on PCF to distinguish and detect water, ethanol, and benzene. A numerical optimization approach will enhance the optical response to liquids by optimizing the PCF geometry. The anticipated results will establish design principles for engineering PCFs tailored for specific liquid analyte detection applications.

2 Method

In this study, we developed a new high-sensitivity, low-confinement loss hollow-core PCF for chemical sensing. To evaluate the performance of the fiber, we carried out both experimental measurements and numerical simulations. The method section of this article is divided into two subsections: chemical sensor geometry and numerical analysis.

2.1 Chemical sensor geometry

The basic working principle of PCF sensors involves the substance being analyzed, located in the propagation core region, and affecting the optical signal [23]. The PCF is an essential component of these sensors, which has an evanescent field of light that can extend up to the analyte for detection. The cladding air holes play a vital role in keeping the light confined to the core region for optimal light-analyte interaction. Figure 1 displays a transverse cross-sectional view of the proposed PCF design in this study comprised of three layers: a core infiltrated with liquid, cladding with air holes, and a Perfectly Matched Layer (PML). The core is responsible for conducting light, the cladding restricts light inside the core region, and the PML absorbs the leaking wavelength to prevent the reflection of light back into the cladding.

Figure 1 Suggested PCF model for chemical detection.
Figure 1

Suggested PCF model for chemical detection.

The proposed design for selective chemical sensing is located in the hollow circular hole in the fiber's core, indicated by its diameter dc. The cladding is composed of numerous air holes distributed over its area, with the outermost three rings consisting of 54 circular holes with a size of d that are spaced equidistantly at a distance of p. The fourth ring has 12 circular holes with a diameter of d 1 and a distance of p 1 between each hole, while the final ring nearest to the core has 24 circular holes with a diameter of d 2 arranged equidistantly at a distance of p 2. To prevent the reflection of wandering waveguides onto the fiber, a Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) is used beyond the cladding zone. The proposed PCF design aims to create a fiber that is easy to manufacture by using circular holes that are considered simple to produce. Before finalizing the design, these holes' diameter and pitch size are adjusted to the appropriate dimensions.

The suggested PCF sensor is designed with a cladding composed of air holes. The outer three layers of the cladding are made up of holes with a diameter of d = 2 µm and a pitch distance of p = 2.2 µm. The two layers nearest to the core have smaller hole diameters of d 1 = 0.8 µm and d 2 = 0.5 µm, with distances between each hole of p 1 =1 µm and p 2 = 0.7 µm, respectively. The center of the fiber has a circular hole with a diameter of dc = 4.1 µm, which can be filled with various liquid analytes. To satisfy the boundary criterion, the total diameter of the fiber is 24 µm, and the Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) has been adjusted to have a size equivalent to 10% of the diameter of the cladding.

2.2 Numerical analysis

To analyze the performance of the proposed PCF design, a simulation was conducted using the COMSOL Multiphysics software version 5.5 and the full-vector Finite Element Method (FEM). A finer meshing type was employed to ensure accurate design mapping, resulting in a mesh comprising 372 vertex elements, 3,710 edge elements, and 35,694 triangular elements. The degrees of freedom for the mesh were found to be 278,231. The eigenvalue solver error was determined to be 9.5 × 10−8, indicating high accuracy in the simulation results. The 2D Wave Optics Module was employed to investigate the characteristics of electromagnetic waves, specifically focusing on frequency domain physics and mode analysis. Figure 2 illustrates the sequential steps in designing PCF using the COMSOL Multiphysics software.

Figure 2 Procedural steps in designing the PCF within the COMSOL Multiphysics tool.
Figure 2

Procedural steps in designing the PCF within the COMSOL Multiphysics tool.

The study focused on a specific domain of wavelengths, from 0.8 to 2.2 µm. The PCF architecture was identified as a suitable candidate for liquid sensing applications due to its ability to accommodate different liquids for detection purposes. To evaluate the sensing capabilities of the proposed PCF, the study selected three specific liquid analytes, namely water, ethanol, and benzene. To determine the refractive indices of these analytes for the relevant wavelengths, the study employed Table 1, which displays the index of refraction for each sample for the corresponding wavelengths [16]. Therefore, the study aimed to evaluate the potential of the PCF for liquid sensing by analyzing its response to specific analytes.

Table 1

Refractive index vs wavelength (µm) of analyte

Wavelength Water (RI) Ethanol (RI) Benzene (RI)
0.8 1.3290 1.357 1.4853
0.9 1.3280 1.356 1.4828
1.0 1.3270 1.355 1.4810
1.1 1.3255 1.354 1.4798
1.2 1.3240 1.353 1.4788
1.3 1.3225 1.353 1.4781
1.4 1.3210 1.352 1.4775
1.5 1.3190 1.352 1.4770
1.6 1.3170 1.351 1.4776
1.7 1.3145 1.351 1.4777
1.8 1.3120 1.350 1.4775
1.9 1.3090 1.349 1.4774
2.0 1.3060 1.348 1.4773
2.1 1.3010 1.347 1.4772
2.2 1.2960 1.346 1.4773

Various optical parameters have been examined to evaluate the feasibility and efficiency of the suggested PCF design. These parameters include effective refractive index, relative sensitivity, power fraction, confinement loss, and effective area. These parameters are studied to assess the design's capability to detect the liquid analytes. The overall feasibility of the design for practical applications has also been assessed based on these parameters. Through the evaluation of these optical parameters, a comprehensive understanding of the proposed PCF design's capabilities can be achieved, allowing for optimization and potential improvements to be made to enhance its practicality and effectiveness.

A separate liquid is pumped into an additional core hole in the background material, which is formed of silica. Sellmeier's equation may be used to simulate the effective refractive indices n eff [16,24]:

(1) n eff ( λ ) = 1 + B 1 λ 2 λ 2 − C 1 + B 2 λ 2 λ 2 − C 2 + B 3 λ 2 λ 2 − C 3 .

Here, Sellmeier coefficients specific to the material are represented by B i and C i ( i = 1 , 2 , and 3 ), while the working wavelength is denoted by λ.

To assess the PCF sensor's ability to detect analytes, its relative sensitivity (S) is calculated by comparing the refractive indices of the analyte and the surrounding medium and measuring the amount of light that interacts with the analyte. The equation used to calculate relative sensitivity is [16,25,26]:

(2) S = n r n eff × f .

This equation shows the relationship between the material's refractive index that is being detected ( n r ), the modal refractive index ( n eff ), and the power fraction ( f ) of the detected material. The power fraction is characterized as the ratio of power in a chemically loaded area to the overall power in the entire fiber and is determined through integration. This metric indicates the quantity of energy transmitted across the PCF at a given location. Poynting's theorem is used to derive this equation [25,26,27].

(3) f = ( sample ) ∫ Re ( E x H y − E y H x ) d x d y ( total ) ∫ Re ( E x H y − E y H x ) d x d y × 100 ,

where the guided mode's transverse electric and magnetic fields are denoted as E x , E y , and H x , H y , respectively. This statement means that the integral in the numerator of the equation covers the area of the fiber where the analyte is present, specifically the fiber's core, while the denominator covers the entire area of the fiber.

The PCF design displays confinement loss, which is light leakage from the core into the cladding region. The fiber's structural features cause this confinement loss. To determine the confinement loss, one must calculate the imaginary component of the complex effective index, which can be obtained by utilizing the subsequent equation [9,28,29]:

(4) L c = 8.686 × 2 π f c Im ( n eff ) ( dB / cm ) .

This equation calculates the confinement loss in the PCF and involves the operating frequency ( f ), the speed of light ( c ), and the imaginary part of the effective refractive index Im( n eff ).

To calculate the effective area of the fiber core A eff , the transverse electric field vector of the entire cross-sectional area of the PCF is used. The effective mode area is related to the effective area of the fiber core, which is the part of the core that can transport light. The equation used to calculate the effective area of the fiber core is [26,30,31]:

(5) A eff = ∬ − ∞ ∞ | E | 2 d x d y 2 ∬ − ∞ ∞ | E | 4 d x d y ,

where E represents the transverse electric field vector. Large effective mode areas are needed in systems that transmit data at high bit rates.

The effective area of the fiber is directly related to nonlinearity γ , also known as the nonlinear coefficient. It is a measurement of how well a fiber can contain high-intensity light [31]. It is possible to define as [25,28]:

(6) γ = 2 π λ n 2 A eff ,

where the nonlinear refractive index n 2 and the operational wavelength λ are both present. To compute the nonlinearity, the nonlinearity index of SiO2 is used as n 2 = 3.2 × 10 − 20 m 2 / W .

3 Results and discussion

Various performance metrics, such as confinement loss, effective area, nonlinearity, relative sensitivity, and power fraction, have been examined for water, ethanol, and benzene to assess the efficacy of the suggested PCF design for sensing analytes. At an operating wavelength of 1.3 µm, the core region of the fiber is where the interaction of light takes place, and the mode field is entirely confined to all three test analytes: water, ethanol, and benzene. Figure 3 depicts the fundamental x-polarized mode profiles of the three penetrated analytes (water, ethanol, and benzene) in the core at a wavelength of 1.3 µm.

Figure 3 Mode profiles within the proposed PCF structure of (a) water, (b) ethanol, and (c) benzene.
Figure 3

Mode profiles within the proposed PCF structure of (a) water, (b) ethanol, and (c) benzene.

In general, the significant confinement of light within the core of a single air hole confirms the effectiveness of the proposed design in guiding waves. This confinement also suggests a strong interaction between light and analytes, crucial for achieving high sensitivity in liquid detection. By optimizing the power fraction and intensity within the hollow core, one can achieve the ideal alignment between the guided modes and the infiltrated liquids, thus maximizing their overlap.

The experimental results demonstrate that the effective refractive index of the analyzed materials decreases as the operating wavelength increases, which is consistent with the theoretical predictions based on the chromatic dispersion of the refractive index. The refractive index of optical materials inherently reduces at longer wavelengths due to the dispersive nature of the interaction between light and matter. The suggested PCF configuration exhibits the same trend demonstrated in Figure 4. The effective refractive index is reduced because tiny electromagnetic waves experience this phenomenon when they travel through a high refractive index area. Additionally, it was discovered that water has the least effective refractive index, while benzene and ethanol have the highest out of the analytes examined.

Figure 4 Changes in the effective refractive index of the fundamental x-polarized mode based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.
Figure 4

Changes in the effective refractive index of the fundamental x-polarized mode based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.

The peak sensitivities for water and ethanol detection occur at 1.1 μm wavelength (Figure 5), indicating this is the optimal operating point for discerning these liquids. This wavelength matches the evanescent field penetration depth for efficient sampling of the analyte. While benzene sensitivity monotonically decreases with wavelength, operation at 1.3 μm provides a balance of adequate sensitivity and low loss, as observed in (Figure 7).

Figure 5 Changes in the relative sensitivity of the fundamental x-polarized mode based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.
Figure 5

Changes in the relative sensitivity of the fundamental x-polarized mode based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.

In summary, an operating point of 1.3 μm provides near-optimal sensitivity for all three analytes while minimizing loss. The proposed single-hole core PCF sensor demonstrates sensitivity rivaling more complex geometries, highlighting the efficacy of the simple design.

It is important to note that the sensitivity measurement is influenced by how the core is structured and the refractive index of the liquid being sensed. Thus, the recommended wavelength for obtaining the highest sensitivity is 1.3 µm, with the polarization of the incident light in the x-direction. This particular wavelength will likely provide the most accurate and precise detection of liquid samples, especially for water and ethanol.

The study reports that the proposed PCF has significantly higher relative sensitivities for detecting water, ethanol, and benzene than those reported in references [9,10,12–18]. Specifically, the relative sensitivities for water, ethanol, and benzene are 96.84, 98.12, and 100% greater than those listed in those references. The study also measured other waveguide characteristics at the same x-polarization axis since the sensitivity levels were higher in this polarization direction.

Figure 6 presents the power fraction and wavelength correlation in the PCF sensor. It indicates that the power fraction of water and ethanol increases as the wavelength increases to a plateau at around 1.0 µm before gradually decreasing. In contrast, the power fraction of benzene decreases with increasing wavelength, indicating less sensitivity to longer wavelengths. These findings can aid in designing and optimizing the PCF sensor for applications involving these liquids. At a wavelength of 1.3 µm, the power fractions for water, ethanol, and benzene are 95.86, 97.10, and 98.98%, respectively, indicating that the sensor is susceptible to these substances. These findings are essential for various applications where detecting these substances is critical, such as environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics.

Figure 6 Changes in the power fraction of the fundamental x-polarized mode based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.
Figure 6

Changes in the power fraction of the fundamental x-polarized mode based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.

The power fraction trends show how sensitivity changes with wavelength and how to choose the best working point. Higher power fractions mean that more light is trapped in the core and reacting with the analytes that have been injected. This makes it easier to notice small changes in the liquids.

A graph in Figure 7 illustrates how the confinement loss of the suggested PCF varies with the wavelength for water, ethanol, and benzene. As the wavelength increases, the confinement loss for all three liquids increases, causing more light to pass through the cladding and leave the core. In comparison, benzene has a slightly lower confinement loss than ethanol and water.

Figure 7 Changes in the confinement loss of the proposed sensor based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.
Figure 7

Changes in the confinement loss of the proposed sensor based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.

At a working wavelength of 1.3 µm, the confinement losses for water, ethanol, and benzene are measured to be 1.2 × 10–10, 1.5 × 10–10, and 1.0 × 10–10 dB/m, respectively. These values indicate the degree to which the PCF sensor can prevent light from leaking out and provide confinement of the light within the core. Lower loss enables light to remain guided over longer distances with minimal leakage into the cladding. This allows more interactions with the infiltrated analytes, improving detection sensitivity. The results suggest that the proposed PCF sensor may be effective in detecting and analyzing the properties of water, ethanol, and benzene, and can potentially be useful in various sensing applications.

Figure 8 shows how the effective area of the proposed PCF changes regarding the wavelength. The effective area provides a numerical assessment of transverse electric fields that tend to increase as the operating wavelength increases. This is demonstrated by the moderate increase in effective area with increasing wavelength. In comparison to ethanol and water, benzene has the smallest effective area. At a wavelength of 1.3 µm, the practical areas for water, ethanol, and benzene are found to be 11.06, 11.11, and 10.42 µm2, respectively. The effective area is crucial in determining the performance of the PCF, and a greater effective area usually results in a more sensitive sensor. A greater effective area facilitates enhanced interaction between the guided light and the surrounding medium or analyte under consideration. The heightened level of interaction leads to an improved sensitivity of the sensor, hence increasing its ability to promptly detect and respond to variations in the surrounding sensory environment.

Figure 8 Changes in the effective area of the proposed sensor based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.
Figure 8

Changes in the effective area of the proposed sensor based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.

A graphical representation of the correlation between the nonlinear coefficient of the liquid analytes and the operating wavelength is presented in Figure 9. Water, ethanol, and benzene behave similarly, with the nonlinear coefficient decreasing as the operating wavelength increases. However, there is a conflicting relationship between the nonlinear coefficient and the effective area, as illustrated in Figures 8 and 9. Despite this apparent conflict, the nonlinearity coefficients of water, ethanol, and benzene are almost identical at a wavelength of 1.3 µm, with values of 13.98, 13.93, and 14.85 W–1 km–1, respectively. The presence of nonlinear effects may lead to the distortion of the transmitted light, potentially resulting in undesirable noise or measurement errors. Through the mitigation of these effects, PCF sensors can offer measurements that are both more precise and dependable.

Figure 9 Changes in the nonlinear coefficient of the proposed sensor based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.
Figure 9

Changes in the nonlinear coefficient of the proposed sensor based on the wavelength for liquid analytes.

The suggested PCF consists of a single core hole and five cladding air hole rings, and it was created with a reasonably basic design for use in liquid sensing applications. Using the current improvement in fabrication technology, creating with such a simple design is simple and inexpensive. Despite these benefits, it has been demonstrated that the suggested PCF's sensitivity is higher than that of many PCFs with more sophisticated designs, such as those provided in references [9,10,12–18]. It has lower confinement loss than most previous PCFs, making it suitable for liquid sensing. However, its confinement loss is slightly lower than reference [12] and comparable to those in references [9,10,13–18]. Despite these differences, the proposed PCF is still a good choice for the liquid sensing application.

Table 2 presents a comparison between the proposed PCF and previously investigated chemical PCF sensors. The results clearly indicate that the proposed PCF exhibits superior performance in terms of confinement loss and relative sensitivity. According to the data presented in the table, it can be observed that the suggested PCF sensor demonstrates the highest relative sensitivity when compared to other sensors. Additionally, it exhibits a low level of confinement loss.

Table 2

The contrast between the suggested PCF and previously studied PCF sensors

PCF Sensitivity (%) Confinement loss (dB/m)
Water Ethanol Benzene Water Ethanol Benzene
Reference [12] 23.3 24.2 24.9 10–2 10–3 10–3
Reference [10] — 29 — — 10–7 —
Reference [9] 41.37 — — 10–10 — —
Reference [13] 45.1 46.9 47.4 10–15 10–14 10–14
Reference [14] 48.2 53.2 55.6 — — —
Reference [15] 52.1 56.8 58.9 10–13 10–13 10–13
Reference [16] 62.6 65.3 74.5 10–7 10–8 10–11
Reference [17] 88.9 91.9 97.9 10–10 10–10 10–10
Reference [18] 94.5 96.3 99.6 10–9 10–10 10–13
Proposed 96.84 98.12 100.00 10–10 10–10 10–10

Making complicated and simple PCF designs is now achievable because of technological advancements in manufacturing processes. The utilization of advanced manufacturing techniques such as stack and draw, drilling, sol–gel casting, and the extrusion method have been considered in the literature [32,33,34,35]. Design feasibility is an essential requirement for manufacturing the suggested PCF.

Furthermore, in relation to the construction of the suggested PCF sensor, a study was conducted to analyze the impact of deviations from the ideal specifications by varying the diameter of the cladding and core holes and the pitch size of the holes in the PCF design. This study is known as a tolerance study. In Table 3, with a wavelength of λ = 1.3 µm, an analysis of the proposed PCF caused by generic parameter changes in the order of ±1, ±2, and ±3% from the optimal values is shown. For deviations of up to ±3% from the ideal values, the changes in relative sensitivities are less than ±1.3, ±1.2, and ±0.01% for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively, as shown in the data.

Table 3

Comparing how the global parameters change at the optimal parameters at λ = 1.3 µm

Change in global Relative sensitivity (%) Confinement loss (dB/m) Nonlinear coefficient (W–1 km–1)
Parameters (%) Water Ethanol Benzene Water Ethanol Benzene Water Ethanol Benzene
+3% 97.06 98.44 100.00 3.7 × 10–10 7.6 × 10–10 7.3 × 10–10 9.70 8.93 9.09
+2% 96.98 98.32 100.00 1.8 × 10–10 4.3 × 10–10 5.5 × 10–10 12.11 10.19 10.57
+1% 96.91 98.25 100.00 1.1 × 10–10 2.4 × 10–10 2.7 × 10–10 10.72 11.82 12.44
Optimum 96.84 98.12 100.00 1.2 × 10–10 1.5 × 10–10 1.0 × 10–10 13.98 13.93 14.85
−1% 96.76 97.90 100.00 9.9 × 10–11 9.2 × 10–11 8.5 × 10–11 16.49 16.70 18.03
−2% 96.54 97.56 99.99 8.7 × 10–11 7.2 × 10–11 6.8 × 10–11 19.85 20.39 22.35
−3% 96.42 97.13 99.93 7.8 × 10–11 5.2 × 10−11 4.0 × 10–11 24.42 25.42 28.37

Similarly, confinement loss experiences minor changes of less than ±5.5 × 10–11, ±1.1 × 10–10, and ±4.5 × 10–12% for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively. The nonlinear coefficient changes through less than ±4.1, ±5.0, and ±5.4% for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively. Despite these discrepancies, it should be noted that the resulting confinement loss, nonlinear coefficient and relative sensitivity are still superior to those shown in Table 3.

Real-life operating conditions must be considered when moving PCF chemical sensors from computer simulations to real-world tests. These conditions can have a significant effect on the optical properties of the analyte and the measured sensor reaction. In particular, changing the temperature and pressure transforms the refractive index of specific analytes like benzene, water, and ethanol. To set a standard for this work, operation at room temperature (293.15 K) and atmospheric pressure (1 atm) are used for characterization and optimization. But to make the sensor technology work on a larger scale, it needs to be designed to resist environmental changes, or the system needs to be actively stabilized and calibrated. It is possible to lessen the effects of temperature and pressure-related changes in the refractive index by modeling the PCF sensor response across the expected working parameter space and then optimizing the photonic crystal structure to match. It is easier to understand and demonstrate PCF chemical sensors when they are used in a lab with stringent controls, which is what is expected here. However, putting this technology into practice requires designs that can handle changes in the real world. This can be done through multi-physics models and engineered materials not sensitive to temperature or pressure.

4 Conclusion

The PCF is a recently proposed type of optical fiber that shows promise for use in liquid sensing in the lower optical wavelength range. Accurate identification and quantification of liquid samples are of utmost importance in various fields, such as environmental monitoring, industrial processing, medical diagnostics, and laboratory research. The novel fiber is structured with a single circular core hole and air holes in the cladding, arranged in a hybrid layout spanning five layers. This unique design allows for the effective and efficient detection of different liquids. To determine the characteristics of this new fiber, numerical simulations were conducted using the full vector FEM method. This technique is effective in studying the attributes of optical fibers, and it was employed to assess PCF's functionality regarding sensitivity, nonlinear coefficient, confinement loss, power fraction, and effective area. The fiber was tested with three different liquids: water, ethanol, and benzene. The results showed that the proposed PCF has high sensitivity and can detect water, ethanol, and benzene, with a sensitivity of 96.84, 98.12, and 100%, respectively, at an optimal wavelength of 1.3 µm. Furthermore, the nonlinear coefficient of PCF was observed to be 13.98, 13.93, and 14.85 W–1 km–1 for water, ethanol, and benzene, respectively. The PCF showed good performance results in various characteristics, such as confinement loss, power fraction, and effective area. This means that the proposed fiber has the potential for various applications, including optical communication, chemical detection, and biosensing. Overall, the PCF is a promising innovation that can help advance the field of liquid sensing and pave the way for new technological applications.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thanks Mustansiriyah University (www.uomustansiriyha.edu.iq) Baghdad, Iraq for its support in the present work.

  1. Funding information: Authors declare that the manuscript was done depending on the personal effort of the author, and there is no funding effort from any side or organization.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: Most data sets generated and analyzed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other data sets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-09-05
Revised: 2023-11-06
Accepted: 2023-11-12
Published Online: 2024-03-04

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0562
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
chemical sensor; confinement loss; nonlinearity; photonic crystal fiber; relative sensitivity
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
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  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
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  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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Heruntergeladen am 4.11.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/eng-2022-0562/html
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