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Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers

  • Laith N. Hussain EMAIL logo , Mohammed J. Hamood and Ehsan A. Al-Shaarbaf
Published/Copyright: July 2, 2024
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Deep beams are crucial for construction projects due to their load-carrying capacity, shear resistance, and architectural adaptability. Ultra-high strength concrete and ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) are used in their production. Basalt fiber is used as an alternative due to its corrosion resistance, tensile strength, and thermal stability. This study investigates the behavior of UHPC deep beams reinforced with basalt fibers. Three sets of 11 specimens were constructed without transverse reinforcement and reinforced with either fibers or steel fibers. The study also analyzes the impact of parameters like shear strength capacity, crack development, and load-deflection behavior on UHPC deep beams. The study discovered that the inclusion of basalt fibers in UHPC deep beam can effectively postpone the onset of diagonal cracks. Incorporating basalt fiber at concentrations of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% led to respective increases of 48.17, 70.07, and 86.66% in the diagonal fracture force, as compared to the inclusion of steel fibers which resulted in increases of 18.24, 56.93, and 98.54% in diagonal fracture loads. The ideal ratio for enhancing the maximum shear capacity was found to be 0.75% of basalt. This specific percent resulted in the highest measured force out of the three percentages that were examined. The addition of basalt fibers at concentrations of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% resulted in respective improvements of 11.62, 30.08, and 28.69% in the ultimate shear capacities. During that period, steel fibers significantly enhanced the ultimate shear capacity, resulting in an increase of 19.83, 34.49, and 55.24% compared to specimens without fiber reinforcement. Regarding the second parameter of this investigation, a drop in the shear span ratio is linked to an augmentation in shear capacity and a reduction in mid-span deflection to varying extents for both the utilization of basalt and steel fibers.

Keywords: basalt fibers; steel fibers; deep beam; diagonal cracks; ultimate shear capacity

1 Introduction

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is an advanced construction material known for its exceptional strength and durability. It is composed of a precise mixture of cement, fine aggregates, admixtures, and fibers, resulting in a dense and compact material with superior mechanical properties. Deep beams, on the other hand, are structural elements designed to resist large loads and span relatively shorter distances compared to beams of regular depth. They are commonly used in construction projects where a high level of load-bearing capacity is required, such as transfer girders and corbels, where stress transmission throughout their section essentially contributes to preserving structural integrity and shear capacity [1] However, Traditional shear reinforcing techniques, such as steel stirrups, have limitations regarding construction feasibility, maintenance needs, and long-term durability [2,3]. Consequently, researchers have been exploring alternative approaches to design and analysis of the fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) [4,5,6], and studying alternative materials to increase shear resistance in slender and deep beams [7,8]. The most commonly used material in UHPC is steel fibers. Steel fibers are still used in high volumes of fractions and increases the structure’s weight, and therefore, is seen as a formidable obstacle for designing structures with excellent earthquake resistance. It is susceptible to damage. The structure’s integrity, shear capacity, and service life will be compromised by corrosion in a harsh environment, forcing costly repairs and rehabilitation [9,10,11]. The Moscow Research Institute developed basalt fiber, which was invented by the former Soviet Union following three decades of research [12]. The inaugural industrial production furnace was finalized in 1985. The base cost of basalt fibers is subject to variation depending on the quality of the raw materials, the production process, and the qualities of the finished product. However, due to its lower energy consumption and absence of additives, basalt fibers are comparatively less expensive than glass or carbon fibers.

The chemical durability of basalt fiber has been studied for the first time, with studies showing its excellent resistance to alkaline attack but poor resistance to acids. Nasir et al. [13] showed better mechanical behavior of basalt fibers than glass ones after corrosion treatments, and it was concluded that basalt fibers would be a suitable replacement in corrosive environments. Scheffler et al. [14] carried out the aging of glass and basalt fibers with different chemical constitutions in NaOH and cement solutions, showing that the corrosion in NaOH solution leads to a strong dissolution of the outer layer of the glass and basalt fibers, while during aging in cement solution at the same pH-value, a limited, local attack is revealed. Rybin et al. [15] showed that the zirconia coating slows down the corrosion of basalt fiber in alkali solution to a higher extent by applying dense zirconia coating than the porous coating on the fiber surface. Liu et al. [16] investigated the resistance of basalt-fiber-reinforced epoxy composites to seawater immersion, moisture absorption, temperature variations, and moisture cycling. The researchers employed a combination of two twill fabrics and two polymers, namely, epoxy resin and vinyl ester, due to their exceptional ability to withstand high temperatures, possess strong mechanical qualities, and exhibit resistance to moisture. Additionally, the basalt fiber industry is greener, more sustainable, and emits lower carbon emissions compared to steel fibers, making it a more environmentally friendly choice for construction and suitable for many applications where structural integrity is crucial, such as bridges or high-rise buildings. These fibers are more effective in reinforcing concrete to prevent and reduce cracking and improve durability. Therefore, in UHPC, basalt fibers have emerged as an attractive alternative to steel fibers [16,17,18].

The study conducted by Balamuralikrishnan et al. [19] revealed that the utilization of wasted catalyst laminates resulted in enhanced flexural strength and load-carrying capacity in test beams. Additionally, retrofitting led to higher stiffness, combined effects, shear, and failure mode. Awad et al. [20] discovered that substituting basalt with 10% has a significant influence on both compressive strength and tension. In contrast, the strength of limestone is only marginally impacted by replacement fractions of 10 and 40%. Substituting 40% of sand with limestone dust in concrete can enhance the feasibility of the project and provide environmental advantages, whereas the utilization of natural sand poses a risk to the ecosystem. Shousha et al. [21] investigated the load-carrying ability of reinforced concrete inverted-T deep beam and determined that the diameter of hanger reinforcement and horizontal web shear had negligible effects.

The initiation and propagation of cracks are governed by various elements that have been thoroughly explored by numerous researchers. This factor is categorized into two distinct groups: major factors and other elements. The primary factors that determined the behavior of the deep beam were the shear span-to-effective depth ratio, the compressive strength of the concrete, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and the dimensions of the deep beam section. Other elements that exert a lesser influence on the shear strength of concrete include the maximum aggregate size, the diameter of longitudinal reinforcement bars, the spacing of flexural fractures, and the type of loading. Moreover, the inclusion of transverse reinforcement, generally referred to as stirrups, greatly enhances the concrete’s resistance to cracking. The factors that affect the impact of the transverse reinforcement bars are the cross-sectional area of the bars, their yield strength, the distance between the stirrups, and the width of the web.

It is important to acknowledge that there is a lack of extensive study on the use of basalt fibers to strengthen UHPC structures, specifically in the case of deep beams. Additional research is required to comprehensively comprehend the behavior. And there has not been a specific and direct comparison between basalt and steel fibers, so their respective performance is not fully comprehended.

The objective of this study is to investigate the shear resistance of a UHPC deep beam incorporating basalt fibers, without the presence of transverse shear reinforcement. The results obtained from the tested samples will be compared to those of comparable samples of UHPC deep beam reinforcement with an equivalent quantity of steel fibers and shear span ratio (a/d). The study will examine two variables: the amount of steel and basalt fibers in the mixture. The investigation will involve varying quantities of fractions in order to determine the optimal volume of fraction (V f) of basalt fibers. Additionally, different loading scenarios will be examined by altering the shear span ratio (a/d).

2 Experimental investigations

2.1 Test specimens

The research conducted an evaluation of 11 deep beam specimen’s constructed using ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete in order to ascertain the ultimate shear capacity and mid-span deflection Figure 2b. The strut-and-tie method for designing deep beams, Figure 1, involves idealizing the stress flow within the beam as a framework of compression struts transferring load between points, known as nodes, and tension ties providing equilibrium by connecting opposing nodes. Key steps involve identifying critical load cases and their nodes, assuming idealized triangular stress blocks for the struts and ties, determining the forces within each member by load path tracing, checking equilibrium at each node, designing the struts, ties, and nodes for the calculated axial and bond/confinement demands considering length/angle effects, checking serviceability and ductility requirements, considering construction implications, performing sensitivity analyses, comparing models to test data where available, and documenting all assumptions, designs, and limitations of the strut-and-tie model ACI 318-19 [22].

Figure 1 Strut and tie model for simple support deep beam.
Figure 1

Strut and tie model for simple support deep beam.

In order to monitor strain and ensure shear failure, strain gauges were mounted on both the primary tensile rebar and the top of the mid-span. None of the specimens possessed stirrups. The study involved the testing of three distinct groups of beams. The original group consisted of a single sample made of ultra-high strength concrete (UHSC) without any reinforcing fibers. The term UHSC, or ultra-high strength concrete, was coined to specifically describe concrete that does not contain fibers, in order to distinguish it from UHPC, which has fibers inside the concrete matrix. The second experimental group consisted of five deep beams that incorporated steel fibers at volumetric percentages of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0%. The third group consisted of five specimens exhibiting the same ratio of basalt fibers. Table 1 presents data on the beam groups, encompassing the fiber volume percentage, shear span to depth ratio, and fiber type (either basalt or steel). The deep beam’s longitudinal reinforcement comprises 20 mm diameter bars, which are chosen to ensure that adequate cover is provided. These bars have a yielding stress of 724 MPa. Additionally, 6 mm diameter stirrups with a yielding stress of 462 MPa are installed at both ends of the beam to install longitudinal reinforcement and prevent local failure. This arrangement is depicted in Figure 2a.

Table 1

Beam specimens coding and adopted variables

Group Deep beam coding Fibers type Volume of fraction V f (%) Shear span ratio a/d
1 D0–1.8 None 0.0 1.8
2 D 0.5S–1.8 Steel 0.50 1.8
D0.75S–1.8 Steel 0.75 1.8
D1.0S–1.8 Steel 1.00 1.8
D1.0S–1.4 Steel 1.00 1.4
D1.0S–1.0 Steel 1.00 1.0
3 D 0.5B–1.8 Basalt 0.50 1.8
D0.75B–1.8 Basalt 0.75 1.8
D1.0B–1.8 Basalt 1.00 1.8
D1.0B–1.4 Basalt 1.00 1.4
D1.0B–1.0 Basalt 1.00 1.0
Figure 2 Details of the tested beam specimens. (a) The geometry of the deep beam. (b) The produced deep beams.
Figure 2

Details of the tested beam specimens. (a) The geometry of the deep beam. (b) The produced deep beams.

2.2 Material properties

Table 2 explains the exact concrete mix proportions that were utilized in the experiment. A combination consisting of standard Portland cement, condensed silica fume, fine quartz sand, and Sika Viscocrete Hi-Tech 1316 as a high-range water reduction additive was consistently utilized. The matrix was enhanced with either steel or basalt, with three different volume fractions: 0.50%, 0.75%, and 1.0%. The diameter and length of round steel fibers were 0.2 and 12 mm, respectively, whereas the diameter and length of chopped basalt fibers were 16–18 μm and 12 mm, respectively. Steel and basalt fibers have distinct mixing techniques. The mixes were poured into molds and cured at 60°C for 28 days in hot water. Until the testing date, the samples were stored and tested at room temperature for 91 days. Figure 3 explains the main process of producing the deep beams.

Table 2

Details of the adopted concrete mix proportions

Ordinary Portland cement (ASTM) (kg/m3) Condensed silica fume (s) (kg/m3) Quartz sand (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Viscocrete Hi-Tech Sika 1316 (kg/m3)
975 225 1,050 196 36
Figure 3 UHPC product and deep beams casting. (a) The ball formation, (b) the UHPC concrete, (c) steel molds, and (d) casting UHPC concrete.
Figure 3

UHPC product and deep beams casting. (a) The ball formation, (b) the UHPC concrete, (c) steel molds, and (d) casting UHPC concrete.

Table 3 illustrates the properties of basalt and steel fibers. It demonstrates that basalt fibers possess greater tensile strength than steel fibers. The specific gravity of steel fibers is around 2.80 times more than that of basalt fibers. In addition, Table 3 reveals that steel fibers have a lower aspect ratio and elongation at break than basalt fibers.

Table 3

Description and properties of steel and basalt fibers

Properties Steel fiber Basalt fiber
Shape Straight and rounded Chopped to as short filament
Material Steel wire of low percent of carbon, coated copper Basalt
Radius (mm) 0.1 0.008–0.009
Length of the used fibers (mm) 12 12
Fiber’s tensile strength (MPa) 2,850 2,400–4,800
Fibers density (kg/m3) 7,810 2,825
Aspect ratio 60 —

Provided by the manufacturer catalog note.

The control specimens consisted of standard cylinders and prisms that were subjected to compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strength tests in accordance with the ASTM [23,24,25] requirements. When including steel fibers into the mixture at concentrations of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0%, the experimental findings indicated a corresponding increase in compressive strength and tensile strength and other physical properties as shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Physical properties of specimen mixtures physical properties

Mix ID Fiber type V f (%) F c (MPa) F t (MPa) Flexural strength Frf (MPa) Elastic modulus
M0 No Fibers 0.00 103.37 7.97 15.01 34.63
MS0.5 Steel 0.50 112.53 10.1 17.33 37.56
MS1.0 Steel 0.75 126.89 13.02 19.65 41.21
MS1.5 Steel 1.00 137.18 15.16 21.00 45.51
Mb0.5 Basalt 0.50 148.81 7.3 14.42 41.388
Mb1.0 Basalt 0.75 156.42 8.53 16.42 44.22
Mb1.5 Basalt 1.00 145.39 8.21 16.99 41.43

3 Impact of basalt fibers on tensile strength

A study conducted at Hohai University by Jiang et al. [26] revealed that the inclusion of chopped basalt fiber resulted in a substantial enhancement of the mechanical characteristics of chopped basalt fiber reinforced concrete. The study additionally discovered that basalt fibers enhanced compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural strength, while also resulting in increased porosity. The researchers proposed conducting additional studies to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the properties of basalt fiber and its potential applications in reinforced concrete.

Multiple research works have examined the ductility of UHPC by using different types of micro-synthetic fibers, such as basalt fiber, polypropylene fiber, and glass fiber, at various volume fractions. The results demonstrate that the kind and amount of included fibers had a substantial influence on the properties of both fresh and hardened UHPC concrete. The relevant characteristics encompass the compressive strength, flexural strength, modulus of rupture, and toughness indices The observed augmentation varied among different proportions. Basalt fibers outperform other organic polypropylene fibers due to their superior elastic modulus, tensile strength, dispersibility, and significant affinity for cementitious matrix [27].

The inclusion of basalt fibers in concrete can have a substantial effect on its mechanical characteristics, which is contingent upon the amount and manner in which they are incorporated. The initial formation of cracks in fiber-reinforced concrete signifies the transfer of stress from the matrix to the fibers through bonding. As cracks form, the fibers become detached from the matrix, resulting in apparent fractures. Basalt fibers are thin and elongated filaments that separate into individual strands, some of which may be twisted or intertwined around cement particles. Studies indicate that fiber concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 1% enhance both compressive and flexural strength. However, higher concentrations may result in reduced strength due to insufficient dispersion and bonding. In a study conducted by Shehab El-Din et al. [28], it was shown that the incorporation of basalt fibers at a density of 18 kg/m3 resulted in a notable enhancement in the compressive strength of conventional concrete, exhibiting a 15% increase. In a separate investigation, the impact of basalt fibers on the mechanical properties of concrete with a strength of 32 MPa was investigated by Revade and Dharane [29]. The diameter of the fibers measured was 13 μm, while their length was 12 mm. The fiber dosages of 0.5, 1, and 2% by weight of cement were subjected to testing. The experimental findings demonstrated an enhancement in compressive strength by 13.2, 11.8, and 10%, respectively. The splitting tensile strength also exhibited enhancements of 11.26, 17.4, and 20.8%, respectively. In his study, Abdulhadi [30] investigated the impact of basalt fibers on concrete with a compressive strength of 30 MPa. Fiber concentrations of 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, and 1.2% were employed. The inclusion of fibers resulted in a reduction in compressive strength. In contrast, the incorporation of basalt fibers at concentrations of 0.3 and 0.6% resulted in an increase of 2.6 and 22.9% in the splitting tensile strength, respectively. Conversely, the addition of basalt fibers at concentrations of 0.9 and 1.2% led to a reduction of 11.3 and 19.8% in the splitting tensile strength, respectively. The ideal fiber dosage, as determined by the author, was found to be 0.6%. In their study, Krassowska and Kosior-Kazberuk [31] employed basalt fibers with densities of 2.5 and 5 kg/m3, measuring 50 mm in length and 0.02 mm in diameter. The researchers made the observation that the inclusion of basalt fibers resulted in improvements of 4.76 and 0.99% in the compressive strength (f′cf) of the material. Additionally, the addition of basalt fibers led to enhancements of 10.06 and 16.39% in the splitting tensile strength. The researchers Alkhafaji and Izzet and Sabet et al. [32,33] made the observation that the tensile strength of basalt monofilament was found to be six times greater than that of basalt fiber bundles. The difference was ascribed to the accumulation of imperfections in the bundles. Previous studies on basalt fibers in concrete have shown inconsistent results. The effectiveness depends on the proportion and method of blending, with the timing of the addition crucial for efficient dispersion. The study found a favorable ratio of 0.5–1.0% for improving concrete properties, with higher percentages potentially affecting strength.

4 Test setup and instrumentation for deep beams’ test

The laboratory of the Al Shatra Technical Institute used a hydraulic loading system with a maximum capacity of 1,000 kN to test deep beams made of UHPC. The Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), a precision instrument used for precise measurement and detection of deflection, was strategically placed at the midpoint of the unobstructed span of the beam. Behavior and crack development were simultaneously recorded using high-resolution cameras. Data logger device was connected to load cells that were positioned beneath the support and two-point loads, as illustrated in Figure 4. The study evaluated a range of mechanical parameters, such as compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and bending strength. Prior to the commencement of the test, the UHPC deep beams on both sides were coated with a layer of white lime paint. Furthermore, the surfaces in question were equipped with a webcam of superior quality. The procedure for implementing the load is explained. The experiment employed a total of four roller supports, Figure 5a, with two positioned above the specimen in the load transfer device (LTD) and the remaining two were placed at the bottom in the load receive device (LRD). The steel supports were purposely designed and produced to have a load-bearing capacity of 1,000 kN, allowing for the installation of the lower roller, as shown in Figure 5b. In addition, a load cell with a maximum capacity of 500 kN was placed under the support structure, specifically in Figure 5c. This was done to accurately measure the load delivered to each support, which is equivalent to half of the total load (P/2). In the mentioned situation, the last two rollers were put together with the aim of improving the functionality of LTD. The mentioned devices are equipped with load cells that measure and compare the load applied on each side with the load received at the base of the support. The support is hung from the horizontal steel beams of the hydraulic pressure device. All of the mentioned devices are connected to the computer throughout the data logger, as depicted in Figure 5d.

Figure 4 Instruments and test set-up of the test specimens.
Figure 4

Instruments and test set-up of the test specimens.

Figure 5 Tested beam specimens set-up. (a) Roller support. (b) The steel supports. (c) The support and the load cell. (d) All the test instruments connected to the data logger.
Figure 5

Tested beam specimens set-up. (a) Roller support. (b) The steel supports. (c) The support and the load cell. (d) All the test instruments connected to the data logger.

4.1 Deep beam characteristics and crack pattern

For each deep beam tested, the first cracks appeared towards the bottom of the middle span of the deep beam. As the load continues to be applied, cracks grow upward. The internal stresses within the depth of deep beams were transmitted from the loading points to the roller supports on each side of the loaded UHPC deep beam. There were compression stresses above the neutral axis and tension stresses below it. These stresses varied over the depth of the section and were subsequently transmitted as primary stresses.

In UHPC deep beams, the ratio of diagonal cracking load to ultimate load went down for all specimens that were looked at when the a/d ratio went from 1.0 to 1.8. As the a/d ratio grows, the inclination angle between the strut and tie lowers. Consequently, the stresses imparted to the major rebars will see a substantial rise. When the major rebars experience a tensile stress exceeding 400 MPa, the first fractures appear around the rebars and propagate toward the lower fibers of the mid-span. This study demonstrates that diagonal cracks emerge in both shear spans subsequent to initial cracks, while flexural cracks become increasingly constrained. As stress levels rise, pre-existing diagonal cracks exhibit gradual propagation, while further inclined cracks may emerge. The factors that undergo modification include the fiber volume percentage or aspect-to-diameter ratio of the tested beams, as depicted in Figure 5. The cracking patterns exhibit near-symmetry until the point of failure, at which the breadth of diagonal cracks progressively enlarges until the concrete ultimately breaks along an inclined shear crack. The UHPC deep beam was also analyzed, utilizing the strut and tie approach. The finite element approach was employed to apply the strut and tie method, utilizing element beam 188 in the ANSYS program to accurately simulate the truss structure [34]. A simulated model was used to determine and analyze stress levels throughout the depth of the deep beam. The compression struts consist of condensed concrete, while the continuous tension connections represent steel. Nodes are identified at the locations where loads are exerted and at the intersections where supports or struts intersect, and equilibrium equations are established for each node. This method is highly efficient and accurately calculates the load and stress in the truss component. The finite element model displays that the first crack in the concrete forms a full circle around the tension rebars when the tie’s stress level goes above 400 MPa for all shear span-to-depth ratios Figure 6. The finite element model facilitates the analysis of the influence of shear span on the structural response of deep beams (Figure 7).

Figure 6 a/d ratio, an ultimate force of the deep beams and rebars maximum tensile stress for D1.0S–1.0, D1.0–1.4, and D1.0S–1.8.
Figure 6

a/d ratio, an ultimate force of the deep beams and rebars maximum tensile stress for D1.0S–1.0, D1.0–1.4, and D1.0S–1.8.

Figure 7 Cracks pattern of all the tested specimens.
Figure 7

Cracks pattern of all the tested specimens.

4.2 Load–deflection curve behavior

The presence of fibers in the matrix plays an acknowledged role in the behavior of the load–deflection curves. The fibers stop microcracks in the concrete matrix from getting bigger and stop fractures inside the matrix from spreading and joining together. This makes the tested deep beams stronger. As a result, the curves demonstrate a greater influence on the capacity of the tested specimens to absorb energy, which is influenced by the types and concentrations of fibers in the concrete matrix. This is clearly evident in the curves.

The LVDT and load cells are linked to a data logger for the purpose of recording the magnitudes of loads and displacements, as depicted in Figure 5d. The load–deflection graph illustrates the effects of incorporating three distinct proportions of steel fibers (0.5, 0.75, and 1%) into the matrix. Prior to the formation of cracks in the concrete matrix, all curves exhibited a similar appearance. The lack of fibers in DO–1.8 accentuated the visibility of a diagonal crack, as these fibers usually serve to connect the internal cracks in the matrix. Consequently, the cracks extended beyond the boundaries observed in the fiber-reinforced matrix, suggesting that the matrix has a higher ability to impede the expansion of fissures rather than completely halting their propagation. Figure 8 demonstrates a significant improvement in load-bearing capacity and deflection behavior of the tested deep beams when steel fibers are incorporated at a volume fraction of 1%, as compared to the basalt fiber deep beams illustrated in Figure 9. This study establishes a direct relationship between the a/d ratio and deflection for steel or basalt fiber specimens. Figures 10 and 11 provide visual evidence of the positive correlation, showing that an increase in the a/d ratio leads to a corresponding increase in deflection. The deep beam’s behavior shifted toward increased flexural response as the shear span increased. As a result, the main reinforcing bars encountered elevated levels of stress, as previously illustrated in Figure 6.

Figure 8 Load–deflection curve of steel fibers UHPC deep beams.
Figure 8

Load–deflection curve of steel fibers UHPC deep beams.

Figure 9 Load–deflection curve of basalt fiber UHPC deep beams.
Figure 9

Load–deflection curve of basalt fiber UHPC deep beams.

Figure 10 Load–deflection for steel fibers UHPC deep beams with varied a/d ratio.
Figure 10

Load–deflection for steel fibers UHPC deep beams with varied a/d ratio.

Figure 11 Load–deflection curve for basalt fibers UHPC deep beams with varied (a/d) ratio.
Figure 11

Load–deflection curve for basalt fibers UHPC deep beams with varied (a/d) ratio.

4.3 Effect of fiber content

4.3.1 Influence of steel fiber volume fraction on the UHPC deep beam’s performance

Conventionally reinforced deep beams prevent shear diagonal cracks by eliminating various factors mentioned in the literature review. Transversal reinforcement is crucial. Steel fibers serve as a substitute for transversal reinforcement in UHPC deep beams, specifically in D0.5 S–1.8, DB0.75 S–1.8, and DS1.0–1.8. This is done to alleviate the exacerbation of diagonal fractures, as depicted in Figure 12. The absence of steel fiber in matrix D0–1.8 results in the formation of a diagonal crack measuring 137 kN. When adding steel fibers at concentrations of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0%, the diagonal fracture loads experience respective improvements of 18.24, 56.93, and 98.54%. The ultimate shear capacity of deep beams increases by 19.83, 34.49, and 55.24% for each corresponding equal percentage increase in the volume fraction. As the volume percentage of steel fibers increases, the shear strength of the deep beam also increases. This relationship is demonstrated in Table 5 and is visually represented in Figures 12 and 13.

Figure 12 Diagonal crack and ultimate load of steel fibers UHPC deep beams.
Figure 12

Diagonal crack and ultimate load of steel fibers UHPC deep beams.

Table 5

Impact of different volumes of fraction (V f) of steel fibers on the diagonal cracking load (V d), ultimate load (V u), and percentage increase in loads of the specimens, with a constant a/d ratio

Deep beam V f (%) a/d V d (kN) V u V d/V d D0 (%) Net rise V d/V d D0 (%) V u/V u D0 (%) Net rise V u/V u D0 (%)
D0–1.8 0 1.8 137 279 100 0 100 0
D0.5S–1.8 0.5 1.8 162 334.33 118.24 18.24 119.83 19.83
D0.75S–1.8 0.75 1.8 215 375.23 156.93 56.93 134.49 34.49
D1.0S–1.8 1 1.8 272 433.12 198.54 98.54 155.24 55.24
Figure 13 Percentage net increase in the diagonal fracture and ultimate load of UHPC deep beams with steel fibers.
Figure 13

Percentage net increase in the diagonal fracture and ultimate load of UHPC deep beams with steel fibers.

Steel fibers in concrete matrix improve material behavior during cracking by preventing cracking, resisting crack spread, and facilitating stress transmission between cracks and surrounding matrix. A mechanism developed at the crack start involves adsorption of stress from deteriorating steel fibers to neighboring fibers, leading to more diagonal cracks in shear spans. The higher the steel fiber concentration, the more inclined these cracks form [35]. This experiment demonstrates stress redistribution inside sections of material subject to shear forces. Steel fiber-reinforced deep beams have superior load-bearing capacity compared to basalt fiber-reinforced beams, especially after diagonal cracks. The capacity to assimilate elastic and plastic deformation energy and transmit tensile stresses through cracks is crucial for performance.

4.3.2 Influence of basalt fiber volume of fraction on the UHPC deep beam’s performance

The performance improvement was clearly explained in Figures 14 and 15 for D0.5B–1.8, D0.75B–1.8, and D1.0B–1.8, compared with those of UHSC (DO–1.8). These volumes of fraction resulted in an increase in the diagonal fracture force of 48.17, 70.07, and 86.86%, respectively. The selected deep beams exhibit a net percent increase in ultimate shear capacity of 11.62, 30.08, and 28.69% compared to non-fibrous deep beams, as seen in Table 6. It was found that adding basalt fibers to UHPC deep beams greatly improves both the diagonal fracture force and, to a lesser extent, the final shear capacity. The enhancement of these characteristics is closely correlated with achieving the optimal concentration of basalt fibers within the matrix.

Figure 14 Diagonal cracks and ultimate load of basalt fiber UHPC deep beams.
Figure 14

Diagonal cracks and ultimate load of basalt fiber UHPC deep beams.

Figure 15 Percentage net increase in the diagonal fracture and ultimate load of UHPC deep beams with basalt fiber.
Figure 15

Percentage net increase in the diagonal fracture and ultimate load of UHPC deep beams with basalt fiber.

Table 6

Impact of different volumes of fraction (V f) of basalt fibers on the diagonal cracking load (V d), ultimate load (V u), and percentage increase in loads of the specimens, with a constant a/d ratio

Deep beam V f (%) a/d V d (kN) V u V d/V d D0 (%) Net rise V d/V d D0 (%) V u/V u D0 (%) Net rise V u/V u D0 (%)
D0–1.8 0 1.8 137 279 100 0 100 0
D0.5B–1.8 0.5 1.8 203 311.43 148.17 48.17 111.62 11.62
D0.75B–1.8 0.75 1.8 233 362.93 170.07 70.07 130.08 30.08
D1.0B–1.8 1 1.8 256 359.05 186.86 86.86 128.69 28.69

The various thin basalt filaments could disperse throughout the concrete matrix in a variety of orientations and locations in order to strengthen the interaction with the concrete matrix. In addition, they prevented the development and spread of cracks. Nevertheless, some of the previously stated tiny balls were discovered in the concrete, notably when the volume fraction of basalt fibers was more than 1.0%. These small balls became stress-relieving focal centers. In Figures 14 and 15, it is clearly shown that a greater proportion of basalt fibers led to the formation of additional balls within the UHPC framework. Therefore, they produced a decrease in the shear capability of the deep beams with a 1.0% volume fraction of basalt fibers. Consequently, when the quantity of these blemishes was high, the cracks spread more rapidly. Consequently, the failure will result in small shear stresses. In contrast, when the volume fraction of basalt fibers was between 0.5 and 1.0%, the action of these filaments was evident in enhancing the shear capacity.

4.3.3 Shear capacity of deep beams as affected by fiber type (steel vs basalt)

As Figures 16 and 17 show the study conducted a comparative analysis of the impact of steel and basalt fibers on the shear capacity of deep beams. The inclusion of steel fibers resulted in a significant increase in the diagonal cracking force of deep beam D0–1.8. Specifically, the diagonal cracking force was enhanced by 18.24, 56.93, and 98.54% when steel fibers were incorporated. The incorporation of basalt fibers resulted in an increase in diagonal crack force of 48.17, 70.07, and 86.86%, respectively. Basalt fibers exhibited a greater capacity to retard diagonal shear cracks compared to steel fibers. The utilization of basalt fibers in the range of 0.5 to less than 1.0% demonstrated favorable outcomes, including a delay in the onset of diagonal shear cracks, decreased intensity of crack propagation, and enhanced stability of smaller cracks. These improvements surpassed the performance of steel fibers at equal percentages until the point of failure.

Figure 16 The diagonal cracks of fibrous and non-fibrous deep beams.
Figure 16

The diagonal cracks of fibrous and non-fibrous deep beams.

Figure 17 The ultimate load of fibrous and non-fibrous deep beams.
Figure 17

The ultimate load of fibrous and non-fibrous deep beams.

Introducing steel fibers at volume fractions of 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% resulted in an increase in the maximum shear capacity of 19.83, 34.49, and 55.24%, respectively, compared to the reference deep beam D0–1.8. Based on the data shown in Figure 12, the study found that the ultimate shear capacity varied at percentages of 11.62, 30.08, and 28.69% when the same amount of basalt fibers was used. The observed behavior can be explained by the existence of fibers inside the concrete matrix, which leads to an increase in both compressive and tensile strength. With an increase in compressive strength, there was a simultaneous downward shift of the neutral axis, accompanied by an elevation in the crack moment. The deep beams that were subjected to testing and reinforced with basalt fibers demonstrated the ability to withstand loads beyond the diagonal crack load. However, the amount of load absorbed was somewhat lower in comparison to the observed behavior in beams reinforced with steel fibers. The ability to absorb both elastic and plastic deformation energy, as well as to transfer tensile forces along fractures, is a crucial factor in determining performance in terms of usability. These parameters function as a means of controlling the expansion of fractures following crack opening deformations. The load-carrying capability after the occurrence of a crack is affected by the nature of the fibers.

4.4 Influence of a/d ratio on the UHPC deep beam’s performance

4.4.1 Influence of a/d ratio on the UHPC deep beam’s performance reinforced with steel fibers

In any beam, the generation and propagation of diagonal tension cracks are determined by the ratio of flexural to shear internal generated stress, drops, and vice versa. During the initial loading period, the central span of the deep beam developed flexural cracks due to flexural stress. As the load rose, the resultant strains switched from flexural to shear, resulting in the appearance of diagonal cracks.

However, as the load was increased to near failure, the influence of the a/d ratio became more pronounced. As indicated in Table 7 and Figure 18, the increase in the a/d ratio from 1.0 to 1.8 decreased shear capacity, respectively. Referring to the images of beams D1.0S–1, D1.0S–1.4, and D1.0S–1.8 in Figure 7, it seems that more flexural cracks developed and advanced in the flexural zone as the a/d ratio increased.

Table 7

Cracking, ultimate shear capacity, and a percentage increase in deep beams with constant steel fiber content at a varied a/d ratio

Deep beam V f (%) a/d V d (kN) V u (kN) V d/V d (D1.0S–1.8%) Net rise V d/V d (D1.0S–1.8%) V u/V u (D1.0S–1.8%) Net rise V u/V u (D1.0S–1.8%)
D1.0S–1.8 1 1.8 272 433.12 100 0 100 0
D1.0S–1.4 1 1.4 334 605.467 122.79 22.79 139.79 39.79
D1.0S–1.0 1 1 384 799.02 141.17 41.17 184.48 84.48
Figure 18 Effect of a/d ratio on the diagonal crack and ultimate load of constant steel fibers UHPC deep beams.
Figure 18

Effect of a/d ratio on the diagonal crack and ultimate load of constant steel fibers UHPC deep beams.

Diagonal cracks are produced as a result of the deep beam’s normal and shear stress and principal strain along the lines angled with the longitudinal axis. The presence of steel fibers prevented small cracks from developing and spreading. As a result, these slanted, small cracks looked to be extremely fine. Additionally, steel fibers functioned to redistribute stresses throughout the shear zone by transmitting forces from the concrete to themselves and from failed fibers to their next fiber. Consequently, many diagonal cracks developed in the shear region until the stress reached a maximum value, at which point the cracks propagated and widened as the load was increased further, resulting in the ultimate failure. When a load is applied to a deep shear span beam, very little deflection can arise. Moreover, the a/d ratio has a substantial impact on the deflection value, Figure 15. In deep beams reinforced with steel fibers, the mid-span deflection increases as the a/d ratio increases from 1.0, 1.4, and 1.8.

4.4.2 Influence of a/d ratio on the UHPC deep beam’s performance reinforced with basalt fibers

Since the shear span has a substantial effect on the cause of the diagonal crack formation, there are three deep beams mentioned in Table 8 that are used to compare the influence of a/d ratio on the UHPC deep beam behavior reinforced by basalt fibers with the varied a/d ratio, while the volume of fraction is 1.0%.

Table 8

Cracking, ultimate shear capacity, and a percentage increase in deep beams with constant basalt fiber content at a varied a/d ratio.

Deep beam V f (%) a/d V d (kN) V u V d/V d (D1.0S–1.8%) Net rise V d/V d (D1.0S–1.8%) V u/V u (D1.0S–1.8%) Net rise V u/V u (D1.0S–1.8%)
D1.0B–1.8 1 1.8 179 359.05 100 0 100 0
D1.0B–1.4 1 1.4 210 562.13 117.31 17.31 156.56 56.56
D1.0B–1.0 1 1 333 728.62 186.03 86.03 202.92 10.292

The result of altering the a/d ratio is more pronounced in the ultimate shear capacity of basalt fiber-reinforced deep beams. As depicted previously in Figure 11, decreasing a/d from 1.8 to 1.4 and 1.0 increased shear capacity by 17.31 and 86.03%, respectively. These percentage increases are illustrated clearly in Figure 19. Comparing the shear capacity of the test deep beams for the mentioned a/d ratio, the decrease in ultimate shear capacity when a/d increased was significant. Therefore, the number of flexural cracks in the intermediate span of tested deep beams increases when a/d increases. In contrast, the deep beam D1.0B–1.8 exhibited higher deflection than the other two. This suggests that the deflection of UHPC deep beams reinforced with basalt fibers may increase as a/d increases. All the tested beams failed due to diagonal tension cracking, a considerable discrepancy in the value of failure applied load, and the recorded mid-span deflection.

Figure 19 The influence of a/d ratio on the diagonal crack and ultimate load of UHPC deep beams reinforced with constant basalt fibers content.
Figure 19

The influence of a/d ratio on the diagonal crack and ultimate load of UHPC deep beams reinforced with constant basalt fibers content.

4.4.3 Comparison of the impacts of steel fibers and basalt fibers on the shear capacity of UHPC deep beams as a function of the a/d ratio

The study found that there is an opposite relationship between the a/d ratio and both the diagonal crack load and the ultimate shear capacity of both types of fibers. The visual representation of this relationship can be observed in Figures 20 and 21. However, the use of basalt fibers resulted in a significant reduction in the ultimate shear capacity when compared to steel fibers. The steel fiber deep beams witnessed a decrease of 24.22 and 45.79% when the aspect ratio (a/d ratio) was changed from 1.0 to 1.4 and 1.8, respectively. The shear strength of deep beams reinforced with basalt fibers exhibited a reduction of 22.85 and 50.72% as the a/d ratio increased from 1.0 to 1.4 and 1.8, respectively. The reduction in shear capacity of basalt fibrous deep beams was nearly identical to that of steel fibers with the corresponding a/d ratio. Both fibers play a role in transmitting stresses within the beam and redistributing stresses between the fibers and the concrete matrix.

Figure 20 A comparison of basalt and steel fibers’ effect on UHPC deep beams’ diagonal shear load as a function of a/d ratio.
Figure 20

A comparison of basalt and steel fibers’ effect on UHPC deep beams’ diagonal shear load as a function of a/d ratio.

Figure 21 A comparison of basalt and steel fibers’ effect on UHPC deep beams’ ultimate shear capacities as a function of a/d ratio.
Figure 21

A comparison of basalt and steel fibers’ effect on UHPC deep beams’ ultimate shear capacities as a function of a/d ratio.

5 Conclusion

The study evaluated 11 UHPC deep beams without transverse shear reinforcement, with one being the reference specimen. Five were reinforced with basalt fibers, while the remaining five were reinforced with steel fibers. The findings indicated that

  • The ultimate shear capacity, ductile behavior, and beam stiffness of UHPC deep beams made were dramatically enhanced by increasing the percentage of steel fibers in the concrete matrix. These improvements exceeded those achieved by adding an equivalent volume of basalt fibers.

  • The inclusion of basalt fibers in the analyzed UHPC deep beams results in a notable escalation of the diagonal shear crack load across all three volume of fractions (0.5, 0.75, and 1.0%). Notably, the ultimate shear capacity has the most significant enhancement with a volume of fraction of 0.75%, whereas there is no enhancement observed when the volume of fraction reaches 1%.

  • UHPC possesses exceptional compressive and tensile strength, which improves the effectiveness of the compression zone and prevents diagonal cracks in the shear zone, ultimately reinforcing the deep beam.

  • The inclusion of basalt fibers, at a volume fraction of no more than 1%, into the matrix of UHPC resulted in a more significant increase in diagonal cracking compared to the impact of steel fibers.

  • Basalt fibers provide a notable enhancement in retarding the development of diagonal shear cracks when compared to steel fibers, at the same volume fraction and a/d ratio. The basalt fiber specimens exhibited a higher load requirement for the formation of diagonal cracks in comparison to steel fiber UHPC deep beams.

  • The basalt-reinforced specimens exhibit a higher capacity to absorb energy up to the point of diagonal cracking compared to the steel fiber reinforced specimens. The high aspect ratio of basalt fibers allows for increased surface area contact with the matrix, preventing fiber debonding. However, when the tensile stress on the basalt fibers reaches its maximum level, rupture occurs, resulting in the brittle failure mode observed in basalt fiber specimens.

  • The study examines the ductility of deep beams to understand their ability to deform before collapse. The use of basalt fibers as reinforcement material for UHPC deep beams reduces energy absorption and has a brittle failure mode. However, under high loads, these beams tend to fragment, forming smaller fragments. The findings suggest that incorporating steel fibers and basalt fibers into the UHPC concrete matrix can effectively reinforce shear stirrups, determining the least required steel area. However, the study does not recommend using basalt fibers alone in UHPC instead of concrete.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript, consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript. MJH and EAA-S encouraged LNH to investigate a specific aspect and select the most important parameter of the study that can affect the UHPC deep beam. LNH and MJH chose the theory, carried out the design approaches, and performed the computations for the UHPC deep beam samples. LNH and MJH imported essential materials for the experimental work, such as basalts and steel fibers. LNH, MJH, and EAA-S poured concrete for the deep beam experiment, as well as for the cube, cylinder, and prism shapes, in an effort to learn more about the properties of UHPC mixes. LNH, MJH and EAA-S contributed to applying the experimental test in the lab. MJH and EAA-S supervised this study's findings. LNH, MJH, and EAA-S assisted in interpreting the results and working on the manuscript, discussed the results, commented on the manuscript, and contributed to their interpretation. LNH and MJH took the lead in writing the first draft. LNH, MJH and EAA-S wrote the manuscript, provided critical feedback and helped shape the research, analysis, and manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analyzed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-11-15
Revised: 2024-02-08
Accepted: 2024-03-27
Published Online: 2024-07-02

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2024-0019
Keywords for this article
basalt fibers; steel fibers; deep beam; diagonal cracks; ultimate shear capacity
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BY 4.0

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