Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt

Enas N. Jasim; Hasan H. Joni

doi:10.1515/eng-2022-0524

Article Open Access

Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt

Enas N. Jasim and Hasan H. Joni

Published/Copyright: February 12, 2024

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From the journal Open Engineering Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Recently, researchers have been moving toward using local waste as an alternative for construction materials. Using these wastes to pave roads is one of the essential recycling methods, which aims to reduce the consumption of natural resources and environmental pollution resulting from the difficulty of decomposing these wastes. In the Middle East, especially in Iraq, Date Palm fiber is widely available as a local waste material. The aim of this research is to evaluate the performance of a developed asphalt mixture with palm leaf powder (PLP) as a partially substituted mineral filler. The Marshall mix design method produced the asphaltic mixes with ordinary Portland cement and PLP as mineral fillers. PLP was included in three rates denoted by 10, 20, and 30% by the weight of the mineral filler. Marshal stability, flow, bulk specific gravity, air voids, voids in mineral aggregates, voids filled with the binder, the indirect tensile strength, and the indirect tensile strength ratio of the PLP mixture were measured and compared with those of the conventional asphalt mixture. Based on the findings of this study, 20% of the Portland cement could be replaced with PLP, at which all of the properties of the enhanced mixture met the requirements of the Iraqi specifications. Then, the asphalt mix with 20% PLP was tested to assess its resistance against fatigue cracks. The results support the usage of waste PLP in pavement construction, enhancing its properties, which would also be very effective as an eco-friendly material.

Keywords: hot mix asphalt; mechanical properties; palm leaf powder; ITS; TSR; fatigue cracks; four-point bending beam test

1 Introduction

The increasing number of vehicles on the planet has resulted in a greater need for highways, leading to the extension of road networks everywhere. More than 90% of the world’s road surfaces are asphalt concrete. Iraqi roads are subjected to extreme conditions, including high temperatures, enormous traffic volumes, and heavy vehicle loads. The early stages of a road’s pavement life are associated with a high failure rate [1]. Modifying mix design is crucial for improving road performance. Integrating scientific concepts and techniques in transportation strategies can create secure, swift, appropriate, simple, cost-effective, and socially and environmentally acceptable transportation [2]. The hot mix asphalt (HMA) comprises aggregate particles, filler, asphalt cement, and additives that provide structural stiffness and visco-elastic behavior [3]. The filler significantly impacts the behavior of bituminous pavement mixes [4]. Particle size, shape, surface area, surface roughness, and other physicochemical parameters influence the properties of asphalt mixes, including fillers [5], according to data collected between 2012 and 2017. Cement production right around the globe is over 4 billion metric tons annually. One ton of clinker releases a metric ton of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, making cement manufacturing a significant contributor to global warming [6].

For decades, countries all over the globe, especially in Europe, have effectively utilized alternative materials as replacements for traditional ones. These materials include waste products and industrial by-products [7,8,9]. Pavement made from recycled materials or by-products provides several immediate and long-term advantages. The usage of natural resources is scaled down significantly, millions of cubic meters are saved from being dumped in landfills, carbon dioxide emissions are decreased, energy use is lowered, and sustainable pavements are built [10,11,12]. These wastes include many materials such as reclaimed asphalt pavement [12], aggregates from waste concrete [13], crushed glass [14], polymer powder [15], blast furnace slag [16], recycled concrete aggregate [17], crumb rubber [18], etc.

Biomass material refers to a wide variety of organic and biological resources produced by living organisms; these materials have been used in many construction and architectural projects [19]. When protecting the environment, employing biomass resources is a great help. Biomass may be used instead of gravel or sand in asphalt and cement concrete [20]. Ash materials like rice husk (RHA), coconut husk, palm leaf (PL), bamboo leaf, and peanut shell are some examples of biomass material. Blends of this material and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) have been used extensively in the concrete industry to create a means of cheaper, less harmful, and more user-friendly binders [21]. It has a beneficial impact since its fundamental pozzolans are identified.

Kumain et al. discovered the application of sawdust ash (SDA) as an additive in the asphalt mixture. Several tests, including specific gravity, the index of plasticity, and chemical evaluation, were conducted to assess the appropriateness of SDA as a filler in HMA. Conventional Portland cement filler was substituted with SDA to create asphalt concrete mixtures. The specimens were made by substituting 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100% OPC with SDA. After comparing the results of the conventional and modified mixes, the finding supported using 10% SDA for preparing HMA, at which the mechanical and volumetric properties of the modified HMA satisfy the specification limits [22].

Arabani and Tahami examined how adding RHA to a bitumen would change the properties of HMA. The modification process was performed by adding RHA to the asphalt binder (wet method) at 5, 10, 15, and 20% concentrations. Experiments such as penetration, softening point, ductility, rotation viscosity, and dynamic shear rheometer have been employed to determine the rheological characteristics of bitumen bonds. The Marshall stability (MS), rigidity modulus, rutting, and fatigue performance of bitumen mixes were also evaluated. According to the findings, bitumen’s rheological features were improved when RHA was added to the binder. MS, rigidity modulus, rutting, and fatigue efficiency of bitumen mixes were also enhanced by RHA modifications. The HMAs at 15 and 20% RHA had almost similar behavior for rutting performance, while the RHA mix at 20% exhibited the best fatigue life [23].

Sargın et al. assessed the application of RHA in HMA as filler and examined its impact on research, proving that RHA might be utilized in asphalt pavement. RHA was partially replaced by conventional limestone (LS) by 25, 50, 75, and 100%, respectively. According to the data, 50% RHA and 50% LS combinations had the highest MS [24].

Ahmed et al. studied the influence of incorporated palm leaf ash (PLA) and cement kiln dust (CKD) for improving cold mix asphalt’s (CMA) mechanical properties. Portland cement was replaced by PLA percentages extending from 0 to 100%. The findings support that using 25% PLA and CKD will enhance the mechanical properties of CMA [25].

Aljubory et al. investigated asphalt mixes’ volumetric characteristics and tensile strength using dates palm fibers as local waste material. The differences in the quality of asphalt mixes containing varying amounts of palm fiber (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0) percentage by the aggregate weight that passes sieve No. 4 vs those of conventional mix were examined. The results explained that adding different amounts of palm fibers to the asphalt mixes increased the number of voids filled with asphalt (VFA), increased the density, and decreased the indirect tensile strength (ITS) while decreasing the voids in mineral aggregates (VMA) percentage. The developed mixes’ ITS gradually increased by 40% when the dates palm fiber (DPF) rate increased from 0 to 1% [26].

Jeffry et al. examined the effect of the nano charcoal coconut shell ash (NCA) modification of asphalt on the mechanical properties of bituminous mixes. The mechanical properties of asphalt blends containing 0, 1.5, 6, and 7.5% NCA were evaluated. These evaluations include the Marshall test, ITS, resilient modulus, and dynamic creep. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and field emission scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the microstructure properties of bitumen mixtures. With the inclusion of 6% NCA, the MS, ITS, resilient modulus, and dynamic creep of HMA were considerably enhanced, according to the outcomes. AFM data suggested that 6% NCA has the smoothest surface and better bitumen mix adhesion. FESEM revealed a flat and compact asphalt mix, which improved HMA’s technical efficiency [27].

Al-Mulali et al. used fine oil palm ash (OPA) as a filler in concrete. The study found that increasing OPA fineness increased its pozzolanic reactivity, allowing it to replace cement at levels higher than 20%. Concrete mixes with fine OPA showed superior strength, less drying shrinkage, water permeability, and resistance to sulfate attack. Mortar mixes with 20% OPA replacement showed higher compressive strengths and less carbonation ingress depth [28].

AlKheder et al. figured that active date seed (DS) substances could be used instead of fine aggregate in HMA. Three bituminous concrete mixtures with various weight proportions have been made. The mechanical and physical characteristics of DS and fine aggregate were identified and contrasted in the HMA mix design containing 7, 10, and 15% DS and fine aggregate. Compression strength and MS experiments were conducted to determine the influence of active DS substances on HMA. Results suggested that a 10% ratio provided the most significant MS. In contrast, a proportion of 7% yielded the maximum retained strength index [29].

Developing asphalt roads using environmentally friendly materials is becoming increasingly important today. The demand for transportation infrastructure increases as the global population grows continuously. Using sustainable materials in pavement construction could be an effective way to enhance its properties and reduce the negative impact of traditional construction materials on the environment.

According to previous literature reviewed, using various biomass materials in different forms, such as fibers, powders, or ashes, in road construction has attracted many researchers to explore their potential effectiveness in enhancing the mechanical and performance properties and the durability of asphalt mixtures.

Iraq, known for its abundant date palm trees, generates significant fiber waste annually. Few researchers have experimented the effectiveness of these fibers in reinforcing asphalt mixtures, as mentioned earlier, while others have utilized it as ash after high-temperature combustion and grinding. In this study, palm fiber was employed as a novel powder form to mitigate thermal and gas emissions resulting from combustion. The aim of this research is to evaluate the efficacy of novel palm leaf powder (PLP) in enhancing the mechanical and performance properties of asphalt mixtures to develop strong and environmentally friendly roads by utilizing this sustainable organic material.

The research comprehensively analyzes PLP’s physical properties and provides guidelines for effectively designing HMA mixtures containing PLP that enhance their performance. Volumetric characteristics, in addition to ITS and fatigue resistance as performance measurements, were evaluated in this study. Notably, the study’s findings have practical implications for sustainable development and environmental conservation. Incorporating PLP into asphalt concrete formulations can substantially reduce the carbon footprint associated with road construction while preserving the desired performance characteristics. Therefore, this study is essential to the expanding body of research on developing sustainable infrastructure. This study can inform and guide policymakers and industry professionals toward more sustainable practices by providing information on using recycled materials in road construction.

2 Materials and test methods

2.1 Asphalt cement (AC)

The penetration grade of the used AC was [40–50] supplied by Al-Dora refinery, southern Baghdad. A laboratory test was conducted on the AC to specify its physical properties and ensure its agreement with the Iraqi specification SCRB R/9 2003 [30]. Table 1 shows the AC’s physical properties.

Table 1

Physical characteristic of asphalt binder

The conditions of laboratory tests	Standards	Tests values		The Iraqi limitation CSRB/R9, 2003
Penetration 25°C, (0.1 mm)	ASTM-D5	44.5		40–50
Ductility 25°C, 5 cm/min	ASTM-D113	+120		>100
Softening point (°C)	A-D36	50		—
Specific gravity 25°C	ASTM-D 70	1.043		—
Flash and fire point	ASTM-D 92	Flash	290°C	>232°C
Flash and fire point	ASTM-D 92	Fire	302°C	—
Rotational viscosity (Pa s)	ASTM-D4402	0.543@135°C
Rotational viscosity (Pa s)	ASTM-D4402	0.157@165°C

2.2 Aggregate

Crushed stone from the Al-Nebaie quarry near Al-Taji, north of Baghdad, was used in this investigation. By conducting standard laboratory tests on coarse and fine aggregates, it was verified that they conform to the State Corporation of Roads and Bridges SCRB R/9 for aggregates used in the asphalt surface layer regarding gradation and physical properties. The wearing course aggregate’s maximum size must adhere to the SCRB R/9, 2003. Table 2 and Figure 1 illustrate the used aggregate’s physical properties and their gradient curves.

Table 2

Physical characteristics of coarse and fine aggregate

Laboratory test	ASTM designations	Coarse aggregate	Fine aggregate	The Iraqi limitation SCRB R/9, 2003
The bulk specific gravity	ASTM C127, C128	2.615	2.626	—
% Water absorption	ASTM C 127, C128	0.362	0.481	—
Toughness by (Los Angeles abrasion test)	ASTM C131	20.5%	—	max. 30%

*The tests were done by the National Center for Construction Labs (NCCL), Bagdad.

Figure 1

Aggregate’s gradation curve.

2.3 Filler materials

2.3.1 Portland cement

The conventional asphalt mix was made using local OPC as a mineral filler. Table 3 clarifies the physical characteristics of Portland cement. The tests were made in the labs of the civil engineering department at the University of Technology.

Table 3

Physical characteristics of Portland cement

Properties	Tests results
Specific gravity	3.15
Passing sieve no. 200 (0.075 mm)	96%
Fineness	3,200 cm²/g

2.3.2 PLP

Dates palm fiber, Figure 2, considered a common waste substance in Iraq, was dried, milled, and passed through a No. 200 sieve to produce PLP utilized as a partial replacement for Portland cement in the modified HMAs. Table 4 explains the physical properties of PLP. The tests were conducted at Baghdad, Iraq’s building and directory labs.

Figure 2

(a) PL fiber and (b) PLP.

Table 4

Physical properties of PLP

Property	Test results
Type	Powder
Color	Dark brown
Fineness	4,070 cm²/g
Specific gravity	1.76 g/cm³
Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm)	98%
Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm)	97.5%

3 Experimental work

3.1 Marshal mix design method

The HMA was created by the Marshall mix design method using a cylindrical mold with a diameter of 101.6 mm and a height of 63.5 mm under ASTM D6926-16 [31].

The first stage involved the determination of optimum binder content (OBC). Asphaltic mixtures with 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, and 6% asphalt content, respectively, by weight of the total mix, were prepared and tested following ASTM 6927-15 [32] in terms of their stability (MS), flow, density, air voids (AV), VMA, and VFA. The number of prepared specimens was 15 (three for each percentage). As a result, the OBC was found to be 4.9% of the total mix weight. The second stage of the laboratory work included employing the calculated optimum asphalt content in preparing the samples for the reference asphalt mixture (without adding PLP) and the improved mixtures where PLP was added in three different proportions, namely, 10, 20, and 30% as a part of the mineral filler. These mixtures were then tested with the marshal test to evaluate their resistance to plastic flow (MS and Flow) and the volumetric characteristics.

3.2 ITS and indirect tensile strength ratio (TSR)

When combined with laboratory design mix testing, IDT strength data may be used to analyze the quality of the bituminous mix and estimate the possibility of rutting and cracking [33]. ITS value is the primary parameter used to calculate TSR. The results for conditioned and unconditioned samples obtained might be used to estimate the possibility of moisture damage to the pavement in the field. According to Kim et al. [34] and Bennert et al. [35], most recognized and severe pavement distresses, such as striping, raveling, fatigue cracks, and rutting, result in premature pavement failure due to moisture damage. In other words, entering moisture into the pavement’s structure reduces its strength. It accelerates the progression of at least one of the aforementioned visible forms of distress. As the asphalt concrete’s TSR value increases, its resistance to major distress rises [36].

After being removed from the mold, the prepared specimens were allowed to sit at room temperature for 24 hours. They were then immersed in a water bath at 25°C for 30 min. The ITS test [33] procedure involves compressing a cylinder sample under two strips, creating a tensile stress in the vertical diametric plane, and ultimately causing the sample to break. The ITS was run at a 50.8 mm/min rate until the sample broke. The maximum load value was captured at the instant the fracture appeared. The specimen’s tensile strength is determined using equation (1).

(1) ITS = 2 , 000 × P π × t × D ,

where ITS is the indirect tensile strength (kPa), P is the max. load (N), t is the sample height (mm), and D is the sample diameter (mm).

For determining the indirect TSR, two sets of molds are created for each additive percentage, using standard Marshall molds with a height of 63 ± 3 and a diameter of 101.6. Each group consists of three templates. One of the groups tested dry, and the other wet. All models are made with a 7 ± 1% void rate, the same as the number of voids in the field. This ratio is obtained by conducting experiments with different blows, Figure 3. The investigations found that the number of blows that gave a void percentage of 6–8% ranged from 35 to 55, as illustrated in the figure.

Figure 3

The AVs percentage correlated with a different number of blows.

The indirect TSR was then determined according to the ASTM D 4867 [37], equation (2). TSR value should be at least 80%.

(2) TSR = S 1 S 2 × 100 ,

where TSR = the tensile strength ratio (%), S1 is the soaked subset’s relative tensile strength (kPa), and S2 is the dry subset’s relative tensile strength (kPa).

3.3 Four-point bending beam test (fatigue test)

This test was performed using the flexural beam fatigue device on the conventional and PLP asphalt mix. The test was conducted at the National Center for Construction Laboratories and Research laboratories. The test procedure was adopted according to AASHTO T321-14 [38].

3.3.1 Fatigue samples preparation

According to the previous tests, the optimum content of PLP was identified. Then, the performance of the control and the modified asphalt mixtures were evaluated to assess their resistance against fatigue cracks. The samples were compacted using the Rolling wheel compactor according to the Asphalt Institute (1982) recommendations. This compaction method created samples more simulated to the in situ conditions. The mold has a standard dimension of 400 mm in length, 300 mm in width, and 120 mm in height. It was used to create test beams by cutting the samples in several beams having a 380 ± 6 mm length, 63 ± 6 mm width, and 50 ± 6 mm height. The sample weight was approximately 13,800 g compacted to achieve the desired AV percentage. Figure 4 explains the compaction, mixing devices, and HMA Beams.

Figure 4

(a) 4-point bending beam device, (b) Rolling wheel compactor device, and (c) HMA beams.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Marshall test results

Figures 5 and 6 depict how incorporating PLP into asphalt concrete mixtures affects their stability and flow. Adding PLP to the asphalt mixture favors stability; hence, the stability values enhance as the PLP content increases. The maximum stability was recorded at 30% PLP, peaking at 12.95 kN, representing a relative enhancement of almost 39% over the reference mixture. Compared to Portland cement, the additive’s fineness raises the mixture’s stiffness, enhancing stability.

Figure 5

The impact of PLP on MS.

Figure 6

The impact of PLP on Marshall flow.

Compared to the control mixture, the flow values dropped dramatically when PLP was added to the asphalt mixture. The powder percentage negatively correlates with the flow, with a 30% powder content yielding 1.75 mm, much below the Iraqi specification that identified the minimum flow value as not less than 2 mm. The correlation between flow rate and PLP concentration is explained in Figure 6.

These results were matched by Ahmed et al. [25] when using PLA for bitumen mixture modification.

4.2 Effect of PLP on the Marshall volumetric properties

Figures 7–10 demonstrate the effect of using PLP instead of a portion of the cement on the volumetric characteristics of the asphalt mixture. It was found that the density of the modified asphalt mixture rose when the powder was added at various replacement rates, Figure 7. However, the accompanying reduction in the AVs percent offset this effect, as shown in Figure 8. The particles of PLP are smaller and finer than those of Portland cement. Therefore, they can penetrate the gaps and fill them. That makes the combination denser by reducing the size of the cavities. As the amount of PLP rises, the percentage of VMA drops. In addition, the voids filled with asphalt (VFB) value fell at the 10% addition rate and then gradually increased at the 20 and 30% replacement rates. The correlation between PLP content and VMA, VFB is presented in Figures 9 and 10.

Figure 7

The impact of PLP on mixture density.

Figure 8

The impact of PLP on mixture AVs percentage.

Figure 9

The impact of PLP on mixture VMA percentage.

Figure 10

The impact of PLP on VFA percentage.

From the above results, although there was a noticeable influence of the PLP rate on all the volumetric properties of the asphaltic mix, they are still within the SCRB limits. These results were compatible with Ahmed et al. [25] using PLA.

4.3 Results of the ITS test

The relationship between PLP content and indirect tensile strength is shown in Figure 11, where the positive effect appeared on the ITS of HMAs with all the percentages of PLP substituted. The enhancement was 13.5% at a rate of 30% compared to the reference mix. The granules’ irregularity, recognized in Figure 12, helped to improve the interlocking between the coarse and fine aggregate particles. This enhanced the strength and load transfer between the particles. Fine particles suspended in asphalt cement enhance its viscosity, increasing the stiffness of the developed mixtures and making them stronger [39].

Figure 11

The impact of PLP on the ITS of asphalt mixture.

Figure 12

Optical microscope picture of PLP.

Including PLP significantly influences the TSR magnitude in all rates employed in this research. The TSR values rose gradually to 79.2, 82, and 85% at 0, 10, and 20% PLP rates, respectively, followed by a slight decrease to 83.7 at a 30% PLP rate, Figure 13. The reduction in TSR might be due to the cellulose-based additive, which could be affected by water action, reducing cohesion among composite components, and the excessive amount of powder used, which made the mixes brittle and easy to deform under loading.

Figure 13

The impact of PLP on the TSR of asphalt mixture.

ITS was improved even when DPF was used, as mentioned by Aljubory et al. [26] and Mahmood and Ahmed [40] due to the lower water absorption.

4.4 Results of the 4-point beam test

A four-point bending test was conducted to evaluate the impact of adding waste PLP to enhance HMA properties to resist fatigue cracking. The test was performed according to the AASHTO T321 procedure. Constant strain mode at 400 µε, 20°C, and 5 Hz were the test variables that were input to the device’s software. Fatigue life for control and modified asphalt mixes is explained in Figure 14. Fatigue life refers to the ability of asphalt mixes to withstand repeated loading cycles without undergoing failure. Adding PLP to the HMA resulted in a significant enhancement in fatigue life of 19.5% compared with traditional compounds. The higher fineness, the lower specific gravity, and the practical irregularity of PLP contributed to better distribution and interlocking of PLP within the asphalt mixture, resulting in enhanced cracking and deformation resistance. Using PLP in HMA could be a promising solution for developing more durable and sustainable asphalt pavement.

Figure 14

The relationship between HMA type and the number of cycles.

5 Conclusion and recommendations

The aim of this research was to evaluate the features of utilizing novel PLP as a substitute for OPC on the asphalt mixture properties. From the results of this research, the following are the primary conclusions that could be drawn:

Including PLP at different rates significantly improved asphalt pavement properties. It is a sustainable option, as it allows using PL waste as additives in the asphalt industry. This promotes our transition towards environmental construction techniques and limits PL fiber’s negative environmental impact.
By substituting 10, 20, and 30% PLP for Portland cement, MS increased by 26, 32, and 38%, respectively. The flow value was reduced with the increase in PLP, and at 30% PLP, it was out of SCRB specifications. This demonstrates that the PLP improves the bonding strength between the particles.
The density of the HMA increases linearly with the increase in PLP content due to the delicate and small particles of PLP compared with Portland cement.
AV and VMA percentages declined linearly as the PLP rate increased, but their values were still within the standard limits.
VFA percent dropped suddenly at 10% PLP, followed by a gradual growth at 20% and 30%.
Additionally, adding PLP to the asphalt mixture enhances the ITS by about 5% at a rate of 30% PLP and the TSR by 79.2, 82, 85, and 83.7% at 0, 10, 20, and 30% PLP rates. The irregularity of PLP grains enhances the interlocking between HMA components, making them stronger and indicating the new mixture’s ability to withstand rutting, cracking, and moisture damage.
The study demonstrates that the fatigue life of the modified asphalt mixture at 20% PLP showed an acceptable enhancement of about 19.5% against fatigue cracks. This leads to improving road safety and reduces traffic accidents.
Research confirms that PLP can reduce non-renewable Portland cement consumption in construction asphalt pavements. Thus, PLP contributes to preserving natural resources and reducing detrimental emissions.
Tests proved that PLP might partially replace Portland cement when utilized in an appropriate ratio. The mix’s mechanical and performance properties, durability, and ability to sustain traffic loads have been enhanced. We anticipate this will lead to an extended road’s lifespan and lower maintenance and rehabilitation costs.
The work needs further investigation because of the novelty of using PLP to enhance asphalt mixtures. It is recommended to try other rates of PLP substitution to identify the optimal ratio that achieves the best results. Also, it might conduct more performance tests to evaluate the PLP mix’s behavior against rutting and low-temperature cracks.
Since the four-bending beam test was conducted at a single strain level (400 µε), it is recommended to perform the test at different strain levels, such as 250 µε and 750 µε, for a complete evaluation of the PLP mix fatigue crack resistance.

Funding information: We declare that the manuscript was done depending on the personal effort of the author, and there is no funding support from any side or organization.
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analyzed in this study are in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-07-12

Revised: 2023-08-17

Accepted: 2023-08-29

Published Online: 2024-02-12

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0524

Keywords for this article

hot mix asphalt; mechanical properties; palm leaf powder; ITS; TSR; fatigue cracks; four-point bending beam test

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