Startseite Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
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Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete

  • Iftikhar Abdulsahib , Miami M. Hilal EMAIL logo , Mohammed Y. Fattah und Anmar Dulaimi
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 6. März 2024
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Aus der Zeitschrift Open Engineering Band 14 Heft 1

Abstract

Semiflexible pavement (SFP) is considered a composite mixture, as it consists mainly of a porous asphalt mixture with high air voids grouted with highly flowed cementitious grout. Numerous benefits have been attributed to this technology, including exceptional slip resistance, a high static bearing capacity, and rutting resistance. In this study, two different types of semiflexible paving mix were produced by using two different types of grouting materials (GMs). There is a discrepancy between the compressive strengths of the two GMs used, as the compressive strength of the first mixture, which consisted of 96% cement and 4% silica fume (SF), was approximately twice the compressive strength of the second mixture, which consisted of 75% cement and 25% sand. The mechanical and durable properties of the two SFPs were studied, in addition to the effect of variation in the compressive strengths of the two GMs and their effect on the final performance of the pavement. The results of Marshall and rutting tests show that the SFP material exhibits good high-temperature stability. The effect of the variation in the compressive strength of the two mixtures was evident in the results of the tests compared with the sand mixture at a strength of 20.8 MPa, the SF at a strength of 48.1 MPa witnessed a 39.54% increase in the Marshall stability at 28-day curing age. Also, the composite material (CM) showed better rutting performance than traditional asphalt mixtures, which did not exceed 2 mm. The results of the indirect tensile strength (ITS) test showed a discrepancy between the two types of CM, as the ITS value of the grouting material of SF (GMSF) mixture increased by 14.91% compared with the grouting material of sand (GMSN) for the curing age of 28 days for unconditioned samples and by 20.22% for the conditioned samples for the same curing age, while the durability of two types of CM was measured by Cantabro abrasion loss and tensile strength ratio. The results were acceptable and within the specification limits. With a variation for the two types of CM, the GMSF mixture showed an increase in the value of Cantabro loss by 11.52% over the GMSN mixture for ageing samples and 6.59% for non-aging samples of 28 days of curing age.

Keywords: SFP; composite material; grouting; performance; silica fume

1 Introduction

Semiflexible pavements (SFPs) are a variety of high-performance pavements that were developed in France in the 1950s and were initially used to pave runways at airports, which exhibited excellent road performance [1]. Subsequently, Britain, the United States, the former Soviet Union, and other nations conducted research on SFP, demonstrating that the pavement material can extend the pavement's service life and has excellent high-temperature stability [2]. SFP comprises a porous asphalt mixture (PAM) mattress with a void rate in the range of 20–35%, grouted with high-fluidity cement mortar (HCM) [3,4]. The enhanced performance of cement grouting asphalt macadam materials, also known as SFP materials, in contrast to conventional asphalt concrete materials, may be attributed to the inclusion of cement grouting material (GM) and matrix asphalt mixture [5]. It features the flexibility of asphalt pavement and the rigidity of rigid pavement in different degrees and has been widely used in many countries [6,7]. Numerous benefits have been attributed to this technology, including exceptional slip resistance, good oil resistance and colourability, high static bearing capacity, and rutting resistance. In addition, its viscoelastic behaviour can increase load tolerance without causing ruts, reduce the number of temperature joints, or even eliminate the need for a setting, thereby enhancing driving comfort [8,9]. SFP provides a viable option for bridge deck overlay because it outperforms traditional hot-mix asphalt pavements in terms of longevity and strength [10]; SFP construction is typically a two-phase process. First, the PAM mattress is prepared and paved with lighter or comparable equipment to that used for traditional asphalt concrete. After the asphalt has chilled, the surface can be coated with HCM. Due to the excellent connectivity of voids in the PAM, HCM penetrates the entire layer with rubber scrapers and light vibrating rollers to obtain a very low residential void rate for SFP. After a few days of curing, the SFP eventually attains the required traffic strength.

Hou et al. [11] evaluated the mechanical properties and durability of SFP materials and demonstrated that they exhibit superior high-temperature stability, fatigue performance, and water stability compared to conventional asphalt mixtures. Yang [5] assessed the performance of SFPs by analysing the volumetric parameters of the matrix asphalt mixtures. The findings revealed that the SFP materials exhibited superior high-temperature stability and low-temperature stability compared to conventional asphalt pavement materials. The formation of SFP materials from asphalt concrete skeletons under five distinct gradation types was investigated by Zhao and Yang [12], and the low-temperature fracture resistance performance of these five skeletons was evaluated. The results demonstrated that the low-temperature fracture resistance capability of SFP materials based on continuously graded asphalt concrete skeletons was superior to that of other SFP materials. Comparing SFP and conventional bituminous mixtures has revealed that at higher temperatures, the ITS values of SFP exhibit an increase of 2–3 times compared to bituminous concrete mixtures [10,13]. Hao et al. [14] examined differences between the SFP and dense-graded asphalt mixtures and highlighted SFP's superior performance at low temperatures and increased resistance to moisture damage, while Zhao et al. [15] conducted an investigation and discovered an improvement in the ability of semiflexible materials to resist cracking at low temperatures after modifying the asphalt within the hot mix asphalt (HMA) structure.

A study conducted by Hassan et al. examined the impact of fly ash and silica fume (SF) on the performance of cement mortar in relation to the GM. The researchers concluded that the incorporation of fly ash and silicon has the potential to enhance both the workability and mechanical properties of cement mortar used for SFP [16]. The performance of the pavement, including stone matrix asphalt, is influenced by the bond strength between the cement and asphalt interface subsequent to the pouring of cement grout into the asphalt mixture. Inadequate contact at the interface leads to insufficient mechanical strength and suboptimal deformation characteristics. Zhou analysed the failure mode of SFP, highlighting that the typical damage in this type of pavement primarily manifests at the interface between cement and asphalt, as well as within the cement material itself. [17]. Yang [5] found that the cement slurry infusion can significantly improve the compressive strength of the material and contribute to even better mechanical properties when the GM strength is 40.2 MPa.

Nevertheless, the research failed to examine the precise characteristics of viscosity and elasticity in the skeleton of HMA that offer greater benefits in enhancing the resistance to low-temperature cracking in semiflexible materials. The cost of semiflexible anti-rutting pavement was approximately 1.5–2 times more than that of conventional asphalt pavement. Despite the relatively larger initial expenditure, the longevity of the service life for the alternative asphalt pavement was found to be tenfold more than that of conventional asphalt pavement. The implementation of this solution has the potential to substantially decrease yearly maintenance duration and expenses, alleviate traffic congestion, and generate notable economic and social advantages [18].

The objective of this study is to assess the engineering properties of an SFP. As a way to investigate the influence of compressive strength on the ultimate performance of SFP, two distinct GMs possessing varying compressive strengths were employed; the experimental procedure commenced by formulating a PAM characterized by an air void ratio within the range of 25–35%. Subsequently, the mixture was subjected to grouting using two distinct GMs, each possessing varying levels of compressive strength. The initial mixture had a compressive strength of 48.1 MPa, while the subsequent mixture demonstrated a compressive strength of 20.8 MPa. Upon completion of the necessary sample preparations, the performance evaluation of the samples was subjected to several laboratory tests. These tests included the assessment of Marshall stability, the indirect tensile strength (ITS), the compressive strength, the wheel truck test, the Cantapro loss test, and tensile strength ratio.

2 Materials

Raw materials used in this study include asphalt, aggregate, cement, SF, sand, and superplasticizer (SP) with poly-carboxylate.

2.1 Asphalt cement

The production of the PAM involved the utilization of SBS-modified asphalt cement. The utilization of styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) has resulted in enhancements to the asphalt cement with a 40/50 grade. The incorporation of a poly-butadiene block imparts elasticity, while the addition of a polystyrene block confers plastic properties to the asphalt mixture. This enhancement in performance is achieved through the augmentation of stiffness, stability, and elasticity of the asphalt binder. The asphalt binder was supplemented with SBS at a concentration of 4% relative to the weight of the asphalt. Tables 1 and 2 present the physical and mechanical characteristics of SBS and modified asphalt materials.

Table 1

Physical and mechanical properties of SBS

Property or characteristics Unit Requirement
Density kg/m³ 940
Tensile strength (σt) MPa 32 min
Melting point °C 180
Elongation % 88
Table 2

Physical properties of asphalt modified with 4% SBS

Test Unit Specification Result
Penetration (25°C–100 g–5 s) 1/10 mm ASTM D5 35
Ductility (25°C, 5 cm/min) cm ASTM D113 140
Flash point (cleave land open cup) °C ASTM D92 326
Fire point °C ASTM D92 368
Softening point °C ASTM D36 72
Solubility in trichloroethylene % ASTM D2042-01 99.3
**RV 135°C Pa·s ASTM D4402 1.35
**RV 165°C 0.75
After thin-film oven test (ASTM D1754)
Retained penetration; % of original % ASTM D5 80
Ductility of residue (25°C–5 cm/min) cm ASTM D113 110

**Rotational viscometer.

2.2 Aggregate

The present study utilizes a regional aggregate comprising crushed quartz sourced from the Al-Nibaie quarry, which is extensively employed in Iraq's asphalt mixing facilities. The coarse and fine aggregates utilized in the study underwent a process of washing, sieving, and subsequent recombination to achieve the appropriate proportions, as specified by the SCRB (SCRB/R9, 2003) [10] for the wearing course gradations. Table 3 presents the physical characteristics of both fine and coarse aggregates.

Table 3

Physical properties of aggregates

Property Specification Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate
Bulk specific gravity ASTM C127-128-15 2.611 2.658
Apparent specific gravity ASTM C127-128-15 2.662 2.733
% of absorption ASTM C127-128-15 0.52 0.73
Los Angeles abrasion ASTM C131-14 17.72 —
Percent flat and elongated particles, 10% max ASTM D4791-10 5 —
Fractured pieces % ASTM D5821-13 98 —
Clay content by sand equivalent% 45 min ASTM D2419-14 — 51

2.3 Cement

The cement used in this study is ordinary Portland cement (OPC), specifically CEM I 42.5N-SR 3.5, which adheres to the Iraqi specification No.5/1984 type I [19]. Table 4 presents a comprehensive overview of the chemical and physical parameters associated with this particular variant of cement.

Table 4

Physical and chemical properties of OPC

Property Results Iraqi Specification 1984 [19]
Physical properties
Fineness (m2/kg) 340 250
Density (g/cm3) 2.1 2.981
Initial setting time (min) ≥45 149 (min) ≥ 45
Final setting time (h) 3.14 ≤10
Expansion (mm) 1 ≤10
Property Results Requirement
Chemical properties
SiO2 19.9 —
Al2O3 4.57 —
Fe2O3 4.82 —
CaO 61.11 —
MgO 3.13 ≤5%
SO3 2.234 C3A ≤ 5% SO3 ≤ 2.5% C3A more than 5% SO3 ≤ 2.8%
Na2O3 0.20 —
K2O 0.52 —
Chloride 0.018 —
Loss of ignition LOI 2.92 ≤4.0%
Eq. alkalis 0.53 <0.6% for low alkalis
*IR 1.08 ≤1.5%
**LSF 0.9503 0.66–1.02%
C3A 3.98 >3.5%

*Insoluble residue.

**Lime saturation factor.

2.4 SF

The incorporation of fine-grained supplementary cementitious materials, such as SF, into the composite cement paste has been found to decrease the interparticle porosity of cement and improve the impermeability, flexural strength, and compressive strength of the GM. Table 5 presents the characteristics of the SF utilized in the investigation.

Table 5

Properties of SF used in the study

Property Value ASTM-C1240 2018
Color Grey —
Size 0.149 ∼0.15 µm
Specific surface area 16,500 ≥15,000 cm²/g
Specific gravity 2.1 —
Physical form Powder —
Bulk density 0.6 0.5 ± 0.1 kg/l
Moisture 0% <2%

2.5 SP material

SP was used in the liquid form, as it was found to disperse faster during mixing and thus increase workability. It also conforms to the high-range water, reducing to EN 934-2 SP [20]. Table 6 illustrates the properties of SP used in the study.

Table 6

Properties of the SP material

Property Value Specification (EN 934-2)
Form Viscous liquid —
pH 6.6 5.9-7.9
Relative density 1.06 ± 0.02 1.06–1.1 kg/l
Colour Light brown —
Viscosity 128 ± 30 cps —

2.6. Sand

The sand used in this study was brought from Al-Najaf city. Sand does not contain fine particles or gravel particles, and soil is classified, according to the Unified Soil Classification System, as poorly graded sand (SP). Figure 1 illustrates the particle size distribution curve for the adopted sand.

Figure 1 Gradation of sand used in the study.
Figure 1

Gradation of sand used in the study.

3 Experimental work

The laboratory work first began with the preparation of the PAM to achieve the required void ratio by determining the required aggregate gradation and the optimal bitumen content. The second stage required designing the GM to achieve the required fluidity and strength and then preparing SFP samples for laboratory evaluation of performance.

3.1 Preparation of the PAM

A PAM is utilized only as a coarse surface [21]. However, this type of pavement was used as a skeletal structure to contain the GM. The PAM was designed to achieve an air void ratio ranging between 25 and 35%, where a gradation of aggregates was chosen within the limits of the American specification [22], characterized by a high proportion of coarse aggregate to achieve the largest possible air void ratio, as shown in Table 7.

Table 7

Aggregate gradation used in the study

Sieve size (mm) ASTM D7064-13 % passing Selected% passing
19 100 100
12.5 85–100 86
9.5 35–60 35.5
4.75 10–25 10.5
2.36 5–10 5
0.075 2–4 3

Then, the optimal bitumen ratio was determined based on the following equation [3]:

(1) AC = 3.25 × ( α ) × Σ 0.2 ,

(2) α = 2.65 / SGagg,

(3) Σ = 0.21 C + 5.4 S + 7.2 s + 135 f ,

where OBC is the optimum bitumen content, SGagg is the apparent specific gravity of the aggregate blend, Σ is the specific surface area, C is the percentage of material retained on a 4.75 mm sieve, S is the percentage of material passing through a 4.75 mm sieve and retained on a 600 µm sieve, s is the percentage of material passing through a 600 µm sieve and retained on a 75 µm sieve, and f is the percentage of material passing through a 75 µm sieve.

The percentage of bitumen reached 4.1% of the mixture weight. The determination of the appropriate number of blows or gyrations for compacting high void bituminous mixes now lacks sufficient criteria. Various compaction methods have been employed by researchers for these mixtures. Several researchers have employed different quantities of Marshall blows (ranging from 10 to 75), administered on either one or both surfaces [10,11,23,24], while others have used the gyratory compactor [16,25]. During this study, three levels of humping stress were tested to achieve the required void ratio (50, 35, 20) for each face. From the results obtained, it was found that the 35 blows on each face achieved the required void ratio, which amounted to 31.4% of the sample size.

3.2 GM design (fluidity and strength)

The laboratory tests that were conducted on the appropriate GM are summarized in two basic tests. The first is the fluidity test, which has been subject to the American standard C939-97 [26]. In this test, 1,500 ml of the grouting sample is passed through a cone with special dimensions. Figure 2 shows the shape and dimensions of the cone used in the test, and the time required for this quantity to run out from the cone is calculated by using a stopwatch in seconds, and ranges between (9–16) sec. [27].

Figure 2 Cone used in the flow cone test.
Figure 2

Cone used in the flow cone test.

The second test is the compressive strength test, which was subject to the specification [20]. As shown in Figure 3, to determine the hardness and resistance of the GM, the cubic samples were cast with dimensions of 5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm and tested at three curing ages of 1, 7, and 28 days. Two GMs were used, the first consisting of cement, SF, and SP, which were used in different proportions with different water–cement ratios to obtain the optimal mixture for use as a GM. Figures 4 and 5 show the effect of w/c and % SP on the workability of the mixture.

Figure 3 Compression machine.
Figure 3

Compression machine.

Figure 4 The effect of the w/c ratio on the SF mixture workability.
Figure 4

The effect of the w/c ratio on the SF mixture workability.

Figure 5 The effect of SP% on the SF mixture workability.
Figure 5

The effect of SP% on the SF mixture workability.

As for the second mixture, cement and sand were used in different proportions, as well as the SP, to obtain the fluids required for the mixture, as shown in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 6 The effect of the w/c ratio on sand mixture workability.
Figure 6

The effect of the w/c ratio on sand mixture workability.

Figure 7 The effect of SP percentage on sand mixture workability.
Figure 7

The effect of SP percentage on sand mixture workability.

The results showed an increase in workability with an increase in the ratio of water to cement in a direct phase, which is considered the main factor affecting the workability of mixtures with a noticeable effect of the SP on the workability.

It is clear from Figure 5 that there is an increase in the percentage of SP material with the increase in the percentage of SF, and this is completely consistent with what has been observed [15]. This is due to the very fine size of particles of SF, which causes the absorption of some of the SPs on its surface. As for sand, its granules are considered large compared to SF granules. However, the percentage of SP increases with the increase in the percentage of sand. This is because an increase in the percentage of sand in the mixture leads to a significant decrease in the percentage of cement in it, and this, in turn, leads to a decrease in the value of SP used as a percentage of the weight of cement, and this leads to an increase in the percentage of SP to achieve the required liquidity. By the results of the fluidity test, the mixtures for which the compressive strength will be tested were determined, as the percentages (96% cement, 4% SF, 1.5% SP, 4% w/c) were determined for the SF mixture, as it gave the required compressive strength, which is not less than 40 MPa. As for the sand mixture, the results of the compressive strength test were less than the required limit for all proportions but in varying proportions, as 50% sand showed the highest strength, which amounted to 34.7, while 25% sand showed its lowest strength for 28 days. Figure 8 shows the development of the compressive strength of the selected mixtures with curing age.

Figure 8 Improvement of the compressive strength with curing age for selected mixtures.
Figure 8

Improvement of the compressive strength with curing age for selected mixtures.

4 Preparation of SFP specimens

Laboratory samples of porous material were prepared in two distinct forms, namely cylinder and slab specimens, in accordance with the specific requirements of the test procedure. The test samples were fabricated using identical materials and procedures in order to ensure consistency across all laboratory specimens. The production and curing processes were devised with the intention of closely emulating the circumstances experienced on the field. In order to achieve the desired void ratio for the final design, the PAM, consisting of a hot asphalt mix, was carefully deposited into a Marshall mould and subsequently compacted using 35 blows on each side. In a similar vein, the rectangular slab specimens of PAM employed in the wheel tracking test were manufactured within moulds with a slab compactor, with the aim of achieving a specific void ratio. The slab samples had dimensions of 40 cm in length, 30 cm in width, and 5 cm in thickness. Volumetric calculations were conducted to ascertain the optimal quantity of the hot asphalt mix necessary to achieve the desired void ratio in the final mixture by considering the size of the mould. The asphalt mix was placed in the mould, and an asphalt slab compactor device compacted the mix. The specimens were then air-cooled for a minimum of 4 h in order to prepare them for grouting. Then, the samples were wrapped with aluminium foil used for cooking, and then they were also wrapped with a layer of nylon for cooking as well. To ensure that the GM did not leak out, the cement slurry was added to PAM cylinder and slab samples using gravitational force. The grouting began first with the SF mixture, and a smooth penetration of the GM was observed, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Grouting process of porous asphalt mixture samples.
Figure 9

Grouting process of porous asphalt mixture samples.

The grouting of the sand mixture began at a rate of 50%. In the beginning, it was noticed that the sand granules accumulated on the surface of the sample, causing closure of the surface air spaces and thus preventing the GM from penetrating, so this percentage was excluded from the work. The percentage of sand was 25%, which showed good penetration into the layer. The reason for this may be due to the high percentage of sand in the mixture and the large size of the sand grains compared to the size of the cement grains, which caused the inhomogeneity of the two materials and the small path of the internal air voids need a high fluidity homogeneous material to penetrate.

5 Evaluation of the mechanical properties

This section provides a comprehensive overview of the mechanical strength tests conducted on samples manufactured in the laboratory.

5.1 Marshall tests

The SFP mixture's stability was assessed using the Marshall test according to ASTM D6927 [28], as shown in Figure 10. The results of Marshall stability and flow for two types of SFP with different curing times at 1, 7, and 28 days are shown in Figures 11 and 12, respectively. It is clear from the results that SFP has greater Marshall stability and lower flow value than those of traditional asphalt concrete due to its enhanced strength and fewer residual voids by grouting cement mortar, and this is consistent with the results of Hassan et al. [16], noting that the Marshall stability increases with increasing curing age of the GM. The maximum value of Marshall stability was achieved at 32.75 kN with 4% replacement of cement with SF at 28 days.

Figure 10 Samples tested by the Marshall stability test.
Figure 10

Samples tested by the Marshall stability test.

Figure 11 Marshall stability value for different curing ages of two types of SFP.
Figure 11

Marshall stability value for different curing ages of two types of SFP.

Figure 12 Flow value for different curing ages of two types of SFP.
Figure 12

Flow value for different curing ages of two types of SFP.

The influence of the compressive strength of GMs is evident in the stability value of the SFP, where the compressive strength value of the grouting mixture improved with 4% SF, which was nearly twice the value of the compressive strength of the 25% sand mixture. This is consistent with Yang [5] results that Marshall stability increases with increasing the compressive strength of the GM.

During this study, the percentage of air voids after grouting was not calculated; X-ray CT scanning could be a good method to achieve this.

5.2 ITS

The determination of the ITS was conducted using the ASTM D6931 (2012) [29] standard. This involved subjecting cylindrical samples to loading along a diametrical axis. The specimen's maximum load, denoted as P, was utilized in the computation of the ITS. Figure 13 illustrates the outcomes of two distinct categories of SFP alongside three varying durations of curing, namely 1, 7, and 28 days. The result of ITS for conditioned samples at 28 days is shown in Figure 13. Generally, the ITS values increase with increasing curing time for all mixes. This can be attributed to the cement hydration reaction, which requires more time to complete, and the enhanced strength of mixes, as illustrated in Figure 14.

Figure 13 ITS values for two types of SFPs at different curing ages.
Figure 13

ITS values for two types of SFPs at different curing ages.

Figure 14 ITS test results conducted on samples at 28-day curing age.
Figure 14

ITS test results conducted on samples at 28-day curing age.

The results also show the difference between the ITS values for the two types of semiflexible paving used in this study, where the type resulting from the injection of cement and SF, which has the highest compressive strength, showed higher values ​​than the type resulting from the injection of cement and sand, and this agrees with the results of Solouki [30]. This also agrees with the results of Momtaz et al. [31] achieved from the fracture shape of the ITS test; it was clear that there was no division of the mixture. Approximately, similar shapes of failure were noticed in all samples. The failure shape of the semiflexible samples was completely different from that of concrete specimens. This is a good indicator that the GA mix, or SFP, is still flexible.

5.3 Compressive strength

The specimens undergo axial compression testing in the absence of any form of lateral support. The term "specimen failure" is operationally defined as the highest load encountered by the specimen while undergoing compression, as specified in the ASTM D1074-17 standard. Table 8 displays the compressive strength values of two SFP combinations and the corresponding two GMs employed. The study revealed that GMs alone have much greater compressive strength compared to SFP, and this is consistent with the conclusions reached by Setyawan [32]. This suggests that incorporating GM into the asphalt mixture can enhance its overall strength. Despite the significant variation in the compressive strength between the mixture improved by SF and others using sand, the two SFP mixtures exhibit comparable compressive strength. This observation suggests that the vulnerable area in the SFP is located within the asphalt layer. These results are consistent with the findings of Wang and Hang [18] and differ from those of Yang [5], who showed an increase in the compressive strength of the SFP with an increase in the compressive strength of the GM. The reason for the difference in these conclusions may be due to the materials used in the production of SFP if the testing conditions are proven.

Table 8

Results of compressive strength

Mixture type Compressive strength, MPa
1 day 7 days 28 days
*GM, 4% SF 24.3 32.7 48.1
GM, 25% sand 9.3 13 20.8
**CM, 4% SF — — 6.7
CM, 25% sand — — 6.3

*Grouting material.

**Composite material (here, it is SFP).

5.4 Wheel track test

The wheel track test is commonly employed for the assessment of rut depth in asphalt concrete mixtures which can be defined as a bowl-shaped depression in the wheel paths that develop gradually with the increasing number of load applications [33]. This testing method is increasingly favoured due to its ability to replicate actual traffic conditions closely [32], where the bituminous material performance is affected basically by the prevailing temperatures [34,35]. The samples for the rutting test were prepared as mentioned in Section 4. The test was performed according to BS EN12697-22:2003, which provides information about the rate of permanent deformation from moving of concentrated load, using a dial gauge or ruler to measure the permanent deformation of the specimen, as shown in Figure 15. The applied loaded wheel was 70 kg (158 pounds) at contact points and passed repetitively over the sample to be moved backwards and forward. The test temperature was 50°C, and the total distance of tire travel on the centre of the top surface of the specimen was 230 ± 10 mm. The loading frequency remains constant at 25 load cycles every 60 s. The maximum deformation was observed when the settling of the asphalt mixture reached a value of 20 mm or when the number of cycles reached 10,000 cycles, whichever occurred first [36]. The results showed a high resistance to rutting for the two SFP mixtures compared to the porous reference mixture, which had a high rutting value. The reason for this is due to the influence of the GM, which increases the stiffness of the mixture and gives it a hardness that resists this damage. Figures 16 and 17 show the test results for the tested samples.

Figure 15 Samples after ITS test.
Figure 15

Samples after ITS test.

Figure 16 Rutting test.
Figure 16

Rutting test.

Figure 17 Wheel truck test result for 28-day curing age samples.
Figure 17

Wheel truck test result for 28-day curing age samples.

It is also clear from the results that a slight difference exists between the final test result for the two mixtures of SFP, which amounted to 2.1 mm for the grouting material of SF (GMSF) mixture and 3.3 mm for the grouting material of sand (GMSN) mixture. The reason for this is that a material with high hardness supported the structure of the porous mixture. The value of the differential resistance of the two mixtures slightly affects the final test result. Yang [5] found that the results of the rutting test show that the SFP material mixed with the GM exhibits good high-temperature stability, and the dynamic stability increases with the increase in the strength of the GM.

6 Durability evaluation

Two tests were carried out to assess the durability of SFP: the first is the TSR test to evaluate the effect of this type on moisture, and the second is the Cantabro loss test to assess its vulnerability to ageing.

6.1 Moisture sensitivity (tensile strength ratio [TSR] test)

This test method covers the change in the diametrical tensile strength resulting from the effect of water saturation and accelerated water conditions with the freeze/thaw cycle of the compacted asphalt mixture. Traffic loading and climatic conditions may cause tensile stresses to develop within the pavement, and result in two types of cracks called fatigue cracking and thermal or shrinkage cracking. The standard method (AASHTO T283-14) [37] was used to evaluate the moisture susceptibility (TSR) of SFP samples. The TSR values for the two types of mixtures were extracted from the results of the ITS test for the two types of samples, conditioned and unconditioned, by using the following equation:

(4) TSR  = Sw / Sd × 100 ,

where TSR is the ITS ratio, % Sd is the average of ITS of dry unconditioned samples, kPa, and Sw is the average of ITS of wet conditioned samples, kPa.

The results presented in Figure 18 show that the TSR value of conditioned samples is lower than unconditioned samples, and this is due to the conditions that the sample is exposed to, such as humidity and heat. It is also clear from the results that the TSR value of the GMSF mixture is relatively more than that of GMSN. The approved specification requires a TSR value of more than 80%. The results obtained from the test are accepted with the required amount.

Figure 18 TSR values for two types of CMs at 28 days.
Figure 18

TSR values for two types of CMs at 28 days.

6.2 Cantabro loss test

The purpose of this test is to simulate mixture resistance to erosion (wear) ravelling and indirectly evaluate cohesion bonding and traffic abrasion effects. This test has been applied to determine the value of abrasion loss for the asphalt mixtures using the "Los Angeles Machine" Test Method (ASTMC131-14) and to expect the durability of OGFC pavements in the laboratory and during service life. The abrasion loss of specimens should not exceed 20% for unaged samples and 30% for the aged specimens. The results show that the Cantabro loss values of specimens that have been aged are greater than those of unaged specimens. This test was carried out on the Marshall sample for unaged and aged conditions according to ASTM D7064-13. Three samples were prepared for each asphalt content, as shown in Figure 19. Samples are weighed before and after the examination to calculate the loss value. The test results were calculated using the following equation and are presented in Figure 20:

(5) P = P 1 − P 2 P 1 × 100 ,

where P is the Cantabro abrasion loss, %; P 1 is the initial weight of the sample, g; and P 2 is the final weight of the sample, g.

Figure 19 Sample for the Cantabro loss test.
Figure 19

Sample for the Cantabro loss test.

Figure 20 Cantabro loss test results for aged and unaged 28-day curing samples.
Figure 20

Cantabro loss test results for aged and unaged 28-day curing samples.

7 Conclusions

Based on the comprehensive analysis of the existing literature about SFP and its performance, as well as the subsequent laboratory experimentation and result analysis, it can be deduced that this material presents a feasible alternative for the advancement of high-performance pavement infrastructure. However, it is imperative to undertake endeavours aimed at establishing a standardized technique for the mixed design. The present study summarizes the key findings and conclusions:

1. Grouting a cement slurry with high fluidity into a porous, highly gradient asphalt mixture leads to a very large increase in the resistance of the porous mixture. The strength of the cement mixture is an important factor in the final performance of the semiflexible paving resulting from this process.

2. The homogeneity between the GMs is very important to achieve the required penetration of the PAM. The achievement of liquidity with the lack of homogeneity between the mixed GM may lead to the accumulation of the coarse material on the surface of the PAM as a result of the accuracy of the air spaces in it, causing the material to stop penetrating the porous layer.

3. The findings from the Marshall and rutting tests indicate that the incorporation of SFP material with the GM demonstrates favourable thermal stability at elevated temperatures. Additionally, it was observed that the Marshall stability of the mixture improves as the strength of the GM increases. In comparison to GMSN, with a strength of 20.8 MPa, GMSF, with a strength of 48.1 MPa, demonstrates a significant increase of 39.54% in Marshall stability after 28 days of curing. Furthermore, the comparative analysis revealed that the crumb rubber modified (CM) asphalt mixes exhibited superior resistance to rutting compared to conventional asphalt mixtures. This was observed using a wheel track rutting test, wherein the CM asphalt mixtures endured 10,000 wheel track cycles without exceeding a maximum rut depth of 2 mm.

4. The results of the ITS test showed a discrepancy between the two types of composite materials (CMs), and this is due to the difference in the strength of the GMs used, as the ITS value of the GMSF mixture increased by 14.91% compared with GMSN for the curing age of 28 days for unconditioned samples and by 20.22% for the conditioned samples for the same curing age.

5. The material remains flexible in addition to the hardness it gained from injecting the cement material in the presence of the asphalt material. This is evident in the results of the compressive strength test of the CM, which shows a large discrepancy between the compressive strength of the injection material for the same curing age.

6. The durability of two types of CM was measured by the Cantabro abrasion loss and tensile strength ratio. The results were acceptable and within the specification limits for the Cantabro loss test. With a variation for the two types of CMs, the GMSF mixture showed an increase in the value of Cantabro loss by 11.52% over the GMSN mixture for ageing samples and 6.59% for non-ageing samples of 28 days of curing age.

8 Recommendations

In subsequent studies, it is recommended to conduct an on-site evaluation of a section of road using the semiflexible type of pavement and compare the efficiency of the process with the results achieved, as well as to study the microscopic structure of this type of pavement and work to increase the bonding strength between the asphalt for the porous mixture and the cement for the GM, which is considered one of the most important areas of strength for this type of pavement.

  1. Funding information: This work was performed on the personal effort of the authors, and there was no funding effort from any side or organization.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analysed in this study are available in this manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-09-15
Revised: 2023-10-27
Accepted: 2023-11-06
Published Online: 2024-03-06

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0556
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
SFP; composite material; grouting; performance; silica fume
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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Heruntergeladen am 18.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/eng-2022-0556/html
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