Startseite Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
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Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC

  • Alghrairi Nashat EMAIL logo , Farah Nora Aznieta Binti Abd Aziz , Suraya Binti Abdul Rashid , Mohd Zuhri Bin Mohamed und Amer Mohammed Ibrahim
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 6. Juli 2024
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Aus der Zeitschrift Open Engineering Band 14 Heft 1

Abstract

Nanotechnology has made significant inroads across various sectors, augmenting properties and economic impacts. Its pivotal role extends notably to the realm of construction and building. This study focuses on the tangible consequences of incorporating nano-silica (NS) into lightweight concrete (LWC) and its influence on mechanical attributes. The primary aim is to illustrate how NS impacts the mechanical properties of LWC, specifically its effects on compressive strength, flexural strength, and tensile strength in comparison to conventional LWC. The research encompassed the casting and examination of seven distinct concrete mixtures, including a reference mix, in laboratory settings. The study findings highlight that the utilization of lightweight Iraqi porcelanite stone resulted in a one-third reduction in the weight of standard concrete. Furthermore, the introduction of varying quantities of NS into structural LWC yielded enhancements in compressive, tensile, and flexural strength when contrasted with the reference mix, albeit at the expense of workability. Remarkably, The results showed an introduction of varying quantities of NS into structural LWC yielded enhancements in compressive, tensile, and flexural strength when contrasted with the reference mix, albeit at the expense of workability. The findings demonstrated that when doses of 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20% NS were applied, the rate of three models for determining compressive strength at 90 days old rose by 19, 45, 62, 32, 15, and 37%, respectively. On the other hand, when dosages 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20% were added, the percentage of improvement in tensile strength at 28 days of age was 77, 75, 84, 51, 55, and 53%. Additionally, while employing the same above doses, the bending strength at 28 days of age improved by 141, 140, 171, 115, 114, and 108%, respectively. Remarkably, the results also underscored the sustained efficacy of NS, particularly during the later stages of concrete maturation.

Keywords: compressive strength; flexural strength; splitting tensile strength; porcelanite lightweight aggregate; structural lightweight concrete

1 Introduction

One of the most widely consumed commodities in the world, Portland cement, has the excellent advantages of being inexpensive, fire-resistant, and able to be cast into any desired shape. Cement does, however, have several drawbacks, such as brittleness, volume instability, and porous systems. Lately, scientists and engineers have been working harder to investigate the possible uses of nanotechnology as a means of enhancing the performance of conventional cement-based materials. Using nanoparticles, such as nano-SiO2 for increased strength and durability, cement composites’ bulk engineering qualities may be altered [1]. Moreover, cement-based materials can be endowed with certain intelligent qualities that are needed for certain purposes, such as self-cleaning and discoloration resistance by nano-TiO2 to combat the air pollution problem [2].

A form of concrete known as lightweight concrete (LWC) has an air-dry unit weight of 400–2,000 kg m−3. In contrast to conventional weight concrete, which has a unit weight of 2,400 kg m−3, structural LWC has a unit weight between 1440 to 1920 kg m−3. Because of their decreased self-weight, the structures can have more efficiently utilized spaces thanks to lower cross-sectional structural components [3]. Because less water can collect near the aggregate particle, it has been shown that the interfacial zone (ITZ) thickness will decrease as the lightweight aggregate’s absorption capacity increases. In addition, LWC with lightweight aggregates benefits from internal curing, which can lessen permeability and stop shrinkage cracking. It is evident from earlier studies that nano-silica (NS) can strengthen the LWC’s defenses against water and chloride ion intrusion [4].

With its small particle size and high surface area, NS has drawn a lot of attention for its potential to improve the mechanical properties of concrete. Being a highly reactive material, it can affect the hydration process and microstructure of the cementitious matrix, improving the strength, durability, and other mechanical characteristics of concrete. The use of nanomaterials has revolutionized many industries, including the construction industry [5].

The mechanical characteristics of concrete, including its tensile strength, flexural strength, and compressive strength, are important factors in determining how well structures and infrastructure function structurally and are reusable. A lot of research has been done to find out how NS affects these characteristics, especially when it comes to LWC. Gaining insight into how NS affects LWC’s mechanical behavior is crucial to improving its functionality and broadening its uses [6].

Through a number of methods, NS can improve the mechanical characteristics of LWC. It serves as a nucleation site, which lowers the porosity of the cementitious matrix and encourages the development of more hydration products. Reduced permeability and increased strength are the results of this densification. Second, by strengthening the interfacial transition zone and binding strength, NS particles can cover the spaces left by bigger aggregate particles. Furthermore, NS has the ability to alter the cement paste’s microstructure, which can affect the hydration products’ connectivity and dispersion [5].

The incorporation of NS in LWC holds significant potential for various applications. The enhanced mechanical properties can lead to the development of lightweight structural elements with improved load-bearing capacity, reduced thickness, and increased resistance to environmental factors. Furthermore, the reduced cement content achieved through NS additions contributes to sustainable construction practices by minimizing carbon emissions and resource consumption [7].

Many investigations have been done to look at the interaction between LWC and NS and how it affects mechanical qualities [8], given the relevance of LWC and the promising potential of NS. The objective of this study is to add to the current corpus of knowledge by providing a thorough examination of the effect of NS on the mechanical properties of LWC. For engineers, researchers, and business experts engaged in the design and development of cutting-edge LWC materials, the study’s conclusions will offer insightful information [9].

It is important to note that numerous studies have been conducted to look into the characteristics of LWC, and to the best of the author’s knowledge, a small number of experimental investigations look into the impacts of NS in combination with LWC. This study aims to explore the impact of varying concentrations of NS on the fresh and hardened properties of LWC, specifically 0, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20%. The LWC specimens’ mechanical properties (compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and microstructure) as well as their workability qualities (slump) have been established for this reason. It should be mentioned that the workability is reduced because of the high surface areas and absorb the mixing of water, but the mechanical properties have been improved.

In conclusion, adding NS to LWC provides a technique to improve its performance and mechanical qualities. Researchers and practitioners can harness the potential of nanotechnology to develop novel and sustainable construction materials that improve structural performance and have positive environmental effects by understanding the effects of NS on the mechanical behavior of LWC.

2 LWC

LWC is a term given to concrete with a density between 300 and 2,000 kg m−3 [10]. This type of concrete was used in many parts of buildings because of its lightweightness compared to traditional concrete [11]. Two kinds of LWC exist based on the uses for which it is intended. The first type of concrete is known as structural lightweight concrete, and it is categorized in accordance with American Code ACI No. 211.2, which states that the concrete’s density must not exceed 2,000 kg m−3, and its compressive strength must not be less than 17 MPa after 28 days. This kind of concrete is frequently used for load-bearing surfaces like ceilings and walls. Non-structural LWC is the second variety, which is primarily utilized for partition floors or non-load-bearing walls. There are actually three ways to make LWC. This study will describe the first method, which is to employ lightweight aggregates in place of traditional aggregates. The second technique is called light-foamed or cellular concrete, and it is made by creating tiny, air-filled pores in the cement mixture. Lastly, the third technique yields light concrete that only contains coarse aggregate and cement as a binder. This type of concrete is made without the use of fine aggregate [12]. LWC has great advantages, including lightweight, thermal insulation, fire resistance, and heat storage capacity [13]. Nevertheless, this concrete has several flaws, such as being sensitive to water, hard to polish, and challenging to finish because of the aggregate’s porosity and angle. Lastly, it takes longer to achieve optimum mixing than it does with regular concrete [14]. The main difficulty for designers using LWC is that it has a low compressive strength, which limits the usage of concrete in certain areas. The researchers looked for numerous ways to increase LWC’s compressive strength without changing its density [15]. Some researchers have succeeded in finding new solutions, such as using additives or fibers. After the emergence of nanomaterials, the researchers focused most of their interest on using them to improve the mechanical properties of concrete to increase its applications in buildings.

In this study, LWAC was produced using the sedimentary rock porcelanite. It has been known by a variety of names, several of which are trademarks used in commerce (e.g., diatomite, filtac, diatomaceous earth, cellite, kieselguhr). Its unique qualities that qualify it for the sector are reflected in its texture, chemical makeup, and mineral makeup [16].

In Iraq, porcelanite is found in the Iraqi Western Desert. Two types of porcelanite were noted; the first one with a SiO2 content of more than 70%, and the second one with a SiO2 content of 60–69%. Manufactured LWA costs a lot of money which is why porcelanite rock is a very important source of LWA [17].

3 Nanotechnology

Cement production emits waste estimated at 7% of the total atmospheric waste [18]. Through the use of green concrete, it became possible to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emission, but without affecting the quality of the cement. Scientists found that the use of complementary cement materials is one of the solutions that reduce the amount of cement produced and thus reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere [18]. One of the best of these supplementary cement materials is nanomaterials. They are nanoparticle materials that have a large surface area and unique mechanical and physical properties [19]. Nanomaterials have been and still are of interest to many researchers and have been used in various fields in the past few years [20,21]. Through their investigations and research, the researchers discovered that adding more nanoparticles to concrete boosts its compressive, tensile, and bending resistance while lowering its average corrosion rate. This leads us to the conclusion that nanoparticles are more beneficial than conventional materials. The ability of nanoparticles to improve the cohesiveness and homogeneity of concrete was demonstrated by the researchers [22]. A variety of nanomaterials have been employed to improve the characteristics of concrete: the most well-known ones are NS, iron oxide nanoparticles, metakaolin, alumina, carbon nanotubes, graphite oxide nanoparticles, zinc oxide nanoparticles, and modified montmorillonite clay nanoparticles [5,23–36].

4 Literature review

In this part, previous studies on the effect of NS on the compressive, flexural, tensile strength, and microstructure of normal and LWC will be reviewed.

Shah and Pitroda [24] in an experimental study to demonstrate the effect of NS on the compressive strength of lightweight cellular concrete. Different doses of NS were replaced by the weight of the cement. Several mixtures were prepared, some containing NS and others free of it, and a comparison was made between them. All samples were examined at the age of 3, 7, and 28 days. The results showed that the addition of a small dose of NS increased the compressive strength of the mixtures containing NS. It was also observed that the strength in the early stage of solidification increases as a result of the pozzolanic activity of the NS. Figure 1 shows the effect of NS on concrete’s compressive strength.

Figure 1 The compressive strength [24].
Figure 1

The compressive strength [24].

Du et al. [25] conducted an experimental study to investigate the effect of NS on the compressive strength of LWC. Various concrete mixtures have been prepared. Some of the cast samples included NS, others with slag, and others without any additives. The results showed that both mixtures improved their compressive strength when increasing the dose of NS at different ages. The effect of NS was on all mixtures at an early age shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2 Compressive strength with different percentages of NS.
Figure 2

Compressive strength with different percentages of NS.

Figure 3 Compressive strength with different percentages of NS + slag [25].
Figure 3

Compressive strength with different percentages of NS + slag [25].

Atmaca et al. [26] have investigated the addition of NS to structural lightweight concrete. Two groups of concrete mixtures were prepared. The first group consisted of five mixtures, each of which was variable in the lightweight coarse aggregate, which was replaced by the traditional aggregate, knowing that all mixtures are free of NS. The second group also consists of five mixtures similar to the mixtures in the first group, but NS is added to it. The compressive strength test was conducted at different ages 3, 7, 28, and 90 days. The compressive strength of the second group containing NS showed a significant increase when compared with the first group. It was noted that the tensile strength of the mixtures containing NS showed an increase when compared to the concrete without NS, regardless of the percentage of light aggregate. Figure 4 shows the effect of NS on compressive strength of LWC.

Figure 4 Compressive strength with different percentages of NS [26].
Figure 4

Compressive strength with different percentages of NS [26].

Zhang et al. [27] attempted to obtain lightweight yet high-performance concrete using NS. The researchers moved away from the previous ratios used by previous researchers and used lower doses of NS because of its high cost. The doses used were less than 1% of the weight of the cement and their effect on LWC was evaluated. The results showed that the addition of small doses of NS leads to strengthening the properties of concrete in terms of flexural and compressive strength. 0.1% was the critical ratio, and increasing it leads to a decrease in flexural and compressive strength.

Wang et al. [28] observed that the addition of NS in proportions of 1, 2, and 3% increased compressive strength and decreased shrinkage. The study showed that compressive strength continues to increase to late age. The early increase was very large, but it decreased in later ages. The highest compressive strength was recorded at all ages at a replacement rate of 3% with NS. It was observed that NS reduced the premature cracking of LWC.

Ismail et al. [29] conducted a study on the effect of NS in different proportions on LWC that contains lightweight aggregates instead of normal aggregates. The density of the concrete on which the study was conducted was between 1,400 and 1,500 kg m−3. The researchers evaluated the role of NS based on the results obtained from the compressive and tensile strength tests. The researchers used a ratio of 0.75, 1.5, and 2% NS. The results showed that the addition of NS had a clear effect on compressive and tensile strength when compared with the reference mixture free of NS. The results recorded the highest compressive strength at the dose of 0.75 and 2% NS. While the tensile strength recorded the highest value at a 2% dose.

Abd Elrahman et al. [30] published a study on the effect of NS on the flexural and compressive strength of light concrete, whose density ranges between 900 and 10,000 kg m−3. The researchers used replacement ratios 1, 2, and 4% of the cement weight. The laboratory results showed a significant increase in the compressive and flexural strength of light concrete. The study showed that the best results were obtained at the ratio of 2 and 4%.

Suleiman et al. [31] added ratios 1, 2, and 3% NS. The researchers examined the effect of adding nanomaterials on the compressive strength of LWC. The lightweight aggregate was the fired brick. The results showed that increasing the dose of NS increases the compressive strength. The highest compressive strength was recorded when substituting a dose of 3% NS.

Zahid and Mohammadi [32] studied the effect of nanomaterials on the mechanical properties of concrete. The use of 5 NS as a substitute for cement showed an improvement in the corrosion resistance of concrete by 16% when compared with the reference mixture. Also, it was observed during the study that adding NS to concrete containing fly ash increased the compressive strength by 15% at the age of 90 days when compared with the control mixture.

Abdalla et al. [33] studied the effect of nanomaterials on concrete workability and compressive strength. The study showed that adding carbon nanotubes increased the compressive strength by 50% when compared with the reference mixture. At the same time, the results showed that all the nanomaterials used (NS, nano-aluminum, nano-titanium, nano-iron oxide, nano-metakaolin, and nano-clay) reduced workability.

Chakravarty et al. [34] used NS to investigate its effect on the strength of concrete. The results of the study showed that replacing 3% gave the best improvement in compressive strength, with an increase of 7% when compared with the reference mixture. The researchers also noted that the bending resistance also increased due to the improvement of the microstructure of the mixture after incorporating NS into it. The workability of concrete decreased due to water absorption by NS particles.

Nuri Turkmenoglu et al. [35] published a study on the effect of NS and macro-silica on the strength and flexibility of concrete and its microstructure. The combination of NS and micro-silica at a rate of 2.5%, +4%, increased the compressive strength by 37% at the age of 28.

Oh et al. [36] observed through a study conducted to demonstrate the effect of combining NS with silica fume on the performance of high-performance concrete. Replacing 10–20% NS and silica fume resulted in a 6% improvement in compressive strength. The highest compressive strength was recorded when replacing 10% NS. However, by increasing the NS content to 30%, self-shrinkage increases.

Arif et al. [37] published a paper on the effect of NS on the strength and permeability of concrete. The percentages that the researchers utilized as a cement substitute ranged from 0.5 to 2%. The research revealed that while the compressive strength increased with the model, age, and permeability decreased. Furthermore, at 28 days, the maximum reduction in permeability and the greatest percentage gain in compressive strength (20.14%) happened at a concentration of 1.5% NS.

Dahish and Almutairi [38] studied the effect of NS and nano-clay on compressive strength at high temperatures. According to the study, the compressive strength rose by 1% and 4%, respectively, with 2 and 5% NS and nano-clay. The researchers also looked at how different materials affected compressive strength at high temperatures. It was discovered that combining the two nanomaterials with the concrete mix produced the greatest results.

Du and Korjakins [39] demonstrated the effect of nanomaterials on the mechanical properties and microstructure of LWC. Researchers discovered that these substances, which include NS and CNTs, enhanced the general strength of concrete by between 10 and 50% and its bending strength by 89%. Furthermore, the investigation demonstrated that nanomaterials had a favorable impact on the microstructure, augmenting the concrete’s strength.

Hwangbo et al. [40] studied the effect of carbon nanotube and NS on the properties of concrete incorporated with graphene oxide. The results showed that the combination of NS, nano-carbon tube, and graphene oxide improved the mechanical properties and also improved the bond strength between the cement paste and the rebar significantly when compared with the control mixture.

Zhao et al. [45] studied the effect of NS on the mechanical properties of concrete containing recycled aggregate. Studies have shown that compressive, bending, and tensile strength improve by 32, 33, and 89.6%, respectively, when compared with the reference mixture if 2% NS is incorporated (Table 1).

Table 1

The improvement of compressive strength with different types of nanomaterials

No. Nanomaterials used Replacement % of nanomaterials Compressive strength before adding nanomaterials Compressive strength after adding nanomaterials % of improvement Ref.
1 NS and macro-silica 2, 4, 6 16.96 25.8 +22–52 [41]
1, 2 61 68.9 +(7.7–13.3) [25]
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 12.9 19.8 +53 [42]
0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 28 35 +25 [43]
1, 2, 3 23 35 +52 [28]
1, 2, 4 100 125 4–25 [30]
1, 2, 3 35 46.35 21.49–32.45 [44]
1,2, 3 49.50 60.45 +22 [34]
1, 2, 3 — — +15 [32]
0.5–2 — — +20.14 [37]
2 — — 32 [45]
2.5 + 4 — — +37 [33]
2 Nano-metakaolin 5, 10 30 46 +53 [46]
2–14 35 48 12–37 [47]
3 NS + metakaolin 5 33 41.7 +25.4 [47]
19 28.45 48 +69 [48]
NS1-2 + MK 5-10 90 105 +17 [49]
4 Nano-Al2O3 1.5 — — +49 [50]
5 carbon nanotubes CNTs — — — +50 [33]
— — — +(10–50) [39]
6 NS + CNTs — — — Increase [40]
7 NS + nano-clay 2 + 5 — — 1 and 4 [38]

Several studies examined the influence of NS on the compressive strength of LWC. The findings suggest that the addition of NS at an optimal dosage can enhance compressive strength, with improvements ranging from 10 to 40% compared to conventional LWC. The enhanced strength is attributed to the pozzolanic reaction between the NS particles and the cementitious matrix, resulting in increased hydration products and a denser microstructure.

The literature review also discusses the impact of NS on the flexural strength of LWC. It reveals that the incorporation of NS can significantly improve the flexural strength, with reported increases ranging from 15 to 50% compared to control specimens. The improved flexural strength is attributed to the enhanced bonding between the cementitious matrix and the porcelanite aggregate particles, resulting in a more efficient load transfer mechanism.

Overall, the literature review demonstrates that the addition of NS positively impacts the mechanical properties of LWC containing porcelanite aggregate. The inclusion of NS leads to improved compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability, making it a promising additive for enhancing the performance of LWC in construction applications. However, further research is still needed to optimize the dosage and understand the long-term effects of NS on the properties of LWC.

This article’s aim is to investigate how NS can increase the strength of LWC with lightweight porcelanite aggregate. Compared to other LWC mixes such as aerated concrete or concrete without fine aggregate, concrete composed of lightweight porcelanite aggregate is considered easy to design and process and does not require careful monitoring. It is also cheap and can be used in important parts of the building, such as roofs, bridges, and foundations, after combining them with nanomaterials and turning them into lightweight structural concrete, unlike other types of light concrete which cannot be used because their weakness, expensive, and require monitoring and follow-up from the design stage to the casting and hardening. Furthermore, the following have been cited as the secondary aims of the current paper.

5 Experimental program

5.1 Materials

The structural LWC consists of cement, porcelanite stone, fine sand, and water. Superplasticizers are added to increase concrete workability. NS is to enhance hardening properties. Iraqi OPC used in this work satisfied the limit of Iraq specification No. (5)_1984 as tabulated in Table 2 and its chemical composition in Table 3.

Table 2

Physical properties of cement (type I)

Physical properties Test results Limit of Iraq specification No. (5)_1984
Specific surface area (m2 kg−1) 240 ≥230
Setting time
Initial setting time (h:min) 2:10 ≥45 min
Final setting time (h:min) 8:10 ≤10 h
Compressive strength
3 days (MPa) 22.1 ≥15
28 days (MPa) 33.46 ≥23
Table 3

Chemical oxide analysis, weight %, for type I cement

Oxide % by weight Limit of Iraq specification No. (5)_1984
CaO 61.52 —
SiO2 21.8 —
Al2O3 6.5 —
Fe2O3 2.2 —
MgO 1.403 <5
SO3 2.5 <2.8
Na2O 0.28 —
K2O 0.51 —
Insoluble residue (IR) 0.544 <1.5
Loss of ignition (LOI) I 2.4 <4.0
Main compounds
C3S 42.527 —
C2S 30.505 —
C3A 13.507 —
C4AF 6.688 —

Aggregates constitute between 60 and 85% of the volume of concrete, with the coarse aggregate amount being twice the fine aggregate. Porcelanite stone (Figure 1) is used as coarse aggregate, while for the fine aggregate, the normal fine aggregate is used. Porcelanite, a sedimentary stone, is characterized by its lightweight and hardness, which can give good resistance to concrete if it is treated with correct engineering methods. This stone is found in abundance in western Iraq and has a mineral and chemical composition that reflects the unique properties that make it suitable for industry. The second major component of the concrete mix is fine aggregate or sand. This component constitutes approximately 42% of the concrete volume in normal mixtures and is used to fill the voids within the mixture and increase the bonding strength of the components.

5.1.1 Aggregate

Aggregates are one of the main components in all concrete mixtures and have a direct effect on most of the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of concrete. Aggregate is divided into two types, coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate. Usually, aggregates (both types) constitute between 60 and 85% of the volume of concrete. coarse aggregate twice that of fine aggregate. In this paper, porcelanite stone is used as coarse aggregate. As for the fine aggregate, the normal fine aggregate will be used. Specifications for each subject will be presented in this part [51].

Porcelanite stone is one of the alternatives that will be used instead of normal aggregates for the production of LWC. Porcelanite, a sedimentary stone, is characterized by its lightweight and hardness, which can give good resistance to concrete if it is treated with correct engineering methods. This stone is found in abundance in western Iraq and there are many places where it appears on the surface, which is an important source for many types of research related to the production of light concrete with certain specifications. It is a mineral and chemical composition that reflects the unique properties that make it suitable for industry. Porcelanite was defined by Al-Jubouri as a sedimentary stone containing 50% opal-CT, which has the feel of unglazed porcelain and is an advanced product of bio-silica. Figure 5 shows the porcilanite lightweight aggregate (Tables 4 and 5).

Figure 5 Porcelanite stone.
Figure 5

Porcelanite stone.

Table 4

The test was done at the State Company of Geological Survey and Mining, Baghdad, IRAQ

Chemical compositions %
SiO2 62.02
CaO 11.55
MgO 7.20
Al2O3 2.71
Fe2O3 0.87
TiO2 0.18
SO3 0.30
LOI 13.86
Table 5

Physical properties of coarse porcelanite

Property Test result
Absorption 32%
Saturation 3.6%
Loose bulk density (SSD) (kg m−3) 891

The second major component of the concrete mix is fine aggregate or sand. This component constitutes approximately 42% of the concrete volume in normal mixtures and is used to fill the voids within the mixture and increases the bonding strength of the components and has a direct impact on many properties of concrete such as resistance to compression, bending, tensile, and absorption (Table 6).

Table 6

Grading and soluble material for fine aggregate used in this work

Sieve size (mm) % passing sand % passing (3) limit sand
Grading 9.5 100 100
4.75 92.0 90–100
2.36 82.8 85–100
1.18 76.1 75–100
0.6 63.4 60–79
0.3 35.9 12–40
0.15 9.8 0–10
Clay material (%) 4.6% 5%
Organic material (%) 0.69% 3%

5.1.2 Mineral admixture

Pozzolana is a natural or artificial material containing silica or alumina (mainly silica) in a reactive form. By themselves, pozzolanas have little or no cementitious properties. However, in a finely divided form and in the presence of moisture they will chemically react with alkalis to form cementing compounds. The silica and alumina in a pozzolana have to be amorphous, or glassy, to be reactive [52].

The main purpose for the use of Pozzolana is to substitute cement and to reduce the consumption of energy and raw materials and thus to reduce the CO2 emission relatively less than the original production.

Pozzolans reduce bleeding because of fineness and reduce the maximum rise in temperature when used in large amounts (more than 15% by mass of cementitious material) because of the slower rate of chemical reactions, which reduce the rise in temperature.

Pozzolanic materials are divided into three categories. The first is the natural pozzolanic materials. It is always more common in plain areas and is in the form of ineffective clays containing silica oxides and alumina oxides. It is not cement, but in the presence of water, it reacts with calcium hydroxide (CH) present in the concrete in the presence of water and becomes a cement material with good effectiveness and environmental friendliness [52].

The second type is the industrial pozzolanic materials, and these materials are ineffective, but by using some chemicals, they turn into effective ones, such as mortar and plaster [53].

The third type is the pozzolanic materials resulting from industrial waste such as furnace slag and the remains of burnt paper after grinding others.

The use of small percentages of pozzolan nanomaterials contributes to ensuring an integrated interaction with the cement paste and the non-agglomeration of these materials, which causes weak concrete. As well as an economic factor, it reduces the cost of the nanomaterials used [54].

The effect of the remaining unreacted pozzolanic materials is directly on the durability of the concrete through the continuation of interaction with these materials to form CH in the presence of water, which improves the microstructure of the concrete [54].

NS is one of the most abundant materials in the world. Its chemical composition is similar to a diamond. It is a white crystalline substance. NS is one of the most used materials with concrete. NS is found as a pozzolanic material in solid or liquid form. It is widely used in the concrete industry, through which it determines the viscosity and the condition of filling the pores in the concrete. NS can be dispersed with water in the form of a dry powder. NS is a very active pozzolanic material in concrete and plays an important role in it. NS maintains the strength of concrete during chemical and physical reactions and when the particles are compressed [41]. NS can accelerate the hydration of cement when added to concrete, which is very useful for obtaining early strength [43]. Previous studies showed that a certain dose of NS increased the production of hydrated calcium silicate and ettringite crystals gradually when the content of NS was increased. NS has the ability to reduce the diffusion of chloride ions, as well as improve the porosity of concrete [49]. Singh et al. compared the effect of colloidal NS and NS powder on the mechanical properties of concrete, where they found that NS powder was more effective in producing C–S–H gel. On this basis, NS powder is considered more effective for enhancing the mechanical properties of concrete [55]. Zahid et al. showed that NS can reduce the size of the pores in the cement paste when replacing it with a part of the weight of the cement, and it does not affect the permeability and porosity of concrete [49].

Finally, it is important to note the effects of nanoparticles on concrete. The effects of NS on concrete may vary depending on several factors, including nano-dose, particle size, curing conditions, cement type, and concrete mix design. Also, NS provides important and different benefits to concrete, and its incorporation into its paste provides the best results, but on the condition that the work is accurate and compatible with the research requirements [42].

5.1.3 Superplasticizer

The use of superplasticizers in this research is very, very important for structural lightweight concrete. After adding the nanomaterials, the water of the mixture is absorbed by it, due to the high softness and large surface area of the nanoparticles, which leads to the rapid interaction of the pozzolanic material with the concrete components in the presence of water. Superplasticizers help to reduce the effects of nanomaterials. In the stage of hardened concrete, superplasticizers help to increase compressive strength.

From this point of view, the importance of adding superplasticizers to structural LWC came to enhance the mechanical properties without negatively affecting the rest of the concrete properties.

6 Mix design

In this research, seven concrete mixtures have been designed as shown in Table 1. A reference mixture refers to a LWC of 17.3 MPa without NS. The design of the reference mix included the selection of certain proportions of cement, fine aggregate, porcelain stone as coarse aggregate, water, and superplasticizer to achieve the requirements of structural lightweight concrete with a density of not more than 2,000 kg m−3 and a compressive strength of not less than 17 MPa. Materials were estimated and experimental mixtures were designed until the required density and strength were obtained, according to Table 7. Figure 6 shows the experimental flowchart.

Table 7

Groups of the LWC mix

Groups Cement (kg m−3) LWA porcelanite gravel (kg m−3) Fine aggregate (kg m−3) normal sand % NS Water (L m−3) Superplasticizer (L m−3)
Control 500 525 525 0 175 10
NS 1 495 525 525 1 175 10
NS 3 485 525 525 3 175 10
NS 5 475 525 525 5 175 10
NS 10 450 525 525 10 175 10
NS 15 425 525 525 15 175 10
NS 20 400 525 525 20 175 10
Figure 6 Experimental flowchart.
Figure 6

Experimental flowchart.

7 Test program

After choosing the suitable lightweight aggregate, the effect of adding NS by the different dosages (0, 1, 3, 5,10, 15, 20%) has been studied on the suitable LWC mixture by testing fresh and hardened concrete.

7.1 Fresh concrete behavior

The slump test based on ASTM No. C 143 [56] is applied to measure the concrete plastic viscosity and workability. The slump height is measured from the top of the cone to the top of the slump as in Figure 7. According to the code, the allowable slump height is between 25 and 160 mm.

Figure 7 Slump test.
Figure 7

Slump test.

Figure 8 Compressive strength tester.
Figure 8

Compressive strength tester.

7.2 Hardened test

  • Density test: The density of concrete is an important parameter as it affects the strength, durability, and other engineering properties of the material. The density is typically expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg m−3) or pounds per cubic foot (lb ft−3). To find the dry density, 84 samples – three samples for each concrete mix – were collected after the mixture had cured for 28 days. The density measurement was conducted in accordance with Specification No. C642 [57]. After being in the water and left in a basin for 28 days at room temperature (20–25°C), the samples were dried in an oven set at 110°C for 24 h. To determine the density, the average of three samples was used.

  • Compression test was conducted on specimens at 7, 28, 56, and 90 days. For each variable, three repetitive samples were tested. In total, there are 84 samples. The test was conducted according to ASTM C109 [58] using a compression machine of 2,000 kN capacity. The loading rate used is (3 MPa s−1). Figure 8 shows the compressive tester.

7.2.1 Splitting tensile strength test

Splitting tensile strength was tested by three specimens for one age at 7 and 28 days of curing on Ø 150 mm × 300 mm cylindrical according to ASTM C 496-97 [59]. The splitting tensile strength test has been carried out according to ASTM C496-2004, using an ELE machine at the rate of loading (2.1 MPa s−1). Figure 9 shows a splitting tensile strength tester.

Figure 9 Splitting tensile strength tester.
Figure 9

Splitting tensile strength tester.

7.2.2 Flexural strength

The flexural test of concrete is one of the tests that are no less important than the compression strength test, as most of the important joints of the concrete structure are directly or indirectly exposed to the bending load, so the designed concrete must be ensured that it has good flexure strength and according to the required strength. The bend is checked by pouring concrete with dimensions of 10 cm × 10 cm × 50 cm into iron molds and leaving it for 24 h, the iron mold is opened and immersed in water to be examined at the age of 7 days and the age of 28 days. The examination was conducted in accordance with Standard Specification No. C1161 [60]. Forty-two samples were examined, three samples for each concrete mix, at 28 days of age to verify flexural resistance. The load was applied at a rate of 0.9–1.2 MPa s−1. Figure 10 shows the flexural strength tester.

Figure 10 Flexural strength tester.
Figure 10

Flexural strength tester.

7.2.3 Microstructure test (field emission scanning electron microscope [FESEM])

FESEM is a test conducted to examine the microstructure of NS and on LWC with and without NS. The test examines the internal structure and characteristics of the concrete at a microscopic level. It provides insights into the composition, distribution, and connectivity of the various components within the concrete matrix. The examination was performed after reducing the image to a size of 50 nm. The research included taking seven samples, one for each mixture.

8 Fresh properties

The slump test gives indicators of the workability of LWC and an indirect indicator of compressive strength. Figure 11 shows the slump height of 7 mixes. The results showed a gradual decrease in the slump height as the NS content increased. The reason for this is due to the attraction of water molecules towards NS particles due to their large surface area, which led to the absorption of part of the water of the mixture due to the high interaction and limited surface area [31]. Consequently, the amount of free water needed to improve the fluidity of the mixture decreases. This problem was overcome by adding a superplasticizer to achieve appropriate fluidity.

Figure 11 Slump test results.
Figure 11

Slump test results.

Figure 11 shows the results decrease in the slump height after adding NS to the concrete mixture. The decrease in slump height was from 48 to 35 mm. The reason for this is due to the attraction of water molecules towards NS particles due to their large surface area, which led to the absorption of part of the water of the mixture due to the high interaction and limited surface area. Consequently, the amount of free water needed to improve the fluidity of the mixture decreases. This problem was overcome by adding doses of superplasticizer to achieve appropriate fluidity.

To facilitate the flow of concrete after adding NS doses to it, superplasticizers were used to enhance the dispersion properties of NS to help isolate cement particles to preserve the water of the mixture.

Figure 12 shows the clear difference in the height of the slump after adding a dose of superplasticizer. as it helped increase the workability and flow of the concrete between 150 and 315% by dispersing the cement particles and maintaining the water of the mixture.

Figure 12 Slump high after adding superplasticizer.
Figure 12

Slump high after adding superplasticizer.

9 Hardened properties

The second stage of concrete is the hardened concrete stage. This stage represents the most important part of this research, in which hardened samples of structural LWC are examined to demonstrate their mechanical and physical properties. The mechanical tests (compression, bending, tensile strength, and dry density) were carried out for hardened concrete.

9.1 Density test results

The results of using NS to reinforce LWC are displayed in Figure 13. After 7 and 28 days of water cure, the outcomes were assessed. The graphic clearly shows that the density of the concrete increases with an increase in the dose of NS. The fact that the increase was gradual is also evident. The use of NS in LWC has been shown to increase its density, which explains the variation in concrete density. Because of its small particle size, NS may pack particles more tightly, which can help fill the spaces between the lightweight aggregate particles. This allows for an increase in the LWC’s overall density. More efficiently, lightweight aggregate particles’ interstitial gaps can be filled by NS. This improved filling of voids can lead to a denser concrete matrix, thereby increasing the density of the LWC.

Figure 13 Results of oven dry density test (NS) 7 and 28 days.
Figure 13

Results of oven dry density test (NS) 7 and 28 days.

9.2 Compressive strength results

Adding NS has been shown in many tests to improve LWC’s compressive strength. Because of their high reactivity and vast surface area, NS particles facilitate the nucleation and production of more hydration products inside the cementitious matrix. Improved interparticle bonding and a decrease in pore size are the outcomes of this densification effect, which raises compressive strength [49].

Because NS has pozzolanic qualities, it can combine with CH, which is created when cement hydrates, to create new cementitious compounds. These molecules, which include calcium aluminate silicate hydrates (C–A–S–H) and calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H), form and help LWC gain strength. Compressive strength is increased as a result of the pozzolanic activity of NS, which also improves the cementitious matrix’s microstructure and general performance [39].

The samples were tested at 7, 28, 56, and 90 days. The results are shown in Figure 14 and the improvement in compressive strength compared with the reference in Table 8. It has been noted that adding NS to the mixture has an impact on the concrete’s compressive strength. The addition of an NS dosage after a week increased the compressive strength by 58–140%. Additionally, introducing NS improved compressive strength by a significant margin (55–140%). Depending on the degree of NS addition, there was very little improvement in CS after the curative age of 56 days, ranging from 1 to 17%. Reaching the age of the models to 90 days increased the improvement rate for all mixtures from 15 to 62% higher than that recorded at the age of 56 days. This is confirmed by previous studies that showed that the effect of NS is noticeable at later ages. This increase can be attributed to the interaction of nanomaterial with CH Ca(OH)2 crystals in the ITZ between the hardened cement paste and porcelanite aggregate, which creates packing of C–S–H gels and nanoparticles and dense microstructures. study proves that the compressive strength of LWC with NS is increased due to accelerated C–S–H gelation rather than Due to the increased amount of crystalline Ca(OH)2 early years.

Figure 14 Compressive strength results for mixes with nano-SiO2.
Figure 14

Compressive strength results for mixes with nano-SiO2.

Table 8

Improving compressive strength with different dose of nano

Mix % improving in compressive strength at 7 days % improving in compressive strength at 28 days % improving in compressive strength at 56 days Improving in compressive strength at 90 days
1% NS 58 55 1 19
3% NS 40 130 17 45
5% NS 65 84 4 62
10% NS 87 127 15 32
15% NS 32 115 9 15
20% NS 64 119 11 37

In conclusion, the compressive strength of LWC is improved by the addition of NS. Increased compressive strength is a result of the high reactivity of NS particles, their pozzolanic activity, the effects of particle packing, and the densification of the cementitious matrix. In LWC applications, optimizing the augmentation of compressive strength while preserving other desired attributes requires careful consideration of synergistic effects, dosage, and dispersion.

9.3 Splitting tensile strength results

When investigating the use of nanomaterials in concrete technology, it is crucial to take into account how NS affects the splitting tensile strength of LWC. This paper will explore how NS affects LWC’s splitting tensile strength and what it means for building applications.

According to studies [28,61,62], adding NS can improve LWC’s splitting tensile strength. Better interparticle bonding and a denser cementitious matrix result from the creation of extra hydration products, which are facilitated by the high reactivity and pozzolanic qualities of NS. The LWC’s tensile and crack resistance are improved by this improved microstructure, which raises the splitting tensile strength.

The inclusion of NS has increased the splitting tensile strength of the various concrete mixtures, as shown in Figure 15 and Table 9, which displays increases in splitting tensile strength of 75, 77, and 84% for the 1, 3, and 5% NS at 28 days, respectively. As the amount of nanoparticles in concrete increases, the enhanced degree of its splitting tensile strength diminishes. This could be because there are more nanoparticles in the mix than are needed to combine with the released lime during the hydration process. As a result, excess silica leaks out and causes a strength deficit because it replaces some of the cementitious material but adds nothing to it.

Figure 15 Splitting tensile strength results.
Figure 15

Splitting tensile strength results.

Table 9

Splitting tensile strength results

Mix % improvement of splitting tensile strength at 7 days % improvement of splitting tensile strength at 28 days
1% NS 0.70 77
3% NS 54 75
5% NS 0.93 84
10% NS 11 51
15% NS 35 55
20% NS 32 53

In conclusion, the splitting tensile strength of LWC is improved by the addition of NS. The increased tensile and crack resistance is a result of the high reactivity, pozzolanic qualities, better cohesiveness, and frictional resistance. In LWC applications, it is essential to maximize the splitting tensile strength enhancement while retaining other desired qualities. This involves optimum dosage, dispersion, and consideration of synergistic effects, particularly with fibers.

9.4 Flexural strength results

NS has been shown in several experiments to improve the flexural strength of LWC [30,63,64]. Because of their high reactivity and pozzolanic qualities, NS particles encourage the creation of more hydration products inside the cementitious matrix. Flexural strength is raised as a result of the densification action, which also strengthens the cementitious matrix and enhances interparticle bonding.

The flexural strength results are shown in Table 9. Similar to the tensile strength, the flexural strength of the specimens increases with NS up to 5% replacement and then it decreases, although the results of 10,15, and 20% replacement are still higher than those of the control mix. The improvement in bending resistance recorded an increase of 141, 140, 171, 115, 114, and 108% when replacing NS with 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, and 20%, respectively. Again, the increase in the flexural strength is due to the rapid consumption of Ca(OH)2 which was formed during the hydration of Portland cement especially at early ages related to the high reactivity of nanoparticles.

In conclusion, the flexural strength of LWC may be improved by adding NS. Overall flexural strength has improved because of the high reactivity, pozzolanic characteristics, enhanced bonding, load transmission, and crack resistance. When using LWC, it is important to take into account the synergistic effects of the dose, dispersion, and fibers in particular to maximize the augmentation of flexural strength while preserving other desired attributes (Figure 16, Table 10).

Figure 16 Flexural strength.
Figure 16

Flexural strength.

Table 10

Flexural strength results

Mix % improvement of flexural strength at 7 days % improvement of flexural strength at 28 days
1% NS 0.64 141
3% NS 68 140
5% NS 0.72 171
10% NS 0.57 115
15% NS 21 114
20% NS 47 108

9.5 Microstructure results

When investigating the integration of nanoparticles in concrete technology, it is crucial to take into account the impact of NS on the microstructure of LWC. The possible effects and ramifications of including NS on the microstructure of LWC will be covered in detail in this paper. NS particles have a high surface area and reactivity, which promotes the nucleation and formation of additional hydration products within the cementitious matrix of LWC. This densification effect leads to a more compact microstructure with reduced voids and improved interparticle bonding. The increased hydration product formation contributes to a denser and stronger cementitious matrix, enhancing the overall microstructure of LWC. The addition of NS in LWC can help reduce the porosity of the cementitious matrix. The high reactivity of NS particles contributes to the further hydration of cementitious materials, resulting in a more refined pore structure. The reduction in pore size and overall porosity enhances the connectivity of the hydration products, improving the strength and durability of the LWC microstructure. Because of their small size, NS particles can more easily disperse evenly throughout the cementitious matrix of LWC. Appropriate dispersion methods guarantee uniform dispersion of NS particles, resulting in improved microstructure uniformity. A more uniform distribution of hydration products is facilitated by enhanced homogeneity and dispersion, which creates a cohesive and well-connected microstructure.

Through the images shown below, the NS material improved the material’s density and the sample’s internal coherence. Figure 17(a) and (b) shows that incorporating NS into concrete improved the interfacial transition zone between cement and aggregate. The added NS was mainly filled in the ITZ of cement and sand and some capillaries in the matrix as ultrafine aggregates. As a result, the compressive strength of the concrete increases.

Figure 17 FESEM test results.
Figure 17

FESEM test results.

10 Conclusion

The use of nanomaterials to enhance the mechanical and physical properties of LWC has shown significant promise and potential. This conclusion is based on the following observations and findings:

  1. The slump flow test results show that the mixtures containing NS had lower slump flow than the reference mixture.

  2. As the age of the sample, their oven-dry densities decrease. However, when NS is added, their densities increase because the nanomaterial fills in voids due to its high surface area, acting like pozzolanic material and making the samples containing it denser.

  3. Compressive strength has increased in all mixtures when adding NS, but at 90 days, the greatest results (62%) were obtained by replacing a percentage of 5%.

  4. All mixtures containing NS showed a clear improvement, but the best improvement rate (313%) occurred when a dose of 5% was added at 28 days of treatment.

  5. The splitting tensile strength increases significantly when adding NS compared to the reference mixture without addition. Clearly, the highest splitting (84%) was obtained when replaced of NS percentage by 5% at the 28 days of curing.

  6. The results of the FESEM test showed that the concrete mixture’s microstructure had improved and that the interface between the light aggregate and the cement paste had grown needle-shaped growths, which strengthened the binding between the aggregate and the paste. In contrast to the control mixture, which displayed wide gaps, capillary pores, and a heterogeneous mixture, the results also demonstrated that the cement paste containing NS was less porous, had fewer gaps, and was homogeneous.

  7. The studies on hardened concrete revealed that 5% replacement of NS produced the best results.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges his gratitude to the University of Diyala, especially the Department of Civil Engineering, for providing the laboratories and equipment to complete experimental work.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results, and approved the final version of the manuscript. AN was involved in gathering information from previous studies related to the paper s topic, conducting the practical part, collecting results, analyzing them, and discussing them with the supervisiors; also followed all necessary procedures for preparing this paper, made all the required revisions requested by the supervisors, and participated in all discussions with other supervisors. FNABAA was involved in planning, performing the analysis, drafting the manuscript, designing the figures, and supervising the work. SBAR and MZBM processed the experimental data and discussed the results. AMI aided in interpreting the results of the Machine learning in the manuscript and supervised all experimental work. All authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analyzed in this study are in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2024-02-22
Revised: 2024-04-12
Accepted: 2024-04-21
Published Online: 2024-07-06

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
  7. Influence of unsupported sleepers on flange climb derailment of two freight wagons
  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
  13. Adaptive multidimensional trust-based recommendation model for peer to peer applications
  14. Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam
  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
  16. Advanced vibrant controller results of an energetic framework structure
  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
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  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
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  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
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  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
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  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
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  56. Restrained captive domination number
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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2024-0034
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
compressive strength; flexural strength; splitting tensile strength; porcelanite lightweight aggregate; structural lightweight concrete
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
  7. Influence of unsupported sleepers on flange climb derailment of two freight wagons
  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
  13. Adaptive multidimensional trust-based recommendation model for peer to peer applications
  14. Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam
  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
  16. Advanced vibrant controller results of an energetic framework structure
  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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Heruntergeladen am 18.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/eng-2024-0034/html
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