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Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review

  • Arkalgud Nagendran Shankar and Prasanta Mandal EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: June 27, 2024
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

We report a brief review on the recent developments on smart cement nanocomposites. Cement nanocomposites containing functional nanomaterials are important class of materials for the development of sustainable civil infrastructures. Smart properties can be achieved by adding various nanomaterials, such as, titanium oxide (TiO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), graphene, graphene oxide (GO), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibres (CNFs), and polymers at low weight percent (wt%) to cement. However, optimization and understanding of underlying physical and chemical mechanisms are necessary for further developments. Although, there exist huge research articles, and some reviews dealing with specific aspect over the last 10–15 years, a systematic review is necessary, encompassing both the aspects of mechanical properties as well as smart properties. In the present review, we focus on the effect of addition of functional nanomaterials to achieve smart properties maintaining basic mechanical strength at the desired level. Our review shows that addition of TiO2, SiO2, Fe2O3, CNTs, or GO in the range of <5 wt% improves mechanical strength by ∼30–50% or more due to improvement in the filling of pores, bridging of gaps, and prevention of cracks. Addition of functional nanomaterials show higher photocatalytic dye degradation (∼90% dye pollutant is degraded within first 1 h), higher inhibition zone of microbial growth (due to the addition of 1 wt% (or less) TiO2, silver, copper oxide, or zinc oxide nanoparticles). Furthermore, addition of functional nanomaterials also show improvement in the impermeability, shrinkage, hydrophobicity, thermal/electrical conductivity, and piezo electricity to a significant level.

Keywords: review on smart cement nanocomposites; mechanical properties; photocatalytic, antimicrobial and hydrophobic properties; corrosion resistance and piezoelectric properties

1 Introduction

Smart cement nanocomposites are important class of materials useful for long run sustainable developments [1,2,3,4,5,6]. They display not only smart properties but retain their basic mechanical strength intact. Hence, they can simultaneously be applied for civil construction as well as for cleaner production. Various smart properties are being explored in this regard, especially, photocatalytic dye degradation, air/water pollution control, hydrophobic surface, and antimicrobial activities. Piezoelectric sensing, thermal and electrical conductivities, preventing chemical attack, or corrosion resistance have also been explored. To prepare smart cement nanocomposites, Portland cement (PC) is used as the basic ingredient. Various functional nanomaterials are being added to achieve improved mechanical properties and smart properties. A variety of PCs are existing depending upon applications, as shown in Figure 1. For example, rapid hardening cement for high strength and high shrinkage of cracks; high alumina content to withstand high temperature; slag cement for good workability and resistance against chloride ions; sulphate resistance cement; low heat PC for high strength, durability, and corrosion resistance; and pozzolanic cement for high strength, less shrinkage, and less permeation. In all the cases, various additives are responsible. Presence of nanomaterials in the cement composites not only enhance mechanical properties but also bring smart properties. They accelerate basic cement hydration and formation of calcium–silicate–hydrate (C–S–H) gel leading to improved mechanical strength. At the same time, depending upon the type of additives, specific smart property may appear. Usually, various metal oxides, metal nanoparticles, carbon nanomaterials, and polymers are added to ordinary portland cement (OPC) to modify mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. One of the key aspects of improving mechanical strength is to prevent cracks in the cement paste or concrete. Cracks may appear due to brittle nature of cement composites which may affect durability (Figure 2). Porous nature may also cause damage. Thus, maintenance is required to keep buildings, walls, bridges, etc., at the safe level. Addition of functional nanomaterials may prevent the generation of microcracks, cracks propagation, and further damage. Nevertheless, due to large active surface area compared to micro and macro particles, better filling of pores is possible that may lead to stronger binding with surrounding cement constituents. Microfibres and macrofibres (large) also play a vital role, especially, in preventing microcracks and subsequent formation of macrocracks and their propagation through the bridging action (Figure 2a [7,8]). Thus, the size of cement particles and additives play crucial role for cement strengthening. Figure 2b shows a plot of surface area of various particles useful in construction industry [9]. It shows high surface area associated with nanoparticles that are useful for the preparation of high strength cement composites. Different types of additive nanomaterials are identified, such as, oxides that include titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), silicon dioxide (SiO2), zirconium oxide (ZrO2); carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibres (CNFs), graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (RGO); and polymers (polymethylmethacrylate; PMMA and polyvinyl alcohol; PVA) [10,11]. In the past 10–15 years, researchers across the globe have put tremendous research efforts to fabricate novel cement composites that contain various functional nanomaterials. Figure 3 reflects the research strength, year wise, in terms of published articles. Figure 3 is plotted using the data as obtained with the help of Google Scholar search engine. Appropriate “string” is used for literature research as mentioned in the legend (with no further filtration). As evident from the figure, research interest is continuously growing over the years.

Figure 1 Different types of PCs that have different application purposes.
Figure 1

Different types of PCs that have different application purposes.

Figure 2 Relation between load and crack developed in the sample (a), and relative size of material used in construction industry (b). Figures are reproduced with permission from [7] for (a), and [9] for (b).
Figure 2

Relation between load and crack developed in the sample (a), and relative size of material used in construction industry (b). Figures are reproduced with permission from [7] for (a), and [9] for (b).

Figure 3 Year wise number of articles published on the topics as mentioned in the legend.
Figure 3

Year wise number of articles published on the topics as mentioned in the legend.

Till date, majority of the research reports focus on the simultaneous occurrence of improved mechanical properties and smart properties. To achieve smart properties, of course, basic mechanical strength must not be compromised to a large extent. It is, therefore, very important to understand the cement hydration process and improvement in mechanical strength due to the addition of functional nanomaterials. On the other hand, optimization and deeper understanding are required too to achieve specific smart property retaining basic mechanical strength intact. Hence, a systematic review dealing with both these aspects is believed to be helpful for further developments. In view of the existing reviews. which have mainly focused discussions on the specific concerns of cement nanocomposites, the present report encompasses broader aspects of cement nanocomposites containing oxides, graphene and its derivative, carbon nanomaterials, and polymers. Two main aspects are being considered: (a) basic mechanical properties (compressive and flexural strength) and (b) smart properties (especially, photocatalytic dye degradation, antimicrobial activity, hydrophobicity, and piezoelectric property). Reports available in the last 10–15 years are analysed. As in Figure 4, a methodology is followed to look at cement-based oxide nanocomposites, cement-based GO nanocomposites, cement-based carbon nanocomposites, and cement-based polymer nanocomposites. Literature reports are analysed in view of mechanical properties and smart properties. In brief, after introducing relevant cement basics in Section 2, we have introduced discussion on the mechanical properties of cement nanocomposites containing functional nanomaterials in Section 3. Effect of addition of various functional nanomaterials, such as oxides, graphene and its derivative, carbon nanomaterials, and polymers on the mechanical strength of the cement nanocomposites is discussed. In Section 4, smart properties, especially, photocatalytic dye degradation, antimicrobial activity, hydrophobicity are discussed. Smart properties, types of functional nanomaterials, dosages, and attainment level are summarized in Table 1. At the end, challenges and future scopes are outlined in Section 5.

Figure 4 Flowchart of the research work conducted for the present review article.
Figure 4

Flowchart of the research work conducted for the present review article.

Table 1

Cement nanocomposites, smart functionalities, additives and their dosages, and level of improvement

Cementitious composites Specific purpose addressed Level of improvement Ref.
Graphene/TiO2 nanocomposites coating on cement mortar Photocatalytic self-cleaning and air purification abilities (RhB discoloration and NO removal under visible light) with good regeneration performance The performance is compared among (a) pure cement mortar, (b) cement mortar coated with TiO2, and (c) cement mortar coated with TiO2/graphene. The 2D planar conjugated π-structure of graphene favours adsorption of target pollutants due to higher specific surface area. This results in more effectiveness of TiO2/graphene in the composite [80]
Nano-TiO2 cement concrete, Nano-TiO2 is used by internal doping method (IDM) and spraying method (SPM) Photocatalytic degradation efficiency tested for methyl orange (MO) Nano-TiO2 may be used by both the methods (for better photocatalytic performance) that may depend on the type of application: IDM for pavement materials, and SPM for wall building materials [81]
Cement composites containing Fe2O3, TiO2, and copper (Cu) nanoparticles Photocatalytic dye degradation (of Rhodamine-6G) Enhanced dye-degradation is observed. Highest degradation rate of about 2.5 times faster (OPC containing Fe2O3) compared to control sample is observed [82]
Photocatalytic additive (TiO2) is added to mortars (aerial lime, cement, and gypsum binders) To study degradation rate of common urban pollutant, NOx 1% of TiO2 addition results in reasonable degradation rate of NOx without losing mechanical strength [83]
Anatase-type TiO2/cement mortar system for dye degradation Photocatalytic activity: dye (methylene blue: MB) degradation under UV irradiation TiO2-mortar cementitious materials show photocatalytic activities without damaging of mechanical properties. Highest MB degradation of ∼76.6% happens in 4.5 h with 1% TiO2. Other concentration is less effective. [84]
TiO2-cement mortar cementitious materials Photocatalytic activity: NOX removal Addition of TiO2 shows photocatalytic activity without significant change in flexural and the compressive strength of the modified cements [85]
Cement mortar containing Ag-TiO2 photocatalysts Photocatalytic dye degradation under ultra violet (UV) and visible light Dye degradation rate:

  1. For MO, it is 95.5% at 30 min under UV light

  2. For MB, it is 69.8% at 40 min under visible light

 [86]
Cu-TiO2/SiO2 photocatalyst coating on concrete-based building materials Self-cleaning and air de-pollution performance Addition of Cu to TiO2 photocatalyst up to ∼5% promotes photocatalytic activity [87]
Self-cleaning and air pollution reduction are tested on MB, NO, etc. 95% MB degradation occurs within 60 min. Photocatalytic activity decreases for Cu doping beyond 5% may be due to defect states (trap states)
CdS/TiO2-cement-nanocomposite catalyst Photocatalytic dye degradation Under UV light, TiO2–cement composites result in better dye degradation, whereas CdS–TiO2–cement composite is more efficient under visible light [88]
Nitrogen and carbon co-modified TiO2 photocatalyst in cement pastes for photocatalytic activity Self-cleaning/dye degradation upon UV-Vis light exposure Modified TiO2 shows better photocatalytic efficiency than unmodified TiO2 [89]
Visible-light-driven photocatalytic cement samples containing BiOBr precursor for RhB degradation and NOx removal Photocatalytic property on RhB degradation and NOx removal under visible light irradiation BiOBr precursor in cement matrix shows better photocatalytic activity compared to control sample [90]
ZnO or ZnO–SiO2 and lignin-cement composites Prevention or slower bacterial growth (antimicrobial study) ZnO-enriched systems show high antimicrobial resistance, ZnO–SiO2 shows deterioration of the antimicrobial effect, with lignin showed lower growth than other systems [91]
Silica-titania (SiO2/TiO2) core-shell nanostructures-cement mortar Self-cleaning, bactericidal, and photocatalytic properties It acts as filler, self-cleaning and bactericidal properties under UV exposure are also observed [92]
Antimicrobial activity of aluminium oxide (Al2O3), copper oxide (CuO), ferrosoferric oxide (Fe3O4), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles in cement-based building materials Antimicrobial properties Proper mixing of metal oxide nanoparticles in cement nanocomposite is important in observing antimicrobial response. Unproper dispersion may not be effective. Furthermore, even antimicrobial response of different strains from same species may be different. [93]
PMMA based cement composites: Addition of silver nanowires for antibacterial activity To enhance antibacterial activity Silver nanowires (1 wt%) will enhance antibacterial activity against aureus [94]
Inhibition ability of growth of bacteria and fungi due to the presence of copper (II) oxide, zinc oxide, and titanium (IV) oxides in the cementitious material (cement mortars) Inhibition ability of growth of bacteria (E. coli or P. aeruginosa, etc.) and fungi (C. albicans) 0.1% ZnO, 0.5% CuO, and 1% TiO2 can be used separately for inhibition of growth of bacteria and fungi with highest inhibition with CuO. The dispersion is an important factor that may affect the workability and strength. This may even affect antimicrobial activity. [96]
ZnO nano-needles in white cement for photocatalytic, hydrophobic, and antimicrobial property Enhanced photocatalytic, hydrophobic, and antimicrobial property ZnO nano-needles in white cement show significant improvement in the photocatalytic, antimicrobial activity [97]
Cement-based composites containing PZT particles: Influence of water-to-cement ratio on piezoelectric properties Piezoelectric properties Piezoelectric cement (containing 30–70% PZT) with a favourable water to cement ratio (w/c: 0–20%) can improve its piezoelectric properties [98]
Cement-based piezoelectric composites Piezoelectric and dielectric properties Properties depend on the interfacial microstructure between the matrix and the piezoelectric insertion [99]
Piezoresistive properties of cement mortar doped with GNPs Piezoresistive properties For optimal piezoresistivity, GNP may be used in the range of 0.05–0.1% [100]
Nanoclay and graphite in cement (0–1 wt% of cement) composite for the reduction of shrinkage Reduction in shrinkage Plastic shrinkage reduction by ∼70% is achieved (independent of nanomaterial type) [101]
CNTs-cement mortars Shrinkage and bridging effects About 0.05–0.1% of CNTs mixing reduces early stage shrinkage by ∼62%. This may be due to the reduction in capillary stresses by filler and nucleation effect of smaller diameter CNTs decreasing fine pores between the hydration products [102]
Cement mortar and concrete are prepared with distilled and electrolyzed water (30 min) Corrosion resistance study (sodium sulphate: Na2SO4, sodium chloride: NaCl, and a combined mixture of Na2SO4 and NaCl solution) The cement mortars and concretes prepared with electrolyzed water show less attack [103]
Effect of nano-TiO2 on the microstructural and corrosion resistance properties of cementitious composites Corrosion resistance properties under different exposure of tap water, saline water, acidic solution Corrosion inhibition efficiency is good up to 5 wt% of nano-TiO2 for all the environments (tap water, saline water, acidic solution) [104]
Nano titanium dioxide (nTiO2) in EGA (expanded glass aggregates)-mortar To enhance the mechanical properties and water resistance of cement mortar Nano TiO2 improves mechanical properties and water resistance ability [105]
RGO in cement mortar Enhancing thermal properties of cement mortar by incorporating RGO 1.2 wt% RGO doping enhances thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity coefficient by 7.8 and 29%, respectively [106]
RGO in cement composite Improving electric conductivity and electric shielding property RGO in cement composite improves electric conductivity and electric shielding property by 23 and 45%, respectively [107]
Waste iron oxide concentrate (IOC) is added to cement mortar Thermal conductivity Addition of waste IOC (30%) to cement mortar increases thermal conductivity by about 25% [108]
Addition of nanosilica into cementitious material Thermal stability Considerable enhancement of thermal stability due to addition of nanosilica (5 wt%). Sample that does not contain nanosilica shows more damage at elevated temperature. Reduction in CH due to the pozzolanic activity of nanosilica seems to be the primary reason for minimum damage and higher stability. [109]
Ionic paraffin emulsions in cement nanocomposite To improve hydrophobicity Addition of 4.0% non-ionic paraffin emulsion in cement mortar exhibits outstanding hydrophobicity compared to anionic and cationic paraffin emulsions [110]
Different hydrophobic agents (stearic acid, DryCit, rapeseed oil) in cement composites (1–2 wt%) To improve internal hydrophobicity Water resistance in the pore protection factor test increases between 21 and 33% [111]
Silane-based nontoxic hydrophobic agent along with waste tire rubber in integrally hydrophobic self-compacting rubberized mortar (HSCRM) Hydrophobicity Decrease in water absorption and increase in corrosion resistance due to better hydrophobicity [112]
Amorphous carbon powder (ACP) in cement paste Hydrophobicity and electrical properties Addition of 15% ACP by weight reduces water absorption and electrical conductivity of cement paste by 23 and 65%, respectively [113]
Tyre rubber addition to cementitious material (cement paste) Improving hydrophobicity Smaller grain size results in better hydrophobic characteristics [114]
Addition of crumb rubber cement paste Improving hydrophobicity to reduce water penetration Rubberized cement paste shows reduced water penetration due to improved hydrophobicity of paste treated with crumb-rubber [115]
Multifunctional cementitious composites containing GNP and silicone hydrophobic powder (SHP) Piezoresistivity and hydrophobic behaviour Addition of SHP (2%) shows better reduction (∼15 times) of water absorption. Along with isolation effect of GNP, the SHP powder helps in improving hydrophobicity in the specimen surface and other places such as pores and cracks. This effect reduces water absorption and helps in achieving stable piezoresistivity. [116]

2 Important basics of cement

2.1 Cement compositions

The most common type of cement in the hydraulic cement category used for construction purpose is PC which is made of various silicates and oxides. When clinker minerals and water are mixed together the hydration process results in the hardening of the mixture.

Clinker phases are:

Alite (C3S): 3CaO SiO2, Belite (C2S): 2CaO SiO2

Tri-calcium Aluminate (Celite C3A): 3CaO Al2O3

Brownmillerite (Felite C4AF): 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3

Limestone (CaCO3) is burnt to produce CaO. This process releases CO2 (main source of carbon dioxide emission during calcination). CaO then reacts with SiO2, Al2O3 to produce 2CaO SiO2/3CaO SiO2 and 3CaO Al2O3, respectively, and with Al2O3 and Fe2O3 to form 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3

CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 ,

2 CaO + SiO 2 → 2 CaO SiO 2 ( or Ca 2 SiO 4 ) ,

3 CaO + SiO 2 → 3 CaO SiO 2 ( or Ca 3 SiO 5 ) ,

4 CaO + Al 2 O 3 + Fe 2 O 3 → 4 CaO Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 .

The typical composition of PC [12] is

CaO : ∼ 65 % , SiO 2 : ∼ 20 % , Al 2 O 3 : ∼ 5 % , Fe 2 O 3 : ∼ 3 %

along with some other compounds of minor quantity (such as MgO, SO3, CaSO4, etc.).

2.2 Cement dispersion

Cement dispersion plays a crucial role on initial cement hydration and microstructural properties. Water content to total available surface area of cement paste, mortar, or concrete influences heat evolution and packing [13]. Well dispersion of additives is essential to achieve better workability of cement paste, mortar or concrete, and reliable mechanical strength. Cement paste strength predominately varies depending upon w/c ratio of workable mix. It reduces as ratio increases as shown in the Figure 5 typically at 7 days of curing [14]. There are various models proposed in calculating the strength of cement mix [15,16,17,18]. Elaborate discussion is beyond the scope of present review. However, it is noteworthy that simplistic models are given earlier by Feret [15] and Abrams [16]. Subsequent improvements and/or discussions, and various other models can be found in previous studies [17,18]. Interested readers are referred to these studies.

Figure 5 Influence of water to cement ratio on the compressive strength of cement mix typically at a curing of 7 days.
Figure 5

Influence of water to cement ratio on the compressive strength of cement mix typically at a curing of 7 days.

2.3 Cement hydration and setting time

Cement hydration is exothermic chemical reaction that takes place between cement and water when mixed together. Various parameters such as water-cement ratio, casting temperature, and presence of C3A and C3S influence the overall hydration of cement. Furthermore, cement hydration also gets influenced by micro/nanostructures and fineness of mixed components. Reaction of C3A, C2S, and C3S with water results in hydrated calcium aluminate, hydrated calcium silicate, and hydrated calcium silicate along with CH (i.e., Ca(OH)2), respectively. Addition of water to cement results in initiation of cement hardening. This is an important process where optimum setting time is expected, as, too slow or quick may create problem of mixing, transportation, and placing the cement mixture at the working places. Usually, 30 mins to about 10 h is considered to be ideal [14]. Setting time gets influenced by w/c ratio, admixtures, and fineness of cement. A detailed discussion on the cement hydration using predictive models based on the dissolution and water diffusion theory can be found elsewhere [19]. These models can predict accurate cement hydration and concrete’s performance evolution.

2.4 C–S–H gel formation in cement paste

Nanoscale building block of cement binder is C–S–H cohesive gel with no fixed composition and structure. Its formation starts when alite ((C3S): 3CaO SiO2) or belite ((C2S): 2CaO SiO2) reacts with water (chemical reactions are as follows: 2C3S + 6H2O → 3CaO·2SiO2·3H2O + 3CH + heat energy (high), and 2C2S + 4H2O → 3CaO·2SiO2·3H2O + CH + heat energy (low)) during the cement hydration process [20,21,22,23]. It is known that C3S hydration is faster, and is responsible for early stage cement strength (within first 7 days) while C2S reacts with water slowly, and results in latter stage (after 7–14 days) cement strength. Mechanism of C–S–H gel formation leading to cement setting is not straight forward which needs further study. Due to large surface area, cement hydration rate may get accelerated by the presence of C–S–H with increased precipitation in the capillary pores. Cement hydration and gel phase formation can be studied using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies [24,25] to understand structural and chemical changes that occur during hydration process.

2.5 Consistency of cement paste

Cement consistency is useful to work with cement paste. It is the ability of cement paste to flow, and defined as the quantity of water required to make the cement paste of normal consistency. Vicat apparatus is used to test the cement paste consistency. Typically, 24% (wt%) water (or, if required, it may be varied from 26 to 33%) is added to 500 g of cement and mixed. Then, plunger is gently released to obtain depth of penetration within 5–7 mm from the bottom [14].

2.6 Compressive strength

Compressive strength is the signature of cement strength defined by the ratio, f c = F/A, where F = maximum force applied to the specimen before break, and A = area on which the force is applied. It is the capacity of a given material to withstand loads against compression or reducing size of the specimen. Compressive strength is measured using standard sample size (for example: mould of dimension 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm can be considered for testing [14]. Test samples are cured at 3, 7, 14, 28, and 56 days. After normal drying (at ambient temperature) the sample cubes are tested for compressive strength using compressive testing machine.

2.7 Flexural strength

Ability of a material to withstand bending action due to applied load is termed as flexural strength. It is also termed as modulus of rupture. Flexural strength is a measure of tensile strength indirectly. It can be measured from a three-point loading and centre-point loading test. Flexural strength is measured using standard sample size (for example: mould of dimension 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm, IS 516:1959 [14]) cured for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days.

3 Cement nanocomposites containing functional nanomaterials: mechanical properties

Improvement in the mechanical strength (compressive strength and flexural strength) due to the addition of various functional nanomaterials, such as oxides, carbon nanomaterials, and polymers is a result of acceleration in cement hydration and formation of C–S–H gel, reduction in pores, and controlling in cracks and cracks propagation. While addition of TiO2, SiO2, and Fe2O3 nanoparticles (usually, at <5 wt%) shows improvement in the compressive and flexural strength due to effective pore filling and cracks reduction [26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36], the addition of GO/RGO and CNTs (<1 wt%) results in even higher compressive and flexural strength (>100%) due to accelerated cement hydration, bridging action, and controlling of cracks and cracks propagation [37,38,39,40,41,42]. On the other hand, to achieve specific properties, such as corrosion resistance and reduce permeation, polymers are added [43,44]. Mechanical properties of cement composites containing various functional nanomaterials are discussed in Sections 3.1–3.3 systematically.

3.1 Cement nanocomposites containing TiO2, SiO2, Fe2O3, and ZrO2

Incorporation of oxide nanoparticles, especially, TiO2, SiO2, Fe2O3, and ZrO2 into cement host improves compressive strength and flexural strength. This is due to accelerated cement hydration and subsequent C–S–H gel formation. It is usually safe to add non-toxic oxides to improve mechanical strength. For example, SiO2 being one of the constituents of cement is added further to improve the mechanical strength of PC. Rong et al. [31] reported the reduction in pores and pore diameter, and showed ∼50% increase in compressive strength and flexural strength by adding up to 3 wt% nano SiO2. Liu et al. [32] showed ∼106% increase in compressive strength and ∼67% increase in flexural strength due to the addition of nano SiO2 up to 4 wt%. The addition of nano SiO2 results in porosity reduction and pore refinement. Recently, flexural and compressive strength enhancement was reported by Ng et al. [45]. They used nano-sized TiO2, SiO2, and Fe2O3 in cement mortar and showed improvement in the compressive strength in the range of 38–35%. Feng et al. [46] showed how nano-TiO2 in cement reduces microcracks and surface roughness using atomic force microscopy. Acceleration in pozzolanic reactions improves microstructures of concrete. In this view, process of C–S–H gel formation plays major role in strengthening concrete [47]. Pozzolanic reaction, cement hydration, and subsequent C–S–H gel phase formation to be critically looked at for further development of smart cement composites. In the recent past, Han et al. [48] reported enhanced tensile and flexural strength of cement mortar, where accelerated chemical process of C–S–H formation was thought to be responsible for enhanced mechanical strength. Effect of nano-TiO2 on hydration and shrinkage was studied by Zhang et al. [49]. They showed enhanced compressive strength and pore refining and shrinkage. Phase of TiO2 may play an important role in improving the fatigue and flexural strength of cement composites [50,51]. Akono et al. [26] investigated the effect of nano-TiO2 on C–S–H phase distribution within PC paste and showed increase in compressive strength by 12%. They have also shown ∼30% reduction in cracks and ∼22% improvement in the filling of pores and microstructure. Han et al. [30] studied nano silica coated TiO2 in reactive powder concrete and showed filler action C–S–H gel formation due to pozzolanic action causing ∼87% increase in flexural strength and ∼12% increase in compressive strength. They also reported better inhibition of cracks.

Hematite (Fe2O3) nanoparticles may be considered as highly effective in improving mechanical strength due to their structural stability and possibility of physico-chemical binding and accelerating pozzolanic reaction at early stage [45,52,53]. On the surface of these nanoparticles, C–S–H gel may grow which may further act as nucleation sites for C–S–H, leading to the formation of more compact structure with reduced pores [45]. For example, Abdulabbas et al. [34] showed that addition of up to 5 wt% Fe2O3 causes improvement in the microstructures and ∼75% increase in compressive strength and ∼60% increase in flexural strength. Li et al. [52] showed experimentally that incorporating Fe2O3 and SiO2 in to cement host increases compressive and flexural strength of cement mortar which could be due to the reduction in the number of pores or filling of pores by the added oxide nanoparticles. C–S–H growth is responsible for the increased compressive strength and flexural strength as reported by Kiamahalleh et al. [53]. It was noted that optimum wt% of nanoparticles within the cement plays decisive role in enhancing mechanical strength and microstructural properties. It was also reported that reduction in micro-cracks results in improved bonding and hence mechanical strength. Optimum dose of Fe2O3 was found to be ∼2.5 wt% in the cement mortar, showing influential effect of preventing the formation of microcracks and their propagation [53]. Furthermore, its presence is effective too in improving water molecules accessibility to the cement C–S–H and oxygen groups of Fe2O3 during cement hydration [53]. Among other oxides, effect of nano-sized ZrO2 on PC was studied by Trejo-Arroyo et al. [54]. They reported that mortar with ZrO2 nanoparticles showed enhanced microstructural properties with high degree of compaction and increased compressive strength by ∼9%. The presence of ZrO2 nanoparticles inhibited growth of large Ca(OH)2 crystals too.

3.2 Cement nanocomposites containing GO/RGO and carbon nanomaterials

Cement nanocomposites containing graphene and GO have drawn significant research interests due to exotic properties of graphene. For example, it has excellent conductivity of heat and electricity, high Young’s modulus of 1 TPa, and intrinsic strength of 130 GPa [55]. Only about 1 wt% of graphene addition to cement may be sufficient to improve mechanical strength and other smart properties. Wang et al. [39] incorporated about 0.05 wt% GO in cement paste and showed ∼90% increase in flexural strength and ∼40% increase in compressive strength. Addition of GO promotes cement hydration and decreases pore volume. Yang et al. [56] reported huge improvement in the compressive strength (∼40%) when they added only 0.2 wt% of graphene to cement even within the aging of 3 days and 7 days. A significant improvement in the compressive strength was observed too by Cao et al. [57] by adding graphene nano-sheets in to cement. Babak et al. [58] reported increase in tensile strength by the use of 0.1–2 wt% GO along with 0.5 wt% super plasticizer. The presence of GO in composite reduces the growth of crack in cement mortar [59] and influences pore structures of concrete [60]. Recently, cement composite containing functionalized GO was studied by Wang et al. [61]. Graphene oxide was functionalized with 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane and amorphous SiO2 to protect GO basal plane from alkaline environment and participate in cement hydration process. With the incorporation of 0.15 wt% functionalized GO (FGO) in the cement they saw a huge increase in flexural (∼49%) strength and compressive strength (∼35%). This could be due to the improvement in the bonding between the nanoparticles and cement. FGO may be considered as a future potential candidate for cement industry. There are a few recent articles that show some studies on piezoelectric properties, thermal conductivity of concrete-GO/RGO, and multi-functionalities of cement-multilayered graphene. For example, Rehman et al. [62] prepared graphene nanoplates (GNPs) cement composites and showed ∼30% increase in load carrying capacity. At maximum compressive load, electrical resistivity drops by 42%. Recently, Zhang et al. [63] developed a novel self-sensing cement composite using RGO in cement. They saw improvement in the compressive strength (by ∼29%), flexural strength (by ∼49%), and electrical conductivity (by ∼23%). A report by Sun et al. [64] on cement composite containing multi-layer graphene showed ∼54% increase in compressive strength, 1.6 time higher shielding effectiveness, and ∼7 times stronger absorption performance compared to composite without multi-layer graphene.

Carbon nanomaterials such as single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) too have strong influence on the mechanical, structural, and optical properties (such as photocatalytic dye degradation) of cement composites. These are considered as next generation promising high performance materials for cement industry. Incorporation of short carbon fibres into cement reduces porosity, increases stiffness of the materials (C–S–H gel), and mechanical strength [65]. A very high increase in compressive strength of cement mortar up to 154 and 217% is reported by Yazdani and Mohanam [66] when they just incorporated only 0.1–0.2% CNTs and CNFs. In fact, carbon fibres help in arresting cracks and can show better load transfer mechanism [67]. Carbon fibres with strong interfacial formation can bridge cracks and improve surface quality by reducing pores, resulting in better bonding and C–S–H cement hydration. Addition of CNTs (0.5% CNT) along with SiO2 (20%) increases compressive strength of cement mortar [68]. When CNT fibres and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are used in the composite, an increase in the flexural strength is seen, as reported by Metaxa et al. [69]. On the other hand, CNTs (SWCNTs and MWCNTs) in cement mortar also show considerable improvement in the compressive and flexural strength [70,71,72,73,74]. When MWCNTs and CNFs are added together to cement mortars, a significant enhancement in the flexural strength (∼106%) is seen, as reported by Gdoutos et al. [70]. Uniform dispersion of carbon nanomaterials is necessary for improving mechanical strength. Effective dispersion can be made by functionalizing carbon nanomaterials with hydrophilic functional group such as COOH. Cement mortars containing COOH functionalized MWCNTs are studied by Sarvandani et al. [71]. Various amounts of MWCNTs (0.05–0.4% by weight) are added to cement mortars, and compressive and flexural strengths are studied at different environmental conditions. They have seen an increase in flexural strength which is a result of better bridging action. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that filler action may refine pores, improve mechanical and microstructure properties, and inhibit cracks by better bridging actions with accelerated cement hydration and formation of C–S–H [72,74].

3.3 Cement nanocomposites containing polymers

To protect infrastructures from chemical attack or environmental damage, cement composites containing polymer/epoxy may suitably be applied [75,76,77,78,79]. However, it needs to be ensured that polymer containing cement composites maintain required level of mechanical strength (optimum dosage of polymer is crucial for enhancement). A study by Imtiaz et al. [75] has shown that flexural strength of polymer impregnated concrete (PIC) is higher than OPC. Another report by Eskander et al. [77] has shown how cement-polymer composite (recycled polystyrene foam waste in cement) may be considered as effective for corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistive polymer (fibre-reinforced polymer sheets) modified concrete is reported recently by Tu et al. [78] showing significant improvement in the resistance to chloride ion attack. Rustum and Eweed [79] have studied cement mortar containing 1–9 wt% of PMMA. They have found enhanced flexural and compressive strength with best enhancement at ∼5 wt% of PMMA. The enhancement is attributed to the possible coordinate bonds between C═O groups of PMMA and cement ions. Chen et al. [76] have shown better controlling of pores due to polymer loading. Polymer–cement nanocomposite may provide better strength and durability due to improved pore structure. Liu et al. [43] have studied the polymer-modified concrete (polymer modifier: styrene-butadiene rubber latex, polyacrylic ester emulsion, and organic silicon waterproof agent) and have shown improvement in pore structure and compactness. They have also shown improvement in the resistance to chloride ion penetration.

4 Smart properties of cement nanocomposites

Cement nanocomposites with smart properties are of recent interests due to the potential applications in self-cleaning and photocatalytic activities [80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90], antimicrobial activities [91,92,93,94,95,96,97], piezoelectric (lead zirconate titanate: PZT) smart properties [98,99,100], corrosion and shrinkage [101,102,103,104], mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties [105,106,107,108,109], and hydrophobic coatings [110,111,112,113,114,115,116]. This smart sensing has now been possible due to technological developments and discovery of novel functional nanomaterials. Smart materials show unique signature property in response to the external excitations. Primarily, the addition of nano-sized materials to OPC would not only improve the basic mechanical strength of the cementitious materials but also exhibit certain smart properties. In the present review, photocatalytic activity and dye degradation, self-cleaning, and antimicrobial properties are specifically discussed for composites containing oxide materials such as TiO2, Fe2O3, SiO2, CuO, ZnO, Al2O3, and CdS as main additives (they are potential photocatalysts and antimicrobial agents). For example, Chen et al. [117], in a recent review, presented details of photocatalytic aspects of cement-based materials. Photocatalytic activity of cement-based materials containing high band gap oxides may be enhanced by co-addition of two different nanomaterials. High band gap materials are less effective for visible light absorption. Hence, for visible light driven (SUN as natural source) photocatalysis, lower band gap materials may be suitable. However, one needs to look at the aspects of electron-hole recombination (less recombination is preferred) too. Therefore, proper selection is necessary during the preparation of cement nanocomposites. For example, hybrid copper dozed zinc oxide (Cu-ZnO) is added in cement mortar along with graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) by Liu et al. [118] to show higher efficiency and stability of photocatalytic activity. The composite is effective for visible light. Combination of GO and TiO2 in cement composites shows highly enhanced photocatalytic dye degradation (94%) compared to composite containing TiO2 only [119]. Furthermore, they are highly effective for inhibiting microbial growth. GO is reported to be effective for antimicrobial activity [120]. Therefore, cement composite containing GO may be considered as potential candidate for photocatalytic activity (due to higher absorbance of light) as well as antimicrobial activity (effective oxidation of biomolecules) [121]. Due to the presence of oxygen containing groups (carboxylic acid (–COOH), hydroxyl (–OH), and epoxy (–COC–)) uniform dispersion is possible that may result in higher mechanical strength at the same time. Other carbon nanomaterials, cement composites containing carbon nanomaterials, such as, CNTs (especially functionalized CNTs) show smart properties (thermal and electrical conductivities) as well as higher mechanical strength due to bridging effect [122,123]. Uniform dispersion of carbon nanomaterials (graphene, GO, CNFs, and CNTs) in cement composites is challenging which must be looked at seriously [124]. On the other hand, smart properties, such as, hydrophobicity, impermeability, corrosion resistance (chemical attack), and piezoelectricity are important too that need further attention. For example, for realization of cleaner surface, hydrophobic property must be studied in depth. Various hydrophobic materials, such as, tyre-rubber, crumb-rubber, amorphous carbon powder, ionic paraffin emulsions, rapeseed oil, and stearic acid may be added. Similarly, for enhancing piezoelectric response, one can add PZT [98]. Thus, for enhancing various smart properties, one needs to add various functional nanomaterials. However, optimization (optimum content) is required to achieve such properties without affecting mechanical strength significantly. In Table 1, we have summarized some cement nanocomposites, their smart properties, dosages of additives, and level of achievements.

5 Conclusion, challenges, and future aspects

In the present review, we have discussed recent developments of cement nanocomposites containing oxides (nano TiO2, Fe2O3, SiO2, and ZrO2), carbon nanomaterials (CNTs, SWCNTs, and MWCNTs), graphene and its derivatives (GO, RGO, and GNP), and polymers (PMMA, PVA, and crumb rubber). Addition of these nanomaterials usually in the range of 1–5 wt% or less shows considerable improvement in the compressive strength and flexural strength. Higher dose of additives may lead to the reduction in mechanical strength (higher dosage may lose effectiveness due to phase separation). Increase in cement strength is caused by the acceleration in cement hydration and formation of C–S–H gel. Nanoparticles may act as additional nucleation site for C–S–H gel to form leading to more compact microstructures. Nanoparticles can fill pores, bridge gaps, prevent microcracks generation, and cracks propagation. This can improve overall cement binding and hence mechanical strength. Various smart properties, especially, photocatalytic dye degradation, self-cleaning/air pollution control, antimicrobial activities, hydrophobicity, piezoelectricity, and corrosion resistance are discussed in detail. Interestingly, these cement nanocomposites show smart properties keeping their mechanical strength at desired level.

To realize smart cement nanocomposites, one needs to add various oxide nanomaterials, carbon nanomaterials, and polymers. Every functional nanomaterial has a specific purpose for being added to OPC. While metal oxides may play important role in filling of pores and strengthening binding, functional carbon nanomaterials, especially, carbon fibres, CNTs may actively participate in bridging the gap and preventing crack developments. However, mechanisms of improvement are poorly understood. Focused research is necessary to unveil the underlying mechanism. Even the basic understanding of C–S–H gel formation, chemical kinetics and structural phases are not very clear till date. Challenges lie in developing cementitious materials with smart properties and optimization to retain basic mechanical strength intact. Uniform dispersion of nanomaterials in cement composites is needed, therefore, it must be looked at critically. Production of nanomaterials, their functionalization, cost effectiveness, and toxicity (safe level of exposure) have been other set points that need attention.

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. ANS and PM have equally contributed in preparing the draft. PM edited the draft and supervised the work.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Not applicable.

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Received: 2024-03-04
Revised: 2024-04-19
Accepted: 2024-04-30
Published Online: 2024-06-27

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2024-0043
Keywords for this article
review on smart cement nanocomposites; mechanical properties; photocatalytic, antimicrobial and hydrophobic properties; corrosion resistance and piezoelectric properties
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Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
  7. Influence of unsupported sleepers on flange climb derailment of two freight wagons
  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
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  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
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  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
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  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
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  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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