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A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam

  • Yapeng Wang , Zhaofeng Chen EMAIL logo , Yeshang Lu , Lixia Yang EMAIL logo , Ting Xu , Haisheng Wu , Jianxun Zhang and Lihua He
Published/Copyright: November 28, 2023
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 12 Issue 1

Abstract

Melamine foam (MF), a promising development in light materials, finds application in construction, agriculture, aviation, transportation, electronic message, and other fields due to its excellent thermal insulation performance, sound absorption and noise reduction capabilities, safety and health benefits, as well as easy processing. However, its own shortcomings such as hardness, poor toughness, fragility, and slag removal greatly limit its application scope. In this review, a survey of the literature from two aspects of toughening of melamine resin and regulation of MF pore structure are reviewed to explore the research progress of toughening modification of MF. The principle, merit, and demerit of different modification methods are analyzed. In addition, owing to the extensive literature available, this article also summarizes the representative achievements of the nanotechnology modification of MF derivatives (carbon foam and carbon aerogel). Eventually, based on an assessment of current application status for both MF and its derivatives while considering existing challenges in their modification processes using nanotechnology approaches, we discuss future prospects for their application.

Keywords: melamine foam; melamine resin; nanotechnology modification; carbon foam; carbon aerogel

1 Introduction

Melamine foam (MF) is an inherently flame-retardant foam derived from melamine formaldehyde resin by curing and foaming process [1]. In addition to its excellent flame-retardant property [2], it also exhibits good sound absorption [3], low density [4], high porosity [5], heat resistance, and preservation [6]. Consequently, MF finds applications in the development of oil–water separation materials [7,8], supercapacitors [9,10], sound absorption materials [11,12], vacuum insulated panels [13], etc. The performance characteristics and service range of MF are shown in Table 1. At present, domestic enterprises have made great progress in the development and application of MF, such as Puyang Greencos New Material Technology Co., Ltd, whose MF products have important application value in civil, industrial, construction, transportation, aviation, military, and other fields (Figure 1) [14,15,16].

Table 1

Performance characteristics and service range of MF

Project Performance Service scope Reference
Density Low (<8 kg/m3) oil–water separation material and building, etc. [17,18,19,20]
Sound insulation Excellent Rail vehicles, aircrafts cabin, and automobile, etc. [3,21,22,23]
Opening rate High (99%) oil–water separation material and EMI shielding, wastewater purification, etc. [24,25,26]
Heat insulation Eminent Building and vacuum insulated panels, etc. [27,28]
Figure 1 Typical applications of MF prepared by Puyang Greencos New Material Technology Co., Ltd.
Figure 1

Typical applications of MF prepared by Puyang Greencos New Material Technology Co., Ltd.

1.1 Sound-absorbing application of MF

The MF possesses a fully open three-dimensional mesh structure (Figure 2), with a length to diameter ratio (L/D) of the mesh ranging from approximately 10–20. Its high opening rate characteristics (≥99%) enable sound waves to effectively penetrate the deep layer of the foam body, where they are rapidly dissipated through vibration of the MF gridding. As a result, reflected sound waves are effectively eliminated, leading to enhanced sound absorption performance [12,29]. Due to its excellent sound-absorbing performance, MF has been successfully applied to the sound absorbing materials for military and civilian use [30].

Figure 2 Microscopic characterization of MF.
Figure 2

Microscopic characterization of MF.

Yang et al. [31] investigated the sound insulation of phenolic resin modified MF. The experimental results illustrated that the sound insulation property of MF modified by phenolic resin was remarkably improved compared to that without phenolic resin. Li et al. [32] developed a thin and lightweight sound absorber by utilizing MF’s excellent sound absorption performance. The research results showed that incorporating a hollow perforated spherical structure with MF maintained effective sound absorption within the frequency range of 200–1,600 Hz, despite limited thickness constraints. These results also suggested that the proposed absorbers have great potential for use in noise control applications.

To investigate the sound absorption performance of MF and cotton, Li et al. [33] established a scaled down cylindrical section noise experimental device according to the objective conditions of the experiment and the application range of the simulation software. The experiment results showed that the noise reduction effect of MF with the same quality is about 1.42 times more than that of sound-absorbing cotton. In addition, MF can also be used as sound insulation panels of sports venues, lining of roll gate boxes, sound insulation materials of impellers of air conditioning and ventilation equipment, inner lining of fan hoods, etc. [34,35].

1.2 Oil–water separation application of MF

MF is characterized by high porosity, large surface area, low density, and low cost [4]. The inside of MF is composed of a large number of spheroid units, whose surface is a three-dimensional network skeleton ring of pentagon structure, which makes the surface water film tension of MF high after water absorption, so it has a strong water absorption ability [19,23]. Consequently, when hydrophobically modified, the high surface area enables fast oil absorption by MF and makes it an ideal material for oil–water separation applications [16,36].

Duan et al. [5] reported a simple method to prepare high-performance oil absorbents by loading ball-mill biochar (BMBC) and octadecylamine onto MF skeleton. The experimental results showed that BMBC successfully transformed the hydrophilic surface of MF into a hydrophobic surface, and endowed MF with higher oil absorption capacity (43–155 times dead weight) and excellent recyclability. Mu et al. [37] presented a superhydrophobic foam via coating the hydrolyzed alkylsilane on the skeleton of commercial MF. The study results (Figure 3) showed that the wettability of MF changed to superhydrophobic due to the presence of alkylsilane, which exhibited excellent oil absorption capacity and exceptional recyclability. Moreover, the modified MF could be readily used in industrial oil spill clean-up.

Figure 3 Hydrophobic and oleophilic properties of (a) MF, (b) before treatment, and (C) after treatment [37].
Figure 3

Hydrophobic and oleophilic properties of (a) MF, (b) before treatment, and (C) after treatment [37].

oil–water separation modification generally requires polymers with low surface energy (such as polysiloxane, fluoropolymer, or long alkyl) to cover the surface of melamine sponge through a series of reactions [38,39], or high temperature pyrolysis to remove the hydrophilic groups on the surface of melamine sponge to improve its hydrophobicity [36]. After hydrophobic modification, MF can absorb leaked oil or organic solvent.

1.3 Heat insulation application of MF

There are a lot of studies, which showed that MF has a high cross-linked three-dimensional network structure system to keep excellent thermal stability and aging resistance [40,41]. The research results show that MF starts to burn only when the surface is in contact with an open flame. Once the combustion starts, the decompositions immediately produce a large amount of inert non-flammable gas, which slows down the combustion rate. At the same time, a dense coke layer is formed quickly on the surface of the burner, which effectively blocks the development of combustion to the deep layer, and automatically extinguishes after the open flame leaves [42,43]. MF can work at 200°C for a long time, without decomposition and deformation, and obvious decomposition only appears when the temperature increases above 350°C [13,43]. While for other forms, such as polyvinyl chloride, polyolefin, polystyrene, and polyurethane (PU), deformation and decomposition occur when the working temperature exceeds 120°C. The resistance to open flame ignition experiment of MF and the maximum temperature for long service time of some forms are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 The resistance to open flame ignition experiment of MF and the maximum temperature for long service of some forms [13,44,45,46].
Figure 4

The resistance to open flame ignition experiment of MF and the maximum temperature for long service of some forms [13,44,45,46].

Based on the exceptional flame retardant and heat insulation properties, MF exhibits significant potential for application in constructing energy conservation buildings and vacuum insulation panel (VIP) [13,47,48]. Li et al. [49] utilized a MF prepolymer derived from melamine and paraformaldehyde as the matrix material, cyclohexane as the foaming agent, dimethicone as the foam stabilizer, and hydrochloric acid as the catalyst. The MF rigid foam with high closed-cell content was prepared using an oven heating method. The prepared MF foams demonstrated great comprehensive performance with closed cell content of 83.5%, water absorption of 12.0%, compressive strength of 292 kPa, thermal conductivity of 0.033 W/(m K) and limiting oxygen index (LOI) of 36%. Compared to conventional organic foams, the as-prepared MF foams can be used as thermal insulation material for building exterior walls. Kavsek et al. [50] used pentane to blow melamine-formaldehyde resin emulsion and further catalyze and heat cure to prepare a new melamine-formaldehyde rigid foam material. Compared with other organic polymer foams, the produced MF foam has the characteristics of superior fire resistance, chemical stability, and low density, which made MF foam potentially useful in the manufacture of VIPs.

1.4 Preparation process and disadvantages of MF

1.4.1 The preparation process of MF

The preparation of MF is usually divided into two processes: resin synthesis and curing foaming (Figure 5) [13,51]. The synthesis stage of melamine resin (MR) can be divided into two steps. First, the melamine and formaldehyde are dissolved in a weakly alkaline medium (pH = 8.5–9.0). Because melamine and formaldehyde will produce insoluble methylene melamine precipitation under acidic conditions, it is necessary to adjust the pH value of the solvent between 8.5 and 9.0 before the reaction, so as to ensure that the pH value of the reaction process is between 7.0 and 7.5. When the external temperature is in the range of 80–90°C, melamine and formaldehyde take place addition reaction to form hydroxymethyl melamine. Second, hydroxymethyl melamine is further poly-condensed in neutral or weakly alkaline media, resulting in low molecular polymer (MR) linked by dimethylene ether bond or methylene bond [52,53,54]. The reaction mechanism of MR is shown in Figure 6 [37]. The curing foaming process is to mix MR with emulsifier, curing agent, and foaming agent adequately and then the cross-linking reaction occurs by microwave or oven heating to form polymer foam with three-dimensional network structure (MF) [55].

Figure 5 The production process of MFs.
Figure 5

The production process of MFs.

Figure 6 The reaction mechanism of MR [13,51]. (a) Formation of methylol melamine. (b) Condensation of methylol of methylol melamine and amino of melamine. (c) Condensation of methylol of methylol melamine and one another.
Figure 6

The reaction mechanism of MR [13,51]. (a) Formation of methylol melamine. (b) Condensation of methylol of methylol melamine and amino of melamine. (c) Condensation of methylol of methylol melamine and one another.

1.4.2 Disadvantages and toughening modification prospect of MF

Although MF possesses high porosity, low density, high opening rate, and good flame retardancy, its inherent drawbacks such as hardness, poor toughness, fragility, and slag removal significantly limit its application scope [16]. The infrared spectrum of MF is shown in Figure 7. The wave numbers of 808, 1,331, 1,478, and 1,549 cm−1 correspond to the in-plane deformation of the triazine ring and the contraction and torsion of C═N in the triazine ring [56]. It is well known that the reason for the high brittleness of MF is that its molecular structure contains a large number of rigid triazine rings and the flexible carbon chains between them are short [57]. Consequently, enhancing the toughness of MF has become a prominent research topic in recent years.

Figure 7 The infrared spectrum of MF [56].
Figure 7

The infrared spectrum of MF [56].

At present, most scholars have only explored the methods of toughening, strengthening, and improving the dimensional stability of MF; however, few experts have comprehensively summarized the causes of poor toughness and modified toughening methods. Generally speaking, the toughness of MF depends on both the properties of MR and foam microstructure. In this study, the methods of toughening modification of MF are described in detail from two aspects of toughening modification of MR and microstructure regulation of foam. Furthermore, the direction of toughening modification methods, and the application of MF products and their derivatives in the future are prospected.

2 Modification of MR

MR is a type of thermosetting resin wherein the properties are determined by the degree of curing [58]. The MR solution needs to be heated and cured in the process of use, so that the oligomers are gradually cross-linked to form a polymer with a three-dimensional network structure. If the MR is not cured completely, its adhesion, water resistance, chemical corrosion resistance, and other properties will be reduced [59]. The curing of MR is achieved by cross-linking methylene or dimethylene ether bonds, and its molecular structure is shown in Figure 8. At present, the toughening modification of MR mainly includes physical modification, flexible chain lengthening, and functional group end sealing [12,60,61]. The section will focus on these three approaches.

Figure 8 Molecular structure of MR [12,60,61].
Figure 8

Molecular structure of MR [12,60,61].

2.1 Physical modification of MR modification

In the physical modification method, the modifier is combined with MR by blending method to prevent the triazine rings from getting close to each other, so as to realize the toughening of MR. The common physical modifiers mainly include nanoparticles, flexible polymers, and fiber materials [62,63,64,65,66].

2.1.1 Modification by adding nanoparticles

The addition of nanoparticles is a widely used approach to modify MR [67,68,69,70]. Nanoparticles have the characteristics of large specific surface area, a large number of unsaturated bonds on the surface, small size, and high surface activity [71,72]. When adding a small number of nanoparticles, the surface functional groups of MR react with these nanoparticles to generate an interfacial force that surpasses the van der Waals force. When the MR is subjected to external force, the nanoparticles can absorb part of the impact energy, so as to realize the toughening of the MR [63].

Based on the source, type, size, content, and shape, nanoparticles can reinforce various properties of the substrate MR (as summarized in Table 2). Therefore, nanomaterials can affect MR nanocomposites’ final properties such as mechanical properties, curing behavior, formaldehyde emission, and flame retardancy even at low addition levels [15]. Commonly employed nanofillers include clay minerals, different oxides, carbon-based nanomaterials, graphite, cellulose nano-fiber, metals and metal alloys, etc. [61,73].

Table 2

Nanomaterials and their enhanced performance of MR

Type of nanomaterials Performance (enhanced) References
Mineral nanoparticles Montmorillonite Thermal stability, chemical resistance, processability [74,75]
Clay Thermal stability, low cost, mechanical, etc. [76,77]
Bio-based additive Cellulose nanocrystals Mechanical strength, etc. [78,79]
Carbon nanotubes Heat insulation performance, etc. [80,81]
Metal-based nanoparticles Fe Fouling resistance, good wettability, etc. [82]
Ni Specific capacitance value, etc. [83]
Oxides nanoparticles SiO2 Thermal stability, toughness, flame-retardant properties, impact strength, etc. [84,85,86]
TiO2 Thermal stability, smoke suppression, etc. [87,88]

For instance, Li et al. [61] demonstrated that the incorporation of a dispersed peg-nano SiO2 solution into the melamine/formaldehyde mixture could enhance the physical properties (such as curing time, free formaldehyde content, and elongation at break) of MR. The experimental findings suggested that the addition of dispersed nano-SiO2 has the potential to improve toughness and other desirable characteristics in modified MR. However, excessive nanoparticle loading may result in uneven dispersion and agglomeration, thereby compromising its toughening effect.

2.1.2 Modification by flexible short chain polymers and fiber materials

Adding flexible short chain polymers and fiber material such as starch, carbon fiber (CF) [64], polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [89,90], and PU [91] to MR is another common physical modification method. These modifiers contain numerous polar groups that can form hydrogen bonds or covalent bonds with MR to enhance its toughness. Lulu et al. [92] studied the effect of PVA on the properties of MR. The results showed that the blending fiber was endowed with effective flame- retardant property by the amino group and triazine ring group in melamine/PVA fibers, and the LOI reached 28–31. The best homogeneity of blended fibers was achieved when the solid content ratio between MR and PVA blend was 1:1. PVA could effectively improve the crystallinity, mechanical properties, and elasticity of MR.

Li et al. [64] prepared melamine-formaldehyde rigid closed-cell foams that were toughened by ethylene glycol (EG) and CF. Compared to unmodified MF rigid foams, these tough rigid closed-cell MF exhibited excellent pulverization rate, compressive strength, bending strength, cellular structure integrity, thermal insulation performance as well as flame resistance characteristics. It is worth mentioning that when the fiber is used as toughening agent, the viscosity of the resin will increase, and the mixing effect of the foaming agent will become worse in the foaming process, thus affecting the final performance of the foam. Fiber materials have been gradually phased out as toughening agents.

2.1.3 Summary of physical modification of MR

As a whole, when nanoparticles are added as modifiers, too much nanoparticles will result in agglomeration, and too little nanoparticles will limit the toughening modification effect, the solutions improve the dispersion and compatibility of nanoparticles by modifying nanoparticles in resin [93]. The modification of MR by adding flexible long chain polymer is another common physical modification method. The polar groups on the surface of flexible long chain polymer can form hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds with the surface of MR, so as to achieve the toughening effect [94,95]. Moreover, the use of fiber material as toughening agent may affect the foaming effect of resin, which has been gradually eliminated [96]. The toughening by physical modification has the characteristics of simple, effective, and economical and practical, and has broad development space.

2.2 Functional group end-sealing method of MR modification

The functional group end-sealing method involves the reaction of modifying agents with melamine or hydroxymethyl melamine, resulting in the shielding of one amino group on the triazine ring to reduce cross-linking density. Small molecules with single functional groups, such as methanol, ethanol, aniline, and p-toluene sulfonamide, are often used as functional group shielding modifiers [65]. Fei et al. [97] prepared fragrance microcapsules by in situ polymerization of methanol-modified melamine-formaldehyde resin. FT-IR results showed that the essential oil was encapsulated by MR, and TG-DTG test showed that micro-encapsulation significantly improved the thermal stability of MR.

Furthermore, derivatives of melamine such as benzene melamine, aromatic melamine, and alkyl substituted melamine are also often used as modifiers. It is worth noting that the synthetic conditions of melamine derivatives are relatively complex and the yield is not high, so they cannot be commercialized on a large scale and are usually used in high-end markets such as aerospace. Therefore, the economical and suitable modifiers need to be further studied.

2.3 Flexible chain lengthening of MR modification

The high brittleness of MF is attributed to its molecular structure, which contains a large number of rigid triazine rings and short flexible carbon chains between them (as mentioned in Figure 5) [57]. Therefore, flexible chain lengthening is put forward to improve the flexibility of MR by increasing the length of the flexible chain between the triazine rings. Modifiers generally contain a variety of functional groups that can react with hydroxyl methyl groups or amino groups, and the distances between triazine rings are increased by molecular bonding. The flexible chain lengthening method is a common chemical modification idea. The flexible chain lengthening method makes the molecular chains of MR have greater intramolecular deformability than that of methylene linkage, and reduces the crosslinking density of resin, so as to improve the flexibility of MF. PVA and allyl glycidyl ether are often used as multi-functional small molecule modifiers to increase the flexible chain length between the triazine rings [66].

Chen et al. [98] used PVA and benzoguanamine to modify MF resin, while investigating the enhanced tensile strength and flame retardant properties of the modified MR. Compared with the unmodified MR, the tensile strength and flame retardancy properties of the modified MR were improved. Yan et al. [12] employed allyl glycidyl ether to modify MR, and the modified resin was able to demonstrate a longer storage duration as compared to the conventional resins, and the storage time for the modified resin exceeded 90 days, and the free formaldehyde content was lower than 0.05 ppm. Additionally, the as-prepared foam exhibited excellent flame retardancy properties, low-volume water absorption, and lower thermal conductivity. Concurrently, the foam prepared based on the optimal conditions possessed a high compressive strength of 5.08 MPa, which was 17.5 times higher than that of the conventional MF. But, allyl glycidyl ether itself is toxic, so its application on MR is limited. The comparison of the performance of MF modified by allyl glycidyl ether and other previous studies are illustrated in Table 3.

Table 3

Comparison of the performance of MF modified by allyl glycidyl ether and other studies [12]

Project Traditional MF CF/EG Dimethicone MF modified by allyl glycidyl ether
Apparent density (g/cm3) 0.040 0.078 0.063 0.250
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.030 0.031 0.033 0.0256
Compressive strength (MPa) 0.23 0.44 0.292 5.08
Volumetric water absorption (%) 1.4 9.0 10 0.9
LOI (%) 39.4 39.6 39 38.9

In conclusion, both long-chain polymers and small-molecule compounds can improve the flexibility of MR by increasing the flexible chain length, and affect the heat resistance or flame retardancy of MR. However, common modifiers process toxicity, so this method is limited to incorporating modifications. Therefore, in order to effectively enhance the toughness of MF, molecular structure design should be prioritized.

2.4 A comprehensive analysis of MR modification methods

Overall, the three toughening modification methods of MR showed that physical modification can block the proximity of triazine rings; flexible chain lengthening and functional group end-sealing method can change the molecular structure of the resin. All these modification techniques contribute to a reduction in crosslink density of MR; however, their individual toughening effects are limited. For instance, Li et al. [61] used polyethylene glycol (PEG) to modify nano-SiO2 particles, and uniformly dispersed the modified solution into the melamine/formaldehyde mixture, thereby, the curing time and elongation at break of the MR were improved (Table 4). The addition of 0.42% PEG-modified SiO2 reduced the glass transition temperature of the MR by 29.4°C, and thermogravimetric (TG) spectroscopy showed that the introduction of nano-SiO2 into the MR hardly affected its thermal stability. These results also indicated that the addition of PEG-modified nano- SiO2 can improve the elongation at break of MR. Therefore, further investigation is required to explore synergistic toughening approaches using a combination of different methods while ensuring flame retardancy and mechanical properties consistent with MF.

Table 4

Effect of nano silica addition on the physical properties of MR [61]

Amount of nano silica (%) Cure time (s) Elongation at break (%)
0 109 ± 3 5.35 ± 1.52
0.3 94 ± 2 16.20 ± 2.61
0.36 93 ± 4 13.00 ± 2.13
0.42 95 ± 1 19.90 ± 2.86
0.48 94 ± 2 9.45 ± 2.01

3 Regulation of MF pore structure

The pore structure directly affects the physical properties of MF [62]. During the foaming process, bubbles are generated and expanded, while the prepolymer gradually undergoes cross-linking to increase viscosity. In the later stage, the large foam bursts or even connects to form the open-cell foam. If it does not burst, it is the closed-cell foam [36]. The final pore structure of MF is controlled by two processes: foaming and curing. The curing rate of the resin primarily depends on the viscosity of the resin, solid content, curing agent dosage, etc., whereas the foaming rate is mainly determined by foaming agent, foaming method, and foaming process [1,12,19]. Therefore, investigating how these factors affect both mechanical properties and microstructure of foam is crucial for enhancing the toughening effect of MF.

3.1 Physical properties of MR solution

The viscosity of MR solutions is a crucial factor that affects its foaming properties [49,99]. Zhang et al. [100] prepared open and closed cell thermosetting foams using MR and formaldehyde as the main raw materials, and investigated the impact of prepolymer viscosity on foam density and structure. The results showed that low initial viscosity resulted in open-cell foam formation while increasing viscosity led to incomplete bubble expansion resulting in closed-cell foam production. For open-cell foam (Figure 9), low viscosity solution resulted in bubble growth instability and collapse, and the bubble forming rate was low, which resulted in high density. With the increase in viscosity, the bubble forming rate increased and the density decreased. When the density increased again, the pores became smaller and denser, the density and the toughness increased again. For closed-cell foam, the higher the viscosity, the smaller the bubble hole and the higher the foam density (Figure 10). In both cases, there was an optimal viscosity that minimized the foam density formed, about 70 mPa s for the open-cell foams and 850 mPa s for the closed-cell foams. Moreover, only within this appropriate range did MF foam exhibit uniform bubble holes resulting in good toughness.

Figure 9 Micrograph of open-cell foams with different viscosities (η): (a) η = 40 mPa s, (b) η = 100 mPa s, and (c) η = 140 mPa s [100].
Figure 9

Micrograph of open-cell foams with different viscosities (η): (a) η = 40 mPa s, (b) η = 100 mPa s, and (c) η = 140 mPa s [100].

Figure 10 Micrograph of closed-cell foams with different viscosities (η): (a) η = 40 mPa s, (b) η = 100 mPa s, and (c) η = 140 mPa s [100].
Figure 10

Micrograph of closed-cell foams with different viscosities (η): (a) η = 40 mPa s, (b) η = 100 mPa s, and (c) η = 140 mPa s [100].

On the other hand, the solid content of MR is another one of the important factors affecting its foaming. Ruipeng et al. [101] analyzed the effect of solid content of MR on the physical properties and mechanical properties of MF. The results showed that when the solid content was too low, shrinkage bubble phenomenon occurred, but when the solid content increased, the reaction system and resin storage stability became worse, and more strict process control was needed. In addition, when the solid content of melamine formaldehyde resin was 69%, the flexural strength of MF reached the best, i.e., 305 kPa.

3.2 Foaming method

The foaming methods of MF mainly include oven foaming and microwave foaming [49,64]. Xia and Wang [29,62] reported and compared the microstructure of MF prepared by these two methods. As shown in Figure 11a, the bubble hole formed during oven foaming exhibited a predominantly open-hole through structure resembling rigid spheres with approximately 14–16 sides. Due to the thickness of the foam wall, most of the skeletons were piled together and showed a sheet shape. The aspect ratio (H/D) of the foam was between 1 and 2, so the flexibility was poor and the rigidity was strong. In contrast, as shown in Figure 11b, microwave-induced MF primarily consisted of interconnected ligamentous skeletons that were linked via three-tip inner swing tops, thereby increasing contact area and enhancing stability. Moreover, the length-to-diameter ratio (L/D value) of this mesh-like structure reached approximately 15, leading to improved toughness. This can be attributed mainly to the faster heating rate associated with microwave processing compared to oven foaming; uniform heating without temperature gradients allowed for instantaneous boiling and bubbling of the foaming agent, thus yielding a more pronounced three-dimensional network skeleton structure.

Figure 11 Morphology of MF produced by different foaming methods: (a) oven foaming and (b) microwave foaming [29,62].
Figure 11

Morphology of MF produced by different foaming methods: (a) oven foaming and (b) microwave foaming [29,62].

In fact, the length to diameter ratio and framework of MF formed by microwave and oven were very different, resulting in significant differences in the mechanical properties of MF. When applying pressure to the moicrowave-foamed MF frame by microwave, the frame can produce significant bending and torsion deformation, and the bending and torsion deformation back quickly when the external force removed. Macroscopically, the compression test showed the bending deformation between layers, and the local structural failure was inhibited by the contact generated by the bending deformation between skeletons. Hence, the damage spreading trend was avoided and showed good flexibility [102,103]. However, when the MF foamed by oven was stressed, the rigid skeleton did not undergo bending deformation when the load was transferred between adjacent layers, and the load continued to penetrate into the middle of the next layer of foam body, which resulted in cracks and bubble burst [29,62].

In addition, microwave penetration ensured even heating throughout the foam body; once microwaves ceased heating, the temperature inside returned to room temperature rapidly. Microwave heating also accelerated low molecular volatilization to form more foam pores and promoted cross-linking to stabilize foam growth [100]. Hence, microwave foaming has more obvious advantages than oven heating foaming as it can improve the toughness of MF by improving bubble structure.

3.3 Foaming process

Microwave radiation power and radiation time have great influence on foam performance [104]. In the microwave foaming process, it is crucial for the MR to rapidly reach a high temperature within a short period of time. First, the foaming agent is rapidly vaporized under the action of high temperature and emulsifier to produce a large amount of foam, and solidified rapidly under the action of curing agent at the same time [105]. The MF with good comprehensive performance can be prepared only when the two processes of curing and foaming of resin are matched [43,106].

Wan et al. [105] investigated the effects of microwave power and foaming time on the structure and properties of MF foam. Figure 12 illustrates micrographs of MF at different microwave powers when an initial temperature of 25°C was maintained during a 60 s microwave foaming process. At a microwave power level of 1 kW h, the curing rate exceeded the foaming rate resulting in relatively thick skeleton structures within foam holes and higher foam density. Conversely, at a microwave power level of 3 kW h where the foaming rate surpassed the curing rate excessively, larger merged foam holes were observed with relatively fine skeleton structures within them as well as lower foam density. Only when using a microwave power level of 2 kW h did both foaming rate and curing rate match each other perfectly leading to highly uniform bubble holes in the foam.

Figure 12 Micrographs of MF under different microwave powers; (a) 1 kW h, (b) 2 kW h, and (c) 3 kW h [105].
Figure 12

Micrographs of MF under different microwave powers; (a) 1 kW h, (b) 2 kW h, and (c) 3 kW h [105].

Micrographs of the MF under different microwave times are presented in Figure 13, when the microwave power was set at 2 kW h. It can be observed from Figure 13 that excessive foaming time resulted in numerous cracks appearing in the foam structure. Conversely, if the foaming time was too short, incomplete curing and insufficient foam expansion occurred, potentially leading to severe shrinkage. The optimal foaming time was determined to be 60 s.

Figure 13 Micrographs of MF under different microwave time; (a) 30 s, (b) 60 s, and (c) 90 s [105].
Figure 13

Micrographs of MF under different microwave time; (a) 30 s, (b) 60 s, and (c) 90 s [105].

Therefore, in the process of MR foaming, the power and time of microwave radiation should be gradually regulated. In this way, the curing process and foaming process of resin can be matched, and MF with good comprehensive performance can be prepared.

3.4 Foaming agent and curing agent

Foaming agent and curing agent are two crucial additives in the foaming process of MR, which play a pivotal role in maintaining foaming equilibrium [107,108]. The effect of foaming agent on the foam was mainly reflected on the foaming speed. Xia et al. [62] systematically investigated the effects of inorganic, organic, and compound foaming agents on the mechanical properties and flame retardancy of MF. The results showed that when NaHCO3 was used as foaming agent, the performance of the foaming agent was better than that of other inorganic foaming agents. In terms of flammability: NaHCO3 > Na2CO3 > organic foaming agent; in terms of mechanical properties, the mechanical properties of MF obtained by using chemical blowing agent diphenylmethane diisocyanate (MDI) were significantly better than other blowing agents, because MDI could be used not only as blowing agent but also as cross-linking curing agent, which greatly improved the mechanical properties of foam.

The curing agent’s influence on the foam is mainly reflected in the curing speed. Generally speaking, when the curing rate surpasses the foaming rate, both the opening ratio and the length–diameter ratio will decrease and the bubble will collapse. Zhang et al. [108] reported the effect of the amount of formic acid (foaming agent) on the structures of the MF. It can be seen that excess formic acid decreased the opening rate (Figure 14a), and underuse increased the aspect ratio of the foam (Figure 14b).

Figure 14 SEM micrographs of MFs. (a) The foam structure whose curing speed is slower than foaming speed and (b) the foam structure whose curing speed is faster than foaming speed [108].
Figure 14

SEM micrographs of MFs. (a) The foam structure whose curing speed is slower than foaming speed and (b) the foam structure whose curing speed is faster than foaming speed [108].

Lei et al. [109] investigated the effects of the amount of foaming agent and curing agent on the apparent density and morphology of MF. The results demonstrated a direct influence of the foaming agent and curing agent quantities on the apparent density of MF (Figure 15). Excessive or insufficient amounts of foaming agent or curing agent led to an increase in foam’s apparent density, as depicted in Figure 15. When there was an excess amount of foaming agent or a deficiency in curing agent, the foaming rate exceeded the curing rate, resulting in bubble fragmentation and consolidation, thereby increasing foam’s apparent density. Conversely, when there was an excess amount of curing agent or a deficiency in foaming agent, the curing rate surpassed the foaming rate leading to inadequate foam expansion with more closed cells and increased apparent density. Optimal conditions for achieving light foam with uniform pore size and minimal apparent density were observed at 10% dosage for both foaming and curing agents relative to MR mass; this balanced ratio ensured similar rates between foaming and curing processes while enhancing MF toughness.

Figure 15 Effect of the mass fraction of foaming agent (a) and curing agent (b) on apparent density of MF [109].
Figure 15

Effect of the mass fraction of foaming agent (a) and curing agent (b) on apparent density of MF [109].

Hence, in the experimental design stage of MR foaming, the synergistic mechanism of foaming agent and curing agent should be carefully considered, so as to avoid the inconsistent phenomenon of foaming speed and curing speed, and then obtain MF with good toughness and low density.

3.5 Surfactant and other foaming AIDS

Surfactant is an important part of foam formation and stabilization until curing, and has a significant impact on the surface tension of the resin [104,106]. Too much surface tension of resin is not conducive to the formation of foam, and too little surface tension is not conducive to the stability of foam. Therefore, the amount of surfactant must be controlled in a certain range [100]. Thongkham et al. [110] proposed a flexible and lightweight thermoelectric material developed on a MF using a simple dip-dry technique to self-assemble conductive nanofilms in the scaffold. Different amounts of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrenesulfonate conductive nanofilms were variedly fabricated in the foam due to altered amounts of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactant from 0 to 5 wt%. As a result, the highest nanofilm formation in the foam structure is achieved by adding 3 wt% SDS.

In addition to surfactant, some other additives also can be added to improve the foam performance during the foaming process of MR. Wang et al. [111] fabricated super-hydrophobic MF by in situ coprecipitation of hydrophobic SA@Fe3O4 (SA = stearic acid) nanoparticles on the surface of MF foam skeleton. Due to its low surface energy, high porosity, and large magnetic particles, the modified MF foam exhibits excellent super hydrophobicity, and oleophilic and magnetic responses.

Moreover, incorporating the MF into solvents during foaming completion represents an alternative approach to enhance the bubble structure and improve the toughness of MF. In order to improve the hydrophobic property of MF, Wang et al. [38] immersed the prepared MF in the aqueous solution of PVA. The results showed that PVA formed micro-nano structure on MF skeleton, which also improved the surface roughness and hydrophobic property. Compared with the complex methods and nanomaterials of traditional porous superhydrophobic adsorbents, the highly hydrophobic MF obtained by simple impregnation has better advantages in the treatment of oil spills and industrial organic pollution.

3.6 Comprehensive regulation analysis of MF pore structure

In summary, the effect of the bubble structure of MF properties is as important as that of the molecular structure of MR. In order to obtain the MF with uniform foam holes, small density, and good mechanical properties, the physical properties (viscosity and solid content), foaming method (oven foaming and microwave foaming), foaming time, and power of the resin solution are the key effect factors in the foaming process. In addition, the foaming speed (foaming agent), curing speed (curing agent), and surfactants are also the important effect elements of MF processing. By adjusting the content of foaming agent, curing agent, and surfactant, the MF pore structure and density can be well regulated and controlled. It is worth noting that the microwave foaming has more obvious advantages than oven heating foaming, which can improve the toughness of MF by improving the bubble structure and should be further studied. The influencing factors of MF pore structure and MR molecular structure are shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 The influencing elements of MR molecular structure and MF pore structure.
Figure 16

The influencing elements of MR molecular structure and MF pore structure.

4 Extended application of MF foam

As previously mentioned, MF has the features of excellent flame retardance, good sound absorption property, low density, and high opening, these characteristics enable MF to be successfully applied in the fields of oil and water separation, VIP, building materials, and automotive soundproofing materials. With the continuous exploration of experts and scholars, the application scope of MF has been gradually expanded. This chapter will summarize the two main extended application areas (carbon foam and carbon aerogel [112,113]) of MF foam.

4.1 Carbon foam

4.1.1 Thermal insulation

Carbon foams, which can be produced through direct carbonization of MF, exhibit promising potential in supporting thermal insulation systems due to their exceptional form-stable characteristics in photothermal conversion and storage [114,115,116]. For instance, the pyrolysis process of carbon foam matrices prepared from MFs was investigated by Chen’s team at Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics [117,118]. The SEM images presented in Figure 17 depict the microstructure of carbon foam under various pyrolysis temperatures ranging from 450 to 1,050°C. As can be seen from Figure 17a, the pore size of the non-pyrolyzed dense amine foam sample was large, with the pore size ranging from 100 to 200 μm, and the pore wall was thick and long. However, with the increase in the pyrolysis temperature, the pore structure participation of the prepared carbon foam was obviously different from that of the dense amine foam sample. As shown in Figure 17b–f, it can be clearly seen that the carbon foam still maintained the three-dimensional mesh open-pore skeleton structure in the MF sample. However, with the increase in the pyrolysis temperature, the number of three-dimensional mesh pores in the field of view enhanced significantly, and the corresponding pore size also shrank gradually, from 100–200 to 20–80 μm in the sample of dense amine foam. At the same time, the pore wall of carbon foam gradually became more thinner and shorter. The small pores in the three-dimensional network increased the scattering, reflection, and absorption of radiation energy passing through the porous structure, and effectively reduced the thermal conductivity of melamine-derived carbon foam (MDCF) samples.

Figure 17 Microstructures of carbon foam samples were obtained at different pyrolysis temperatures. (a) MF, (b) 450°C, (c) 550°C, (d) 650°C, (e) 750°C, (f) 850°C (g) 950°C, and (h) 1,050°C.
Figure 17

Microstructures of carbon foam samples were obtained at different pyrolysis temperatures. (a) MF, (b) 450°C, (c) 550°C, (d) 650°C, (e) 750°C, (f) 850°C (g) 950°C, and (h) 1,050°C.

In the previous work of Chen et al. [117,118], the influence of SiC nanowire parameters on the structure and properties of composite foam under various chemical vapor infiltration processes (Figure 18) was investigated. A novel type of Sic nanowire-reinforced carbon foam composites was proposed, which was composed of a carbon foam matrix as well as the filled SiC nanowires in the carbon foam, with an average pore diameter of 12–14 nm and a thermal conductivity of 0.036 W/(m K) at 100°C and 0.243 W/(m K) at 900°C. And, its bulk density can be as low as 5.56 mg/cm3. At present, the stabilization carbon foam has been successfully applied in the first-generation rover insulation board as reinforcing material. And it also has passed all of the technical indicators assessment requirements of the China academy of space technology, Beijing satellite manufacturer Co., Ltd. The SiC nanowire-reinforced carbon foams have provided help for implementation of the Mars exploration program and the successful launch of the “Tianwen” Mars exploration rover.

Figure 18 Preparation of SiC nanowires-reinforced MCF foams [119].
Figure 18

Preparation of SiC nanowires-reinforced MCF foams [119].

4.1.2 Electromagnetic wave absorption materials

Carbon foam made of MF is not only used in thermal insulation systems of spacecraft, but also widely used in electromagnetic wave absorption materials due to its high porosity and low density [24,120,121]. Lyu et al. [122] constructed a three-dimensional carbon foam material embedded with CuNi alloy nanoparticles for electromagnetic wave absorption. In the synthetic procedure, Ni2+ and Cu2+ were first adsorbed into the MF to form Ni2+–Cu2+/MF composites, which were then subject to the pyrolysis treatment, resulting in the production of mesoporous CuNi alloy/CF. The experiment results showed that the CuNi/CF with CuNi alloy nanoparticles evenly distributed in the 3D carbon matrix inherits the characteristic of the 3D structured N-rich MF, which induces masses of dipole polarization, interfacial polarization, and electromagnetic wave scattering. The CuNi11 exhibited excellent electromagnetic wave absorption and insulation performance with the reflection loss (RL) of −50.20 dB at a thin thickness of 1.6 mm. The electromagnetic wave and wave-absorbing material interaction principle is shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19 Electromagnetic wave and material interaction principle.
Figure 19

Electromagnetic wave and material interaction principle.

Jiang et al. [123] synthesized the ferroferric oxide/MDCF (marked as Fe3O4/MDCF) by carbonization and in situ growth strategy. The results showed that the minimum values of RL, the effective frequency width of absorption, and the density of the Fe3O4/MDCF were −26.45 dB (7.76 GHz), 4.28 GHz, and 13.1 mg/cm3, respectively. The continuous 3D (three dimensional) conductive network and the expanded interface in the carbon/magnetic heterostructure improved the interfacial polarization relaxation, and enhanced the electromagnetic loss and wave absorbing capability. The preparation process of the Fe3O4/MDCF, the physical photos of the MF, and the Fe3O4/MDCF composite are shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20 (a) Carbonization and synthetic process of Fe3O4/MDCF composite, (b) optical photograph of MF and MDCF, (c) an ultralight MDCF standing on feather, and (d) Fe3O4/MDCF composite is attracted by a magnet [123].
Figure 20

(a) Carbonization and synthetic process of Fe3O4/MDCF composite, (b) optical photograph of MF and MDCF, (c) an ultralight MDCF standing on feather, and (d) Fe3O4/MDCF composite is attracted by a magnet [123].

4.2 Aerogel areas

Carbon aerogel is a prominent area of MF expansion in the field of multifunctional material [124,125,126,127,128]. With the growing complex operating environment of the modern weapon systems, the electromagnetic interference phenomenon has become an increasingly serious concern as a single performance index cannot meet the usage requirements of the highly sophisticated field for performance optimization and functional pluralism materials. In line with this perspective, Chen et al. [129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139] proposed a carbon/silicon carbide/silica aerogel composite with lightweight, high strength, heat insulation, and microwave absorption performances. The carbon foam matrix made of MF was optimized using a segmented pyrolysis process and a neural network model. Then, the uniform silicon carbide coating was deposited on the surface of the carbon foam skeleton by the chemical vapor deposition technology to prepare the carbon/silicon carbide foam. Finally, the silica aerogel was filled in the pores of the carbon/silicon carbide foam by the sol–gel technique, resulting in the carbon/silicon carbide/silica aerogel composite after drying under normal pressure. The manufacturing process is shown in Figure 21.

Figure 21 Manufacturing processes of SiC/MDCF–Aerogel. The main conclusions were as follows:.
Figure 21

Manufacturing processes of SiC/MDCF–Aerogel. The main conclusions were as follows:.

1) The structure and performance of melamine-based carbon foam was primarily determined by the pyrolysis process, and the constructed backpropagation neural network model can optimize the pyrolysis process of carbon foam to obtain the carbon foam with the best comprehensive performance. The single performance index corresponding to the optimal comprehensive performance is shown in Table 5, and the three-dimensional surface diagram of comprehensive performance index of carbon foam is depicted in Figure 22.

Table 5

Single performance index corresponding to the optimal comprehensive performance

Number Rate of change of volume density (%) Compression modulus (kPa) Absorbing ability (kJ/m3) Specific energy absorption (kJ/kg)
Optimal performance 28.81 204.14 7.05 1.63
Figure 22 The three-dimensional surface diagram of comprehensive performance index of carbon foam.
Figure 22

The three-dimensional surface diagram of comprehensive performance index of carbon foam.

2) The silicon carbide coating on the surface of carbon foam can be prepared via a chemical vapor deposition process. The thickness of silicon carbide coating significantly influences the structure and mechanical properties, dielectric properties, and wave absorption properties of carbon/silicon carbide foam, and the heat treatment temperature can improve the properties of carbon/silicon carbide foam. The electromagnetic absorbing performances of silicon carbide matrix composites are shown in Table 6. Compared with the current traditional silicon carbide fiber or silicon carbide matrix, the C/SiC-T900 foam after 900°C heat treatment had lower minimum RL and wider effective absorption band, so it showed better microwave absorption performance, and had great application potential in the future military or civil microwave absorption system.

Table 6

Electromagnetic absorbing performance of silicon carbide matrix composites

Samples Min RL (dB) Min frequency (GHz) Min matching thickness (mm) Effective absorption band (GHz) Reference
C/SiC-16h −29.74 11.12 1.75 3.62 [132,133]
C/SiC-T900 −51.58 8.96 3.60 10.84 [131,132]
SiCfiber/SiC −47.50 11.40 2.50 2.80 [140]
SiC aerogel −43.00 13.00 2.00 4.00 [141]
SiC nanowire foam −49.10 12.20 2.85 4.20 [142]
Graphite/SiC aerogel −47.30 10.52 3.00 4.70 [143]
SiC mixed carbon foam −43.20 4.70 5.00 4.00 [144]

3) The sol–gel process employed for the preparation and infiltration of aerogel into the pores of carbon/silicon carbide foam. The structure and properties of carbon/silicon carbide/silicon dioxide aerogel are affected by the thickness of silicon carbide coating, and the heat treatment temperature can improve the properties of carbon/silicon carbide/silicon dioxide aerogel. The comparison of absorbing properties of SiC/SiO2 composites are shown in Table 7. It can be found that the C/SiC/SiO2-T900 aerogel obtained by heat treatment at 900°C had lower minimum RL, wider effective absorption band, better microwave absorption performance, and great application potential.

Table 7

Comparison of absorbing properties of SiC/SiO2 composites

Samples Min RL (dB) Min frequency (GHz) Min matching thickness (mm) Effective absorption band (GHz) Reference
C/SiC/SiO2-T900 −55.38 16.56 2.85 8.16 [129]
Fe-SiC/SiO2 −32.00 9.00 3.25 4.20 [145]
SiC/SiO2 composites −52.00 10.80 ∼3.00 4.20 [146]
SiC/SiO2-1400 −52.00 10.80 2.75 4.00 —
SiC/SiO2 core-shell nanowires −32.72 13.84 3.00 5.32 [147]
Activated carbon-based C/SiC/SiO −30.80 ∼15.20 1.50 ∼4.80 —

In addition to this study, many other scholars have also reported the applications of carbon aerogel made with MF. Such as Wang et al. [113] reported a very facile approach for the preparation of compressible, fatigue resistant, conductive, and pressure-sensitive carbon aerogels by pyrolysis of cellulose nano-fibers aerogel using MF as the skeleton. The resulting carbon aerogels exhibit excellent performance, including a low density of 11.23 mg/cm3, high electrical conductivity of 0.378 S/cm, high sensitivity, and outstanding mechanical properties. Moreover, the high nitrogen content and hydrophilic property enable the carbon aerogels to be used as compressible electrodes with a specific and areal capacitance of 92.2 F/g and 461 mF/cm2, respectively, showing the promising prospect of flexible supercapacitors. The specific applications of carbon aerogel prepared by MF are shown in Table 8.

Table 8

Specific application of carbon aerogel prepared by MF

Applications Methods or process Properties
MXene-based aerogel areas [125] Using MF as a robust template for MXene/reduced graphene oxide aerogel High solvent absorption capacity, great electrothermal conversion rate, and good photothermal conversion ability
Solar energy utilization areas [127] Sol–gel polymerization, freeze drying, and carbonization Excellent thermal stability and high thermal storage density
Organic absorption and high- temperature thermal insulation areas [128] Sol–gel polymerization, ambient pressure drying, and co-carbonization High compressive strength, ultra-low thermal conductivity, and high-volume organic absorption capability
Electromagnetic wave absorption materials [129] Pyrolysis, sol–gel method, and chemical vapor deposition Excellent microwave absorption performance
Flexible supercapacitors [113] Using MFs as the skeleton, and pyrolysis cellulose nanofibers aerogel Low density, outstanding mechanical properties, high electrical conductivity, and sensitivity
Supercapacitor (nitrogen-doped carbon aerogel) [148] Direct pyrolysis of bamboo cellulose nanofibers/melamine/graphene oxide hybrid aerogel Superior mechanical durability and excellent electrochemical stability

5 Conclusion

Due to its excellent sound absorption, heat resistance, and preservation properties, as well as low density, MF has been widely utilized in the preparation of oil–water separation materials, supercapacitors, sound absorption materials, and vacuum insulated panels in recent years. However, its own shortcomings of MF such as hardness, poor toughness, fragility, and slag removal greatly limit its application scope. Therefore, this review addressed the recent toughening modification methods and application areas of MF. Specifically, future research should explore the following four aspects of MF toughening modification.

  1. Exploring cost-effective modifiers and determining the optimal dosage to reduce the crosslink density of MR, thereby enhancing the toughness of MF without compromising its flame retardant and heat resistance properties.

  2. By integrating different toughening and modification methods in accordance with specific application requirements, incorporating flexible chain segments with excellent properties into MR can lead to the synthesis of composite modified MF with improved toughness.

  3. Optimizing the synthesis process and foaming process of MR from the perspectives of simplifying production procedures and reducing costs, aiming to enhance foam quality by achieving low density and uniform bubble pores.

  4. Continuously advancing research on MF modification mechanisms to facilitate functionalization and refinement, thus promoting further development in this field.

Moreover, considering the low density, high porosity, and exceptional heat insulation characteristics of MF, it is imperative to further investigate the potential application of carbon foam and aerogel derived from MF in the aviation industry and electromagnetic wave absorption field. It is anticipated that through extensive research on MF synthesis, foaming technology advancements, and nanotechnology developments, there will be continuous enhancements in the mechanical properties, microwave absorbing capabilities, and thermal insulation performance of MF derivatives. Consequently, commercialization and serialization of MDCF and aerogel can be expected in the near future.

  1. Funding information: This research work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (U2167214, 92160202, and 51905268), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFB3703100), Science and Technology International Cooperation Project of Jiangsu (BZ2021055), Industry Foresight and Key Core Technology Competition Project of Jiangsu (BE2022147), and the Overseas Professor Project (G2022181024L).

  2. Author contributions: Methodology, conceptualization, and project administration: Z.C. and L.Y.; writing original draft and visualization: Y.W. and Y.L; writing – review and editing: Y.W. and Z.C.; funding acquisition and resources: T.X., H.W., L.H., and J.Z.; supervision: Z.C. and L.Y. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this article.

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Received: 2023-02-22
Revised: 2023-08-18
Accepted: 2023-09-24
Published Online: 2023-11-28

© 2023 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
  134. Review of the sol–gel method in preparing nano TiO2 for advanced oxidation process
  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
  137. An overview of hydrogen production from Al-based materials
  138. A review of application, modification, and prospect of melamine foam
  139. A review of the performance of fibre-reinforced composite laminates with carbon nanotubes
  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0137
Keywords for this article
melamine foam; melamine resin; nanotechnology modification; carbon foam; carbon aerogel
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Preparation of CdS–Ag2S nanocomposites by ultrasound-assisted UV photolysis treatment and its visible light photocatalysis activity
  3. Significance of nanoparticle radius and inter-particle spacing toward the radiative water-based alumina nanofluid flow over a rotating disk
  4. Aptamer-based detection of serotonin based on the rapid in situ synthesis of colorimetric gold nanoparticles
  5. Investigation of the nucleation and growth behavior of Ti2AlC and Ti3AlC nano-precipitates in TiAl alloys
  6. Dynamic recrystallization behavior and nucleation mechanism of dual-scale SiCp/A356 composites processed by P/M method
  7. High mechanical performance of 3-aminopropyl triethoxy silane/epoxy cured in a sandwich construction of 3D carbon felts foam and woven basalt fibers
  8. Applying solution of spray polyurea elastomer in asphalt binder: Feasibility analysis and DSR study based on the MSCR and LAS tests
  9. Study on the chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity of iron-based bioabsorbable stents
  10. Influence of microalloying with B on the microstructure and properties of brazed joints with Ag–Cu–Zn–Sn filler metal
  11. Thermohydraulic performance of thermal system integrated with twisted turbulator inserts using ternary hybrid nanofluids
  12. Study of mechanical properties of epoxy/graphene and epoxy/halloysite nanocomposites
  13. Effects of CaO addition on the CuW composite containing micro- and nano-sized tungsten particles synthesized via aluminothermic coupling with silicothermic reduction
  14. Cu and Al2O3-based hybrid nanofluid flow through a porous cavity
  15. Design of functional vancomycin-embedded bio-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels for repairing infectious bone defects
  16. Study on nanocrystalline coating prepared by electro-spraying 316L metal wire and its corrosion performance
  17. Axial compression performance of CFST columns reinforced by ultra-high-performance nano-concrete under long-term loading
  18. Tungsten trioxide nanocomposite for conventional soliton and noise-like pulse generation in anomalous dispersion laser cavity
  19. Microstructure and electrical contact behavior of the nano-yttria-modified Cu-Al2O3/30Mo/3SiC composite
  20. Melting rheology in thermally stratified graphene-mineral oil reservoir (third-grade nanofluid) with slip condition
  21. Re-examination of nonlinear vibration and nonlinear bending of porous sandwich cylindrical panels reinforced by graphene platelets
  22. Parametric simulation of hybrid nanofluid flow consisting of cobalt ferrite nanoparticles with second-order slip and variable viscosity over an extending surface
  23. Chitosan-capped silver nanoparticles with potent and selective intrinsic activity against the breast cancer cells
  24. Multi-core/shell SiO2@Al2O3 nanostructures deposited on Ti3AlC2 to enhance high-temperature stability and microwave absorption properties
  25. Solution-processed Bi2S3/BiVO4/TiO2 ternary heterojunction photoanode with enhanced photoelectrochemical performance
  26. Electroporation effect of ZnO nanoarrays under low voltage for water disinfection
  27. NIR-II window absorbing graphene oxide-coated gold nanorods and graphene quantum dot-coupled gold nanorods for photothermal cancer therapy
  28. Nonlinear three-dimensional stability characteristics of geometrically imperfect nanoshells under axial compression and surface residual stress
  29. Investigation of different nanoparticles properties on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids by molecular dynamics simulation
  30. Optimized Cu2O-{100} facet for generation of different reactive oxidative species via peroxymonosulfate activation at specific pH values to efficient acetaminophen removal
  31. Brownian and thermal diffusivity impact due to the Maxwell nanofluid (graphene/engine oil) flow with motile microorganisms and Joule heating
  32. Appraising the dielectric properties and the effectiveness of electromagnetic shielding of graphene reinforced silicone rubber nanocomposite
  33. Synthesis of Ag and Cu nanoparticles by plasma discharge in inorganic salt solutions
  34. Low-cost and large-scale preparation of ultrafine TiO2@C hybrids for high-performance degradation of methyl orange and formaldehyde under visible light
  35. Utilization of waste glass with natural pozzolan in the production of self-glazed glass-ceramic materials
  36. Mechanical performance of date palm fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nano-activated carbon
  37. Melting point of dried gold nanoparticles prepared with ultrasonic spray pyrolysis and lyophilisation
  38. Graphene nanofibers: A modern approach towards tailored gypsum composites
  39. Role of localized magnetic field in vortex generation in tri-hybrid nanofluid flow: A numerical approach
  40. Intelligent computing for the double-diffusive peristaltic rheology of magneto couple stress nanomaterials
  41. Bioconvection transport of upper convected Maxwell nanoliquid with gyrotactic microorganism, nonlinear thermal radiation, and chemical reaction
  42. 3D printing of porous Ti6Al4V bone tissue engineering scaffold and surface anodization preparation of nanotubes to enhance its biological property
  43. Bioinspired ferromagnetic CoFe2O4 nanoparticles: Potential pharmaceutical and medical applications
  44. Significance of gyrotactic microorganisms on the MHD tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow across an elastic slender surface: Numerical analysis
  45. Performance of polycarboxylate superplasticisers in seawater-blended cement: Effect from chemical structure and nano modification
  46. Entropy minimization of GO–Ag/KO cross-hybrid nanofluid over a convectively heated surface
  47. Oxygen plasma assisted room temperature bonding for manufacturing SU-8 polymer micro/nanoscale nozzle
  48. Performance and mechanism of CO2 reduction by DBD-coupled mesoporous SiO2
  49. Polyarylene ether nitrile dielectric films modified by HNTs@PDA hybrids for high-temperature resistant organic electronics field
  50. Exploration of generalized two-phase free convection magnetohydrodynamic flow of dusty tetra-hybrid Casson nanofluid between parallel microplates
  51. Hygrothermal bending analysis of sandwich nanoplates with FG porous core and piezomagnetic faces via nonlocal strain gradient theory
  52. Design and optimization of a TiO2/RGO-supported epoxy multilayer microwave absorber by the modified local best particle swarm optimization algorithm
  53. Mechanical properties and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete modified by nano-SiO2
  54. Self-template synthesis of hollow flower-like NiCo2O4 nanoparticles as an efficient bifunctional catalyst for oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution in alkaline media
  55. High-performance wearable flexible strain sensors based on an AgNWs/rGO/TPU electrospun nanofiber film for monitoring human activities
  56. High-performance lithium–selenium batteries enabled by nitrogen-doped porous carbon from peanut meal
  57. Investigating effects of Lorentz forces and convective heating on ternary hybrid nanofluid flow over a curved surface using homotopy analysis method
  58. Exploring the potential of biogenic magnesium oxide nanoparticles for cytotoxicity: In vitro and in silico studies on HCT116 and HT29 cells and DPPH radical scavenging
  59. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic degradation of azo dyes by heteroatom-doped nickel tungstate nanoparticles
  60. A facile method to synthesize nZVI-doped polypyrrole-based carbon nanotube for Ag(i) removal
  61. Improved osseointegration of dental titanium implants by TiO2 nanotube arrays with self-assembled recombinant IGF-1 in type 2 diabetes mellitus rat model
  62. Functionalized SWCNTs@Ag–TiO2 nanocomposites induce ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagy in liver cancer cells
  63. Triboelectric nanogenerator based on a water droplet spring with a concave spherical surface for harvesting wave energy and detecting pressure
  64. A mathematical approach for modeling the blood flow containing nanoparticles by employing the Buongiorno’s model
  65. Molecular dynamics study on dynamic interlayer friction of graphene and its strain effect
  66. Induction of apoptosis and autophagy via regulation of AKT and JNK mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways in breast cancer cell lines exposed to gold nanoparticles loaded with TNF-α and combined with doxorubicin
  67. Effect of PVA fibers on durability of nano-SiO2-reinforced cement-based composites subjected to wet-thermal and chloride salt-coupled environment
  68. Effect of polyvinyl alcohol fibers on mechanical properties of nano-SiO2-reinforced geopolymer composites under a complex environment
  69. In vitro studies of titanium dioxide nanoparticles modified with glutathione as a potential drug delivery system
  70. Comparative investigations of Ag/H2O nanofluid and Ag-CuO/H2O hybrid nanofluid with Darcy-Forchheimer flow over a curved surface
  71. Study on deformation characteristics of multi-pass continuous drawing of micro copper wire based on crystal plasticity finite element method
  72. Properties of ultra-high-performance self-compacting fiber-reinforced concrete modified with nanomaterials
  73. Prediction of lap shear strength of GNP and TiO2/epoxy nanocomposite adhesives
  74. A novel exploration of how localized magnetic field affects vortex generation of trihybrid nanofluids
  75. Fabrication and physicochemical characterization of copper oxide–pyrrhotite nanocomposites for the cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells and the mechanism
  76. Thermal radiative flow of cross nanofluid due to a stretched cylinder containing microorganisms
  77. In vitro study of the biphasic calcium phosphate/chitosan hybrid biomaterial scaffold fabricated via solvent casting and evaporation technique for bone regeneration
  78. Insights into the thermal characteristics and dynamics of stagnant blood conveying titanium oxide, alumina, and silver nanoparticles subject to Lorentz force and internal heating over a curved surface
  79. Effects of nano-SiO2 additives on carbon fiber-reinforced fly ash–slag geopolymer composites performance: Workability, mechanical properties, and microstructure
  80. Energy bandgap and thermal characteristics of non-Darcian MHD rotating hybridity nanofluid thin film flow: Nanotechnology application
  81. Green synthesis and characterization of ginger-extract-based oxali-palladium nanoparticles for colorectal cancer: Downregulation of REG4 and apoptosis induction
  82. Abnormal evolution of resistivity and microstructure of annealed Ag nanoparticles/Ag–Mo films
  83. Preparation of water-based dextran-coated Fe3O4 magnetic fluid for magnetic hyperthermia
  84. Statistical investigations and morphological aspects of cross-rheological material suspended in transportation of alumina, silica, titanium, and ethylene glycol via the Galerkin algorithm
  85. Effect of CNT film interleaves on the flexural properties and strength after impact of CFRP composites
  86. Self-assembled nanoscale entities: Preparative process optimization, payload release, and enhanced bioavailability of thymoquinone natural product
  87. Structure–mechanical property relationships of 3D-printed porous polydimethylsiloxane films
  88. Nonlinear thermal radiation and the slip effect on a 3D bioconvection flow of the Casson nanofluid in a rotating frame via a homotopy analysis mechanism
  89. Residual mechanical properties of concrete incorporated with nano supplementary cementitious materials exposed to elevated temperature
  90. Time-independent three-dimensional flow of a water-based hybrid nanofluid past a Riga plate with slips and convective conditions: A homotopic solution
  91. Lightweight and high-strength polyarylene ether nitrile-based composites for efficient electromagnetic interference shielding
  92. Review Articles
  93. Recycling waste sources into nanocomposites of graphene materials: Overview from an energy-focused perspective
  94. Hybrid nanofiller reinforcement in thermoset and biothermoset applications: A review
  95. Current state-of-the-art review of nanotechnology-based therapeutics for viral pandemics: Special attention to COVID-19
  96. Solid lipid nanoparticles for targeted natural and synthetic drugs delivery in high-incidence cancers, and other diseases: Roles of preparation methods, lipid composition, transitional stability, and release profiles in nanocarriers’ development
  97. Critical review on experimental and theoretical studies of elastic properties of wurtzite-structured ZnO nanowires
  98. Polyurea micro-/nano-capsule applications in construction industry: A review
  99. A comprehensive review and clinical guide to molecular and serological diagnostic tests and future development: In vitro diagnostic testing for COVID-19
  100. Recent advances in electrocatalytic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid: Mechanism, catalyst, coupling system
  101. Research progress and prospect of silica-based polymer nanofluids in enhanced oil recovery
  102. Review of the pharmacokinetics of nanodrugs
  103. Engineered nanoflowers, nanotrees, nanostars, nanodendrites, and nanoleaves for biomedical applications
  104. Research progress of biopolymers combined with stem cells in the repair of intrauterine adhesions
  105. Progress in FEM modeling on mechanical and electromechanical properties of carbon nanotube cement-based composites
  106. Antifouling induced by surface wettability of poly(dimethyl siloxane) and its nanocomposites
  107. TiO2 aerogel composite high-efficiency photocatalysts for environmental treatment and hydrogen energy production
  108. Structural properties of alumina surfaces and their roles in the synthesis of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs)
  109. Nanoparticles for the potential treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: A physiopathological approach
  110. Current status of synthesis and consolidation strategies for thermo-resistant nanoalloys and their general applications
  111. Recent research progress on the stimuli-responsive smart membrane: A review
  112. Dispersion of carbon nanotubes in aqueous cementitious materials: A review
  113. Applications of DNA tetrahedron nanostructure in cancer diagnosis and anticancer drugs delivery
  114. Magnetic nanoparticles in 3D-printed scaffolds for biomedical applications
  115. An overview of the synthesis of silicon carbide–boron carbide composite powders
  116. Organolead halide perovskites: Synthetic routes, structural features, and their potential in the development of photovoltaic
  117. Recent advancements in nanotechnology application on wood and bamboo materials: A review
  118. Application of aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials in molecular imaging of tumors
  119. Recent progress on corrosion mechanisms of graphene-reinforced metal matrix composites
  120. Research progress on preparation, modification, and application of phenolic aerogel
  121. Application of nanomaterials in early diagnosis of cancer
  122. Plant mediated-green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles: An insight into biomedical applications
  123. Recent developments in terahertz quantum cascade lasers for practical applications
  124. Recent progress in dielectric/metal/dielectric electrodes for foldable light-emitting devices
  125. Nanocoatings for ballistic applications: A review
  126. A mini-review on MoS2 membrane for water desalination: Recent development and challenges
  127. Recent updates in nanotechnological advances for wound healing: A narrative review
  128. Recent advances in DNA nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis and treatment
  129. Electrochemical micro- and nanobiosensors for in vivo reactive oxygen/nitrogen species measurement in the brain
  130. Advances in organic–inorganic nanocomposites for cancer imaging and therapy
  131. Advancements in aluminum matrix composites reinforced with carbides and graphene: A comprehensive review
  132. Modification effects of nanosilica on asphalt binders: A review
  133. Decellularized extracellular matrix as a promising biomaterial for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration
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  135. Micro/nano manufacturing aircraft surface with anti-icing and deicing performances: An overview
  136. Cell type-targeting nanoparticles in treating central nervous system diseases: Challenges and hopes
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  140. Research on AFM tip-related nanofabrication of two-dimensional materials
  141. Advances in phase change building materials: An overview
  142. Development of graphene and graphene quantum dots toward biomedical engineering applications: A review
  143. Nanoremediation approaches for the mitigation of heavy metal contamination in vegetables: An overview
  144. Photodynamic therapy empowered by nanotechnology for oral and dental science: Progress and perspectives
  145. Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles: Bioreduction and biomineralization
  146. Current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-COV-2) and the role of nanomaterial-based theragnosis in combating the pandemic
  147. Application of two-dimensional black phosphorus material in wound healing
  148. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part I
  149. Helical fluorinated carbon nanotubes/iron(iii) fluoride hybrid with multilevel transportation channels and rich active sites for lithium/fluorinated carbon primary battery
  150. The progress of cathode materials in aqueous zinc-ion batteries
  151. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part I
  152. Effect of polypropylene fiber and nano-silica on the compressive strength and frost resistance of recycled brick aggregate concrete
  153. Mechanochemical design of nanomaterials for catalytic applications with a benign-by-design focus
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