Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate

Fatimah K. Abd; Wasan I. Khalil; Ali A. Jaber

doi:10.1515/eng-2024-0014

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Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate

Fatimah K. Abd , Wasan I. Khalil und Ali A. Jaber

Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 26. September 2024

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Abstract

Blast furnaces create iron and steel from pig iron, which in turn produces iron slag. Iron ore is the primary raw material for these transformations. Slag aggregate, a byproduct of the iron and steel industry, is a sustainable building material. In order to produce more environmentally friendly and cost-effective concrete, this study evaluated the effect of inclusion of two waste materials in concrete including, 10% treated cement kiln dust (TCKD) as cement weight replacement with different volumetric contents (15, 25, and 35%) of iron slag coarse aggregate (ISCA) as a replacement to natural coarse aggregate. Microstructure, static modulus of elasticity, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and workability were among the many concrete qualities studied. There was an improvement in oven-dry, splitting tensile, flexural, compressive, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and static modulus of elasticity as ISCA content rose, as shown in the results. Increasing the ISCA concentration reduces thermal conductivity. Depending of the ISCA content, increasing the compressive strength by 1.43–12.4% and the splitting tensile strength by 0.4–5.34% were both possible. There was an additional increase of 1.3–9.15% in flexural strength. From the experimental results, it can be observed that innovative and potent method for producing structural sustainable concrete is provided in this study by inclusion of two waste materials, including TCKD and ISCA. The sustainable concrete produced has high strength and low thermal conductivity relative to concrete not containing these waste materials, which can be used in different construction projects. Moreover, the use of these waste materials in concrete has a benefit of reducing the environmental pollution. All the above-mentioned results conforms the goal of this study.

Keywords: sustainable concrete; cement kiln dust; treated cement kiln dust; iron slag crushed aggregate; thermal conductivity

1 Introduction

Civil engineers have responded to the construction industry’s increasing appreciation for natural resources by developing fresh strategies that place a premium on economic and ecological preservation. More and more people are realizing the need of sustainable development in light of the depletion of natural resources [1,2]. To keep things green and keep the concrete prices down, recycling and reusing of materials are now a standard practice as referred in refs [3,4]. The construction sector has recently made sustainability an issue in its manufacturing procedures. This has necessitated investigating concrete’s properties and making use of aggregates made from more sustainable source materials or solid waste [5,6]. Blast furnace conversion of iron ore to pig iron produces iron slag, a waste product of the iron and steel industry [7]. The first known use of slag aggregates from the building industry was by the Romans, who built their roads using crushed slag from the period’s crude iron manufacturing [8]. Researchers found that adding steel slag aggregates to concrete at a volume ratio of 50–75% had no negative impact on the material’s strength or durability [9]. The addition of iron slag to concrete may increase the material’s strength, according to a comparison between regular concrete and concrete with this ingredient [10]. Due to its crystalline form, electrical arch furnace (EAF) slag has less hydraulic activity, which ensures that it will remain volumetrically stable in concrete. There was a rise in compressive strength in EAF slag concrete [11]. The angular and rougher texture of EAF slag makes it a better cement paste binder than natural aggregates [12,13]. Improved paste–aggregate interface transition zones (ITZs), slightly higher densities [14,15], and less environmental impact are all benefits of using EAF slag aggregates in concrete production [16]. A large quantity of superplasticizer addition is required, since this interaction reduces the flowability of the concrete [17]. Concrete using EAF slag often showed compressive strength increase of up to 50% compared to concrete using natural aggregate. Due to EAF slag’s high modulus and regular ITZ advancements, the concrete’s modulus grows over time [18]. Therefore, one attractive way to increase the value of air-cooled blast furnace slag (ACBFS) is to use it as an aggregate in concrete. The behavior of concrete with ACBFS aggregates has been the subject of several tests carried out over the past few decades. One possible alternative to concrete that uses man-made aggregates is ACBFS aggregate concrete, which uses ACBFS as its primary ingredient [19]. Al Mashhadani et al. [20] present a review for previous studies of high-performance concrete (HPC) properties produced using different types of waste materials to replace cement, sand, and coarse aggregate partially. These studies illustrate that the inclusion of 40% copper slag improves the performance of HPC mixture and the content of recycled coarse aggregate as a replacement can reach up to 50% in HPC without significant effects on concrete durability. Foundry slag is used within the range of 10–45%. Nadeem and Wasan investigated the effect of crushed clay brick waste aggregate on some hardened properties of green self-compacting concrete (GSCC). The results illustrate that the inclusion of 15% crushed clay brick waste aggregate as a partial replacement to natural coarse aggregate enhances the strengths of (GSCC). Coarse aggregate can have its strength increased by using a high-performance superplasticizer in combination with artificial expanded clay aggregate, with different amounts of replacement allowed [21]. There is an immediate need for governments worldwide to implement greener policies due to the rising production of solid waste from municipalities, businesses, and farms [22]. Utilizing waste materials as a partial substitute for cement weight gave a clear correlation between tensile and flexural strength, as well as compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) [23].

None of the previous studies examined the combined effects of utilizing both cement kiln dust as partial cement replacements and iron slag as natural coarse aggregate substitute in concrete. So, to address this knowledge gap, this study will investigate how inclusion of two waste materials including, various proportions of locally sourced iron slag and 10% treated cement kiln dust (TCKD) affect concrete properties such as modulus of elasticity, unit weight, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, UPV, water absorption, thermal conductivity, and compressive strength. The significance of this study is that, the use of both slag and aggregate in concrete and TCKD as a cement substitute reduces the quantity of these waste products, while keeping the cement and natural aggregates typically utilized in concrete production. Lessening the environmental contamination is enhanced by using both of these wastes in concrete production.

2 Material characteristics and experimental methods

2.1 Materials

Coarse aggregate, sand, cement, water, iron slag, and superplasticizer were the components of the current experimental investigation. Portland cement was used and kept it in airtight plastic jars. There was no deviation from the 2019 Iraqi Standard in the cement [24]. Used in the experiment was natural sand having the following specs: specific gravity of 2.62, absorption of 2.4%, fineness modulus of 2.32, sulfate content (SO₃) of 0.2%, and maximum aggregate size of 4.75 mm. It satisfies Iraqi Standard No. 45 [25]. This research makes use of natural crushed stone as its coarse aggregate; the maximum particle size for this material is 12 mm, and its specific gravity is 2.65. It also contains 0.09% SO₃ and has a water absorption rate of 1.92%. The coarse aggregate had a crushing value of 17.4%. According to Iraqi Standard No. 45 [25], these qualities are acceptable. Tables 1 and 2 detail the parameters of untreated and TCKD, respectively. A cement manufacturer in AL-Kufa supplied the CKD. The process of treating CKD involved washing it with water to eliminate any soluble alkalis, followed by drying the material that remained after treatment. The last step was to grind and test the CKD. The Al-Nasr facility supplied the iron slag. The next step was to crush, grade the ISA (Figure 1) and then the EDX test was done (Figure 2). Lastly, it would blend with the coarse aggregate that was already there. Table 3 displays the chemical properties of the iron slag coarse aggregate (ISCA), while Table 4 shows its gradation, which is in accordance with the gradation of natural coarse aggregate. The ISCA is 2,805 kg/m³ dense, 713 kg/m³ dry rodded, has a specific gravity of 2.8, a thermal conductivity of 0.159 W/(m/K) and a crushing value of 22.2%. Its absorption rate is 4.4%. Potable water was used to mix and cure various concrete compositions. Utilized as an additive, Sika’s “ViscoCrete®” – a third-generation polycarboxylate polymer technology – is known as HRWRA. Its density is 1.085 kg/L, it has a pH range of 4–6, and has a brownish color [26]. It is classified as Type F according to ASTM C494 [27].

Table 1

Chemical composition of untreated and TCKD

Oxides	CaO	SiO₂	Al₂O₃	Fe₂O₃	MgO	SO₃	Na₂O	K₂O
Untreated CKD (CKD)	38.75	13.132	2.816	1.962	3.865	4.63	1.585	4.277
TCKD	40.03	13.439	3.021	2.043	3.707	3.74	0.82	1.561

Table 2

Physical properties of untreated and TCKD

Property	L.O.I	Fineness (m²/kg)
Untreated CKD (CKD)	25.75	524
TCKD	31.44	585

Figure 1

Graded crushed iron slag aggregate.

Figure 2

EDX test of iron slag.

Table 3

Grading of crushed iron slag aggregate

Sieve size (mm)	Passing (%)	The boundaries of Iraqi specification No. 45/2016 [25]
37.5	100	100
20	95.5	100–95
10	59	60–30
4.75	30	10–35

Table 4

Chemical properties of crushed iron slag aggregate

Oxides	CaO	SiO₂	Al₂O₃	Fe₂O₃	MgO	Na₂O	K₂O
Content (%)	8.644	33.982	10.594	30.734	2.856	0.376	0.741

2.2 Mix proportions and mixes

With a compressive strength of 35 MPa, the reference mix was constructed in accordance with ACI committee-211 [28]. The reference mix has a cement content of 525 kg/m³ and a water to cement ratio of 0.42, with a weight proportion of 1:1.19:1.8. HRWRA dosages ranged from 0.8 to 1.9 L/m³. Selecting the optimal dose of HRWRA with slump values ranging from 105 to 110 mm required several trial mixes. The results show that 1.9 L/m³ of HRWRA is the optimal dosage to achieve an optimal compressive strength of 52.4 MPa at 28 days of age. This discovery emphasizes the need of determining the optimal dose of HRWRA in concrete mixes to attain the required workability and strength. Then, the slump value for the CKD-free combination was kept at 10, 20, 30, and 40% and ran a series of experiments with different CKD contents. With a compressive strength of 37.4 MPa, the ideal amount of CKD to use in concrete mixture was 10%. Addition of the same quantity of CKD (10%) following treatment increased the mixture’s compressive strength to 43.5 MPa. The next step in studying the features of this concrete was to make combinations containing TCKD at a 10% volume ratio and different quantities of local iron slag (15–35% by volume) in place of natural coarse aggregate. It was necessary to soak the crushed iron slag aggregate in water for 24 h before exposing it to air in order to make it surface dry and prevent it from absorbing water from the paste while it was being mixed. Specifics of the mixture ratios with varying amounts of ISCA are illustrated in Table 5. With the exception of the mix containing 35% ISCA, all of the other combinations used a water-to-cement ratio of 0.25 and a dose of HRWRA of 1.9 L/m³. The combinations’ workability was unaffected by the addition of ISCA up to 25%. A slightly greater dosage of HRWRA of 2 L/m³ was chosen to correct the slump value, as using 35% ISCA produces a minor drop in workability.

Table 5

Concrete proportions for mixes containing 10% TCKD and various contents of ISCA

Mix proportions by weight	Mix symbol	Dosage of HRWRA (L/m³)	w/c ratio	Water content (kg/m³)	TCKD content (%)	ISCA content (%)	Slump (mm)
1:1.19:1.8 cement: sand: gravel with cement content of 525 kg/m³	0 ISA	1.9	0. 25	131.25	10	0	109
	15 ISA	1.9	0.25	131.25	10	15	110
	25 ISA	1.9	0.25	131.25	10	25	110
	35 ISA	2	0.25	131.25	10	35	110

2.3 Mixing process and specimens preparation

In order to get a perfect mixture of the concrete ingredients, this investigation’s mixing method included many processes. The first 2 min mixing stage was to combine cement, dust from the cement kiln, natural coarse aggregate, iron slag aggregate, and fine aggregate. This preserved the components’ uniform distribution and guaranteed a uniform composition in the final combination. Then, after waiting for least 10 min, add one-third of the mixing water. The aggregate was able to soak up the water, and the combination reached the right moisture level, because of this. Two-thirds of the water was whisked for combining with HRWRA, and was added to the mixture and stirred for 2 min. The concrete mixture again mixed for another 5 min. To get the required workability and strength from the finished concrete, it was necessary to evenly distribute the HRWRA throughout the mixture. In the end, the mixtures were double-checked for uniformity and complete blending by pausing for 1 min before continuing for another 10 min. The entire time taken to mix the concrete was 30 min. It was the standard practice to clean and lubricate the molds so that the concrete would not stick after it had solidified. The test standards dictated the layering of samples into several molds, including cubes, cylinders, and prisms. Wrapping the molds in plastic allowed them to sit for around 24 h. Opening the molds allowed the specimens to soak in water until testing time. The study’s meticulous and methodical mixing procedure is the key to producing consistent, high-quality concrete. Mixing optimization allows for the production of concrete mixes with desirable features, such as strong strength and satisfactory workability, while simultaneously decreasing the building effect’s environmental impact.

2.4 Experimental tests

Sixty-four specimens were prepared to discover the best replacement percent of ISCA for normal coarse aggregate while keeping the right mechanical and physical properties. Increasing the ISCA concentration in the mixes in steps of 15, 25, and 35% allowed to study the impact of various ISCA levels on the concrete qualities. Along with these three mixtures, a reference mixture was also created, but this time it included only 10% TCKD. In order to determine the volume replacement percent of ISCA after 28 days of curing, 16 samples were evaluated.

The following experiments required the construction of three separate test specimens made of concrete. Subjected 100 mm cube specimens of concrete to a compressive strength test in compliance with BS 1881: Part 116 [29]. The procedures followed ASTM C 642 [30] for the oven dry density and absorption water testing. In accordance with ASTM C496 [31], the specimens used in the tensile strength test for splitting had a 100 mm diameter and a 200 mm height. ASTM C597 [32] was followed for conducting the UPV test. Concrete prismatic specimens (100 × 100 × 400 mm) were subjected to the modulus of rupture test (flexural strength) in compliance with ASTM C78 [33]. Cylindrical specimens of 300 mm in height and 150 mm in diameter were subjected to the modulus of elasticity test in compliance with ASTM C469 [34]. Concrete cube specimens of 100 mm in diameter were subjected to a thermal conductivity test in accordance with ASTM 1113-15 [35]. During the course of the test, the concrete’s thermal conductivity was monitored, a key parameter for assessing its thermal insulation capabilities. A SEM test was conducted on a tiny sample of concrete, measuring less than 1 mm in length, in compliance with ASTM C1723 [36]. When it comes to the microstructure of concrete, this test research is crucial. When the specimens were 28 days old, all the assays were performed.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Compressive strength

Table 6 and Figure 3 show the results of the compressive strength of sustainable concrete at 28 days with varying amounts of ISCA and a mixture of 10% TCKD. Adding 15% ISCA, 25% ISCA, and 35% ISCA to the mixture marginally raises the compressive strength by 1.4, 6, and 11% of respective. The increase in compressive strength is because the inclusion of iron slag makes the concrete denser, since the specific gravity of iron slag (2.8) is greater than that for natural coarse aggregate (2.65). Compared to natural coarse aggregate, which increases the concrete’s compressive strength by 17.4%, ISCA has a greater crushing value of 22.2%. In addition, the large number of visible surface pores in iron slag makes it an excellent substrate for cement paste, which can increase the bond strength [37]. Improving concrete’s compressive strength was another outcome of ISCA’s efforts to reduce the variation in cementitious paste thickness around this aggregate [38]. Slag was able to adhere better to the mortar because of its coarse texture and increased number of disconnected spaces. The ITZ in slag concrete is characterized by a small space between the mortar and aggregate [39]. All the above-mentioned mechanisms are illustrated as SEM images.

Table 6

Properties of concrete mixtures containing 10% TCKD and different contents of ISCA

Property	0%	15%	25%	35%
Compressive strength at 28 days (MPa)	43.5	44.12	46.3	48.9
UPV (km/s)	4.26	4.3	4.52	5.38
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)	5.63	5.65	5.74	5.93
Flexural strength (MOR) (MPa)	8.2	8.31	8.69	8.95
Dry density (kg/m³)	2,380	2,385	2,410	2,460
Water absorption (%)	4.15	4	3.54	3.1
Thermal conductivity [W/(m/K)]	1.22	1.15	1.02	0.85
Modulus of elasticity (MOE) (GPa)	44.25	44.54	44.6	47.51

Figure 3

Effect of ISCA content on the compressive strength of concrete.

3.2 Splitting tensile strength

The splitting tensile strength results for all concrete specimens are shown in Table 6 and Figure 4. According to the findings, concrete specimens containing 15, 25, and 35% crushed ISCA have a slight improvement for splitting tensile strength. The enhancement percentages were 0.35, 1.9, and 5% for ISCA content of 15, 25, and 35%, respectively, relative to reference concrete without ISCA. The rough surface and high angularity of the ISCA contributed to the rise in indirect tensile strength, which increased the link between the aggregate and the cement pest [40].

Figure 4

Effect of ISCA content on splitting tensile strength of concrete.

3.3 Flexural strength

Table 6 and Figure 5 illustrate the impact of ISCA on the outcomes of concrete’s flexural strength. Relative to the reference mix, the results demonstrate that a 15, 25, and 35% increase in ISCA raises the flexural strength of the concrete by 1.32, 5.64, and 8.38%, respectively. Because of the rough surface and high angularity of the slag aggregate, the aggregate and cement paste form a stronger bond, leading to an increase in flexural strength [40]. It is clear that concrete with high strength can be produced when both CKD and ISCA waste materials is used, in addition to the benefit of reducing the environmental pollution when these two waste materials are used in concrete.

Figure 5

Effect of ISCA content on flexural strength of concrete.

3.4 UPV

Figure 6 and Table 6 display the values of the UPVs for concrete specimens with 15, 25, and 35% ISCA added, respectively. The results showed that concrete with different amounts of ISCA had better UPV. In dense materials with little porosity, the wave velocity is greater. Due to the high density of the ISCA and the greater interfacial tension between it and the matrix [41], the inclusion of slag particles in concrete significantly increases the wave velocity.

Figure 6

Effect of ISCA content on the UPV of concrete.

3.5 Oven dry density

Figure 7 and Table 6 display the values of the UPVs for concrete specimens with 15, 25, and 35% ISCA added. The results showed that concrete with different amounts of ISCA had better UPV. In dense materials with little porosity, the wave velocity is greater. Due to the high density of the ISCA and the greater interfacial tension between it and the matrix [41], the inclusion of slag particles in concrete significantly increases the wave velocity [42].

Figure 7

Effect of ISCA content on the dry density of concrete.

3.6 Water absorption

Table 6 and Figure 8 show that the water absorption in concrete reduced as the concentration of ISCA rose. The water absorption rate decreased by about 3.61, 14.7, and 25.3%, respectively, for concrete specimens that had 15, 25, and 35% ISCA replacements to natural coarse aggregate, as compared to the control samples’ average absorption rate of 4.15%. One possible explanation for the reduced water absorption rate is the cement matrix’s ability to entirely encase the slag particles’ pores, resulting in a denser surface and making it even more difficult for water to permeate concrete [43].

Figure 8

Effect of ISCA content on the water absorption of concrete.

3.7 Thermal conductivity

Assuming a constant temperature gradient, thermal conductivity is the rate at which heat moves per unit area through a material per unit thickness per unit direction toward a surface per unit area [35]. In terms of heat transfer, concrete is quite poor, with a value between 0.62 and 3.3 W/(m/K) [44]. Figure 9 and Table 6 make it quite evident that the thermal conductivity data fall within the previously mentioned range. Compared to the control mix, the thermal conductivity of concrete with ISCA levels of 15, 25, and 35% is 5.73, 16.4, and 30.33% lower, respectively. The high porosity of iron slag, which is 70 times less thermally conductive than concrete might be the cause of this reduction in thermal conductivity [45]. Adding 35% ISCA to concrete significantly lowers its heat conductivity, making it more insulating. As a result, less power is used to cool or heat the buildings, which contributes to sustainability. It is clear from the experimental results that the inclusion of both CKD and ISCA as waste materials in concrete causes significant enhancement in concrete thermal insulation, which conform the goal of this study in producing more sustainable concrete.

Figure 9

Effect of ISCA content on thermal conductivity of concrete.

3.8 Modulus of elasticity

According to the American Concrete Institute, one of the most important tests to ensure that structural concrete meets all standards is the modulus of elasticity [46]. Table 6 and Figure 10 show the effect of ISCA concentration on the modulus of elasticity of concrete. The results showed that between 15 and 35% ISCA, the modulus of elasticity rose marginally by 0.78, 0.56, and 6.86% compared to reference concrete (44.25 GPa). Substituting slag for coarse aggregate in concrete increases its compressive, tensile, and elastic modulus strengths, according to previous studies [47]. The relationship between an increase in modulus of elasticity and a rise in concrete’s compressive strength is generally known.

Figure 10

Effect of ISCA content on the modulus of elasticity of concrete.

3.9 SEM

Figures 11 and 12 show the scanning electron micrographs of the control mix and the selected concrete mixes, respectively, made with 10% TCKD and 25% ISCA. Figure 11d shows scanning electron micrographs of the control mix, which consists of 10% TCKD and 100% natural aggregate, and it exhibits thick paste and thick gel. This is due to the higher fineness for TCKD (585 kg/m³) compared to the fineness of cement. Figure 12a, which is the SEM image with 25% ISCA, shows a reduction in pores. Optical microscopy images reveal that the mixture exhibits strong matrix aggregate adhesion. The SEM images illustrate a robust interfacial zone and a strong connection between the slag aggregate and cement matrix, which is due to the presence of the pores on the surface of the ISCA and its rough surface texture that greatly improved the compactness and strength of the concrete. This improved the test findings for slag-aggregated concrete, showing that it outperforms natural-aggregate concrete in compressive, splitting-tensile, and flexural strengths. Figure 12, which displays scanning electron micrographs, also reveals a strong cement matrix covering the slag particle’s surface. This is because the cement gel forms a strong link with the slag aggregate, which increases the compressive strength of ISCA-containing concrete, especially in areas with voids. The surface roughness of iron slag affects the binding strength of concrete. The rough surface of the iron slag strengthens the cement bond [36]. This is because the cement may coat the surface as well as the pores and solidify the linkages. The SEM pictures corroborate the test findings, which show an increase in water absorption, modulus of elasticity, and strength.

Figure 11

SEM images for concrete specimen with 10% TCKD with different magnifications. (a) SEM image for specimen with 10% TCKD, (b) SEM image for Zone 1, (c) SEM image for Zone 2, and (d) SEM image for Zone 3.

Figure 12

SEM images for concrete specimens with 10% TCKD and 25% slag aggregate with different magnifications. (a) SEM image for concrete with 10% TCKD, (b) SEM image for Zone 1 and 25% slag aggregate, (c) SEM image for Zone 2, and (d) SEM image for Zone 3.

4 Conclusions

The results of this study’s experiments allow us to draw the following conclusions:

An increase in the proportion of ISCA results in an increase in compressive strength.
The UPV protection, oven dry density, flexural strength, and tensile strength of the concrete all saw small improvements with increasing amounts of ISCA.
Comparing concrete specimens with 15, 25, and 35% ISCA replacements to reference concrete with natural coarse aggregate, water absorption decreases of 3.61, 14.7, and 25.3% were observed, respectively.
An increase of 15% in ISCA resulted in a 5.73% reduction in concrete thermal conductivity, a 16.4% improvement, and a 30.3% improvement in thermal insulation as a result of 25 and 35% content of ISCA.
Modulus of elasticity increases somewhat with increasing ISCA content.
Specimens with 10% TCKD and 25% ISCA exhibit a dense cement matrix with a good link between ISCA particles and cement paste, whereas specimens with natural aggregate and 10% TCKD show a dense cement paste matrix with extremely small holes in the SEM images.
The SEM pictures corroborate the experimental findings that demonstrate enhanced strength, modulus of elasticity, and water absorption.
Incorporating 10% TCKD as a weight replacement to cement and ISCA as a volumetric replacement to natural coarse aggregate can enhance all mechanical properties of concrete, including compressive strength, elastic modulus, water absorption, and thermal insulation.

So, it is possible to use eco-friendly ingredients into concrete mixes, such as CKD and ISCA. Reducing cement production-related gas emissions is one benefit of utilizing CKD instead of cement in concrete. Using ISCA can lessen the need for coarse aggregate, which is a material that is in short supply. This investigation provides an innovative and potent method for producing affordable sustainable concrete by inclusion of two waste materials including TCKD and ISCA. The produced concrete has higher strength, lower water absorption, and lower thermal conductivity relative to that not containing these waste materials.

Acknowledgements

The cement kiln dust used in this study was provided by Al-Kufa Cement Factory.

Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. FKA developed the theoretical formalism, performed the analytical calculations, and performed the numerical simulations. WIK and AAJ contributed to the final version of the manuscript. WIK supervised the project.
Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: The copy of the data that back up the results of this study are available from the corresponding author.

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Received: 2023-12-17

Revised: 2024-03-15

Accepted: 2024-03-20

Published Online: 2024-09-26

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2024-0014

Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel

sustainable concrete; cement kiln dust; treated cement kiln dust; iron slag crushed aggregate; thermal conductivity

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