Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site

Rana M. Al-Khadaar; Mahmood D. Ahmed

doi:10.1515/eng-2022-0596

Artikel Open Access

Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site

Rana M. Al-Khadaar und Mahmood D. Ahmed

Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 9. April 2024

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Abstract

Progress in jet grouting technology has been focused on the cutting-edge observer of jets, which aims to generate large columns of jet grouting and increase the activity of construction sites. Since jet grouting techniques vary from conventional grouting methods to modern techniques, they can be used in a variety of soil types and their application areas are expanding quickly. So, grouting methods have become very popular methods for subsoil strengthening. This article includes finding the physical and mechanical properties of the soil of the AL-Rashdia site, using a single-jet grouting machine and a steel model to test concrete piles and jet piles, and a double-jet grouting machine to compare the results obtained from laboratory model of one-dimensional jet grouting column pile with those of a one-dimensional concrete pile. The comparison showed that the settlement of the jet pile was smaller than that of the concrete pile and the bearing load was higher with jet columns giving a high bearing capacity comparable with the concrete pile. Shen’s method is more adequate to find the ultimate bearing load and the settlement for this load. Also, the ultimate pile ratio was 115.63% for the jet column, and the ultimate pile ratio for the concrete column was 123.49%. The compressive strength of the core sample of jet columns was large which improved the bearing capacity of the foundation.

Keywords: double jet grouting; single column; concrete pile column; settlement; load-settlement curve; numerical analysis; and Abaqus program

1 Introduction

Engineering construction sites have been restricted due to large and rapid urbanization. So, different construction operations have been shifted to problematic soil sites such as excavation casting areas, filler ground, marine soils, and swamp areas. Loss and very loss soils, soft soils, soils near beaches, loess soils, and dune soils are considered problematic soils. As is well known in foundation engineering, the load coming from superstructures is transferred to the ground by shallow or deep foundations. If all solutions cannot support the soil or do not possess the desired capacity, the soil must be improved to be suitable to support the structure.

The improvement of soils by different methods was one of the solutions. The improvement may be done by mixing the soil with a suitable material like cement, bentonite, or nanomaterial; Choobbasti et al. [1] studied the effect of different ratios of cement and nanomaterial added to the sand to improve the engineering properties of sandy soils including compaction, soil dry density, and shear strength. Materials like Palm Oil Fuel Ash and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag [2] are used to improve beat soil, especially physicochemical, physical, and mechanical properties. To improve the shear strength of peat soils and stabilize them [3] sodium hydroxide was added by using different percentages. Also, Ali and Yousuf [4] used deep compaction, preloading, deep mixing, and grouting with three ratios of cement grout (0.1:0.9, 0.8:0.2, and 0.7:0.3) water–cement ratio and fly ash as replacement material with percentages (10, 25, and 40%). The shear strength parameter and the volume of the routed zone increased.

With the development of improvement techniques and technology, grouting techniques may be divided into different types. One of these techniques is a jet grouting technique, which entails injecting a grout material with pressure into an otherwise inaccessible but interconnected pore or empty area of which neither the configuration nor the volume is known. The grout can be cementitious, resinous, or a solution of chemical combination. In the 1960s, this technique was used by Farmer and Attewell with a high-speed jet to cut the rocks [5]. This idea inspired a Japanese group to use it to improve soil and after that began to spread in the United States of America, Canada, Europe, Italy, United Kingdom, Germany, and worldwide [6,7]. This technique began to develop until now. Lunardi [8] gave details about using the jet grout technique as a retaining structure of buildings in Milan and using the technique in tunnel construction. Durgunoglu et al. [9] investigated the use of jet grouting technology to limit the possibility of liquefaction due to an earthquake that happened in Turkey. Onyelowe et al. [10] in his research studied different criteria to determine the optimum stabilization technique for soft clay soil; one of those criteria was the jet grouting technique. Hamidi et al. [11] studied the use of three types of jet grouting to build impermeable barriers to block water flow while working in different boreholes and compared the results with finite element analysis to verify stresses and deformation. Debost et al. [12] in Sydney used a single jet plus monitor, jet grout, and moderate energy, with sand and gravel soil within a site heavily polluted with dangerous compounds caused by old gas. Moayed et al. [13] detailed the usage of the jet technique at a site in the southern part of Iran. They listed the variables that determine how jet grouting works, including the elastic modulus of the jet grouting column, the model of soil behavior, specific gravity, and compressive strength of the jet grouting column. The column’s diameter was determined by quality control, and the numerical solution using the Plaxis software and Mohr–Coulomb model was compared to the diameter obtained by using shear wave testing and pile integrity tests. Skutnik et al. [14] in this research combined deep mixing with jet grouting techniques to solve the complex geotechnical problems especially building barriers to reduce the hydraulic conductivity of subsoil. Al-Khadaar and Ahmed [15] discussed research studies around the world related to different types of jet grouting techniques. For the double-jet grouting technique, Chuaqui et al. [16] used double fluid jet grouting machine to improve sites sensitive to environmental and cohesionless soil to construct a sewer system with a tunnel 5 km long in Canada. The unconfined compressive strength of grouted soil ranged from 4.6 to 9.7 MPa after 28 days, the permeability was reduced, and the diameter of the grouted column increased. In Bangkok, Iwakubo et al. [17] successfully used large diameter jet grouted piles in Blue Line Extension Project to reduce uplift and piping due to the second stiff layer, increase the hydraulic conductivity, and optimize the time and cost of the constructed site. Zhao et al. [18] proposed a new explicit model to predict column diameter suitable for three types of jet grouting techniques by using a huge database from around the world. They compared the results of the model with those obtained from an empirical method by using cross-validation method.

2 Experimental study

The soil in this study was taken from the Al-Rashdia site North East of Baghdad near the Tigris River as shown in Figure 1. The soil was poorly graded sand where the classification of SP ranged from 2.38 to 0.075 mm, as shown in Figure 2 depending upon grain size analysis [19]. Tables 1 and 2 show the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties obtained from laboratory tests carried out according to ASTM standards.

Figure 1

Al-Rashdia site North east of Baghdad, Iraq.

Figure 2

Grain size distribution of the soil used in the tests.

Table 1

Physical and mechanical properties of the soil used in the present model

[21] Index properties and test name	Value	Specification
Grain size analysis		ASTM D422-2007
D ₁₀ (m)	0.158 × 10⁻³
D ₃₀ (m)	0.192 × 10⁻³
D ₅₀ (m)	0.238 × 10⁻³
D ₆₀ (m)	0.265 × 10⁻³
Coefficient of uniformity (C _u)	1.678
Coefficient of curvature (C _c)	0.876
Soil classification	SP	USCS
Specific gravity (G _s) [22]	2.67	ASTM D854-2000
Dry unit weights
Maximum dry unit weight (kN/m³) [23]	14.88	ASTM D4253-2006
Minimum dry unit weight (kN/m³) [23]	13.77	ASTM D4254-2006 [24]
Dry unit weight used (kN/m³)	14.32
Relative density (% Dr)	51.49
Maximum void ratio	0.939
Minimum void ratio	0.794
Mechanical test [25]
Apparent cohesion (kN/m²)	8	ASTM D3080-2004
φ°	34.56	ASTM D3080-2004

Table 2

Chemical properties of the soil used in the present model

Index properties and test name	Value	Specification
Chemical tests		BS 1377-3 or ASTM
% So₄	0.328	ASTM C1580-14
% So₃	0.273	BS 1377-3 [26]
% Cl	0.032	BS 1377-3
% Organic	0.144	ASTM D2974-20 [27]
PH	9.71	ASTM D4972-19 [28]

2.1 Geotechnical limitation

The development of geotechnical understanding returns to the physical model. The need for a full-scale model is less because of the time required to construct the model and the increase in cost. So, the use of a small scale is preferred because it allows for conducting more tests and investigating more variables, yet it requires less cost and saves time [20].

The small-scale model has the ability to reduce or eliminate the errors, give much more rapid results, and limit boundary effects.

Scaling factors that were used are listed in Table 3 which shows the general expressions for various modeling variables and also indicates the ratio of model to prototype values which is equal to (1/20). In this study, the diameter of the pile was found to depend upon the diameter of the drilling and routing rod that is used in the grouting device. That means the steel rod affects the diameter of the jet column, and since the diameter of the jet pile injected was found to be 0.0572 m, the scale factor was (1/20). The length of the jet column was found to depend upon the length of the steel rod and the length or thickness of the soil layer. During the penetration of the rod to the desired depth and after raising it the formation of the jet column is completed and the column is cured for 28 days. Drilling the soil and extracting the jet column for different trials and measuring the length indicated that the average length is equal to 0.45 m.

Table 3

Scaling factors [29]

Quantity	Laboratory
Length	1/n
Mass density	1
Stiffness	1/n ^α
Stress	1/n
Strain	1/n ^1−α
Displacement	1/n ^2−α
Permeability	1
Time	n ^2−α

n = scaling factor.

From experiments, it was found that (α) can be set to 0.5 for sandy soils while equal to 1.0 for clayey soil. In all models, it was assumed that the same material has been used in the prototype and model so the scale factor for density is equal to unity (1.0).

2.2 Setup test

The model setup used in the research consisted of a container made of steel plates 0.005 m. The steel tank consisted of three parts the dimensions of each one of them are 1.2 m × 1.2 m × 0.4 m, and the dimensions of the outer frame are 1.66 m × 1.66 m × 2.60 m.

The apparatus utilized to fill the tank with soil consists of two parts, a shaft gear and a raining box; the apparatus is made of steel 0.850 m × 0.205 m × 1.100 m in dimensions and ended with an inclined funnel used as a hopper above the tank to dispense the substance at various heights. Two rollers were provided to improve the horizontal movement of the raining system box as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Model and raining tank.

2.3 Manufactured jet grouting machine

A small number of researchers have the skills to create a jet grouting physical model in the laboratory over the past 30 years. Ji [30] utilized a single jet grout with low pressure and flow rate while Nikbakhtan [31] utilized a triple jet grout with low pressure and flow rate. Also, few researchers studied the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of jet grouting processes; instead, most research studies dealt with numerical methods such as neural networks or other programs.

Due to the fast growth of technology, industrialization, and urbanization in different sections, the availability of good sites and soil conditions are decreasing with time. The primary goal of jet grouting is to enhance the soil’s mechanical, thermal, and physical qualities, which consequently reduce settlement, deformation, and permeability of the ground. Besides that, jet grout may be considered inexpensive and requires low cost in comparison with other techniques. Furthermore, jet grout can be used for small projects as well as large ones. The researchers developed a laboratory jet grouting device and necessary parts to work as a double jet grout because the device manufactured by (Al-Tamimi, 2023) was for single jet grout only. Figure 4 shows the parts of the Jet Grouting Machine Manufactured by the researchers.

Figure 4

The developed jet grouting machine.

The grouting device was made by a steel frame composed of a hollow square tube section to hold the parts of the machine. The device was provided with four steel wheels about 0.10 m in diameter as shown in Figure 5. The parts of the device are divided into:

Rotation and drilling motor: consists of two components; the first one is a three-phase motor attached to a gearbox, a screw thread diameter steel shaft with square thread, and a big steel nut welded to a small box that was inserted into a larger box installed on the setup frame. The interior box slipped at 0.2 mpm speed. The second one includes a one-horsepower three-phase variable speed gearbox that rotates clockwise and counterclockwise.
A 1.5 m platform (like a cantilever) to support the rotation motor and grouting rode.
Grouting system consists of the following:
1. A rod to inject grout and drilling, a hollow 0.025 m diameter steel pipe 0.6 m long;
2. A 0.003 m diameter nozzle to inject grout;
3. A 0.003 m diameter air nozzle; and
4. A Steel drill kit.
A motor for lifting and lowering the platform.
An electric control board which includes all the accessories such as conductors, overloads switches, selectors, emergency switches, and all necessary fittings to control and operate the motors and grouting pumps.
A 2 bar compressor with a control gage to pump air through the nozzle of the injection rod.
A grout system consists of an external cylindrical tank 0.475 m in diameter and a mixing motor to prevent the slurry from separation and falling into the bottom of the tank. A steel cylindrical tube was used to connect the tank with the grouting pump and the injection and drilling rod. All these connections were controlled by gate valves. At the bottom of the tank, there a gate valve with a steel tube was provided to clean the system from slurry after finishing the injection.
A 20–25 kPa pressure gauge to control the injection pressure.
A water pump to help in drilling the soil before injection.

Figure 5

Jet grouting machine with modulation from single to double grout.

2.4 Jet grouting column procedure and properties

The steps followed to perform grouting injection are as follows:

activating the drilling rod by rotating clockwise and downwards,
starting the grouted drill by activating the compressor to drill the soil in the model at the specific place and drill down to the desired point,
activating the pump from the control board to start the injection operation by drilling counterclockwise and begin to drill, inject the slurry, and move upward until reaching the surface of the hole,
during the grouting process, the spoil of grout that exists on the surface is removed to avoid heaving the surface.
carrying on the process of drilling and injecting until the whole grouting columns needed in the model are cast, and
curing the columns by covering the grouted space with wetted canvas cover.

When curing time was over, the jet machine was used to make a number of jet pile trails as shown in Figure 6 to be used in mechanical testing to determine the properties of jet piles. Laboratory testing was then conducted by using the hydraulic jake and pile load test to check the ability of the jet pile to resist the vertical force and know the bearing capacity and the value of settlement of the jet pile. Mechanical and physical characteristics of jet grouting columns are shown in Tables 4 and 5 (Figure 7).

Figure 6

Jet grout column from trial tests.

Table 4

Tensile strength of jet grouting columns using a theoretical approach [36]

Sample No.	Uniaxial compressive strength (kN/m²) [37]	Spilt tensile strength
		ACI committee 318 [38]	CEB-FIB (1991) [39]	[40]	[41]	[42]	[43]	Average tensile strength (kN/m²)
		T = 0.56 × q ^0.5	T = 0.3 × q ^0.66	T = 0.272 × q ^0.71	T = 0.294 × q ^0.69	T = 0.387 × q ^0.63	T = 0.249 × q ^0.772
1	14,900	2.167	1.785	1.852	1.613	2.123	2.004	1,923
2	11,200	1.874	1.478	1.512	1.347	1.774	1.608	1,599
3	12,700	1.996	1.606	1.653	1.458	1.920	1.772	1,734
4	1,411,000	21.036	35.960	46.853	28.350	37.318	67.242	39,460
5	16,000	2.24	1.870	1.948	1.687	2.220	2.118	2014
	293,160

Table 5

Physical properties of the grouting column [36]

No.	W/C	UCS (kN/m²)	Ts (kN/m²)	Cohesion (kN/m²)	Angle of friction	Density (kN/m³)	Elasticity modulus (kN/m²)
1	1:1	14,900	1,923	2,680	50	22.814	539,049
2	1:1	11,200	1,599	2,090	49	16.264	412,062
3	1:1	12,700	1,734	2,346	49	19.837	1,049,205
4	1:1	1,411,000	39,460	117,981	71	21.863	15,490,250
5	1:1	1,600	2,014	2,838	51	16.867	992,879
		293,160	9,346	25,587	54	19.529	3,696,689

Figure 7

Uniaxial compression test for the jet column parts.

2.5 Concrete pile model

A traditional pipe pile model 0.5 m long was used in this research with an outside diameter of 0.059 m and an inside diameter of 0.0572 m, as shown in Figures 8 and 9. The pile was made of concrete.

Figure 8

Pile concrete mold.

Figure 9

Concrete pile.

The mixes were prepared and tested according to PRC A.211.1-91 [32]; the mixture consisted of cement, sand, gravel, water, superplasticizer, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). The percentage of So₃ was not more than 0.5% according to IQS No. 45 [33]. Tap water was used, 2% of superplasticizer was added, and 1% of PVA solution was added. PVA is a synthetic polymer that is soluble in water and biodegradable which is found in granular and powdered form.

The cement used in the mix was sulfate-resisting cement C3A which is recommended for foundation works, pilling works, and coastal protective works such as sea walls, buildings near seacoast, and bridge piers. This type of cement provides maximum resistance to chloride and increases the workability and pumpability.

The compressive test was performed according to ASTM [34], after mixing and casting the concrete in cylindrical molds using the shaking table. After curing the average strength was 33,700 kN/m² as shown in Table 6.

Table 6

Compressive strength of concrete

Sample No.	Compressive strength (kN/m²)	Average compressive strength (kN/m²)
No. 1	35,395	33,700
No. 2	31,455
No. 3	34,250

3 Finite element model

Dassault Systems SIMULIA’s finite element analysis program, called ABAQUS, [35] is considered complicated in comparison with other available finite element programs because it can be used to model different materials like metals, rubbers, polymers, composites, reinforced concrete, rocks, and soils. For linear and nonlinear simulations, ABAQUS supplies a wide range of capabilities. In this research, ABAQUS software 2019–2021 was used to simulate the experimental work data with the theoretical data generated by the software. The element used was a brick element of type C8D8R, hexagonal linear, reduced integration or eight-node linear brick, reduced integration, hourglass control with surface-to-surface interaction between soil and pile, and this choice was utilized for all parts of pile, soil, and cap pile. Figure 10 shows the assembly of parts (soil and pile), and Figure 11 shows the failure that happened in the model after the application of load. The comparison in this article depends upon using a single jet grout column injected in the laboratory model box whose dimensions were 1.2 m × 1.2 m × 0.8 m. A double-jet grouting machine with a model of a concrete pile was used as a board pile in the model. The properties of the jet pile and concrete pile are shown in Table 7. The model was subjected to axial loading by mechanical jack and using a load cell and LVDT to measure the load applied and the change in displacement in order to draw the load settlement curve for laboratory tests. The results were compared with those obtained from the finite element program, ABAQUS. Figure 12 shows the results of the first test for the jet grout column in the model as compared with those obtained from program one while Figure 13 shows the results of the concrete column.

Figure 10

Finite element assembly of single pile in ABAQUS program.

Figure 11

Finite element sample after applying the load to failure.

Table 7

Properties of the material needed for the program

Property	Jet column	Concrete column	Soil
Unit weight (kN/m³)	19.529	24	14.32
Diameter (m)	0.0572	0.0572	—
Length (m)	0.45	0.45	—
Modulus of elasticity (kN/m²)	70 × 10⁶	30 × 10⁶	30,000
Poisson’s ratio ν	0.2	0.2	0.3
Angle of internal friction φ	—	—	34.56
Cohesion (kN/m²)	—	—	8

Figure 12

Comparison between jet pile laboratory and jet pile from program.

Figure 13

Comparison between concrete pile from laboratory test and concrete pile from the program.

4 Results and discussion

The results of this research were divided into two parts namely experimental results to find the mechanical and physical properties of the jet column from trial column and concrete pile, and the physical and mechanical properties of core samples. The second part deals with the theoretical results obtained by using ABAQUS program to compare the injected jet column in the model with the concrete board pile.

The experimental properties of the jet column were obtained by using uniaxial compressive strength from Table 4. The strength varied from 11,200 to 1,411,000 kN/m²; tensile strength varied from 1,599 to 39,460 kN/m²; modulus of elasticity varied from 412,000 to15,490,250 kN/m²; while the compressive strength of concrete pile varied from 31,460 to 35,395 MPa. The cohesion, which is better-called adhesion since it is between different materials (cement and soil), increased in grouted soil from 2,090 to 117,980 kN/m².

In this research, when using a single jet grouting column subjected to axial load by mechanical jack till failure, the values of the load applied were taken from a load cell and LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer), and the value of linear movement as displacement at the surface of the pile top was found by using Shen’s method [44] which utilizes a relationship between load and settlement. After using different methods to find settlement and the ultimate load applied, it was found that Shen’s method is more appropriate for sandy soils and gives results close to actual values. Figure 12 shows the variation of settlement with the load applied on jet grouting columns both from laboratory tests and from the program. Figure 13 shows the variation of settlement with the load applied on concrete columns both from laboratory tests and from the program. The difference between the two values is small, as shown in Table 8, thus using ABAQUS program to analyze other groups of piles is recommended. The results proved that the water–cement ratio binding solution reacts better with sand, and at the end of curing time gave higher strength of the column grout piles in comparison with concrete piles, thus tending to reduce the settlement of jet grout column as approved by AKSOY Eİ [45]. Figures 14 and 15 show the displacement along the interaction point between soil and jet pile, and soil and concrete pile. Figures 16 and 17 show the effect of stresses along the interaction between soil and jet pile and soil and concrete pile. These figures agree with the situation that jet piles may be treated like board piles, and the stresses and displacement appear near the end of the pile. Due to jet pressure the stress at the end is high because of the disturbance that happened due to the compressor. The effect of double grout causes an increase in the diameter of the jet pile in comparison with a single jet [46].

Table 8

Detail of Settlement and bearing capacity from curves due to Shen’s method

Type of pile	Settlement (m)	Ultimate pile capacity (kN)	Ultimate pile ratio % (P _laboratory/P _program)
Jet pile from laboratory	0.0000093	1.85	115.63
Jet pile from program	0.000007	1.6	115.63
Concrete Pile from laboratory	0.0325	1.63	123.49
Concrete Pile from program	0.035	1.32	123.49

Figure 14

Relationship between displacement along the interaction between soil and jet pile.

Figure 15

Relation between soil displacement and concrete pile along the interaction.

Figure 16

Stress along the interaction between soil and jet pile.

Figure 17

Stress along the interaction between soil and concrete pile.

Table 8 shows the values of the final settlement and the bearing load for the jet pile and concrete pile as obtained from laboratory tests and the program. Therefore, a good agreement between the results obtained from the program and the laboratory can be obtained by using Shen’s method [44], which is an accurate method to find the bearing capacity in sand.

5 Conclusions

The present research focused on the development of a grouting machine to work as a double grout or fluid system. The machine was then used to conduct laboratory experiments on both concrete piles and jet piles. The settlement and bearing load from both laboratory tests and the results from ABAQUS program were compared for both concrete pile and jet pile on the same scale. The compressive strength of different samples of jet columns and the values of cohesion and angle of internal friction from the samples were found. It was concluded that:

Jet grouting columns increased uniaxial compressive strength from 11,200 to 1,411,000 kN/m², which is considered high in sand.
The value of settlement of the jet column is so small or negligible as compared to the value of settlement of the concrete pile which was 0.0000093 m for the jet pile while in the concrete pile was 0.0325 m. This means the jet pile columns are more effective in supporting soil.
The adhesion of treated soil by jet grouting increased as compared to the normal soil without grout.
The value of the modulus of elasticity increased in the jet pile column core from 412,000 to 154,902,500 kN/m² in comparison with the soil without treatment.
The diameter of the jet grout column may be controlled by the diameter of the steel jet rod of the grouting machine.
Shen’s method is considered the best method to find the load from load–settlement curve especially for jet grouting columns.
Generated stress under the pile due to jetting action was 11% greater than the stresses generated under the concrete pile.
The ultimate pile ratio for the jet column was 115.63% while the ratio for the concrete pile was 123.49%.

Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: Most data sets were generated and analyzed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other data sets are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-11-16

Revised: 2024-01-18

Accepted: 2024-01-25

Published Online: 2024-04-09

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0596

Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel

double jet grouting; single column; concrete pile column; settlement; load-settlement curve; numerical analysis; and Abaqus program

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