Startseite Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
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Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake

  • Ali Ismaiel Ali EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 18. März 2024
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Aus der Zeitschrift Open Engineering Band 14 Heft 1

Abstract

Seismically, settlement of buildings with shallow foundations lying above dry sand soils has caused severe destruction in recent earthquakes. This study investigated the effect of seismic loads with shallow foundations located above sandy soil containing an intermediate soft clay layer. The impact of a clay layer’s existence with different thickness and closeness to the base of foundation when subjected to El Centro earthquake with 6.9 magnitude. This investigation has been carried out with the help of a three-dimensional PLAXIS 3D, which has been used to solve many geotechnical issues. A database was created for the various dynamic and static parameters of soils in seismically active areas of Iran and Iraq and USA. In this research, important factors are recognized, including relative density. Clay layer thickness and proximity to the foundation, the soil relative density the results of this research indicated that shallow foundation settlement increased on the dry sand and decreased with the presence of clay layer thickness and wave propagation in cohesion soil is less than cohesion-less soil. In addition, it was reached that as close as the clay layer to the foundation the settlement increased.

Keywords: shallow foundation; soft soil layer; Plaxis 3D

1 Introduction

The geotechnical engineering understanding of the seismic shallow foundation behavior has industrialized over the historical 60 years with the appearance and modification of solutions to some separate features of the overall problem, encouraged and motivated by field interpretations.

Shallow foundations are the most public types of foundations used to support mid-rise constructions in a height seismic risk. The inadequate design of structures during recent earthquakes has interested many researchers to study the existing methods and improve new approaches for seismic-resistant design. Foundations of structures constructed in seismic regions and the demands to withstand the load and deformation through an earthquake will perhaps be the most severe in their design life. Owing to the seismic loading, shallow foundations may experience a high increase in settlement. The influence of sandy soils in various conditions (loose, medium, dense) placed on a soft clay layer with different thicknesses and exposed to seismic waves and the closeness of the soft clay layer to the base of the foundation was also studied. Moreover, the influence of earthquake on a shallow foundation was investigated. Many types of research have exposed that the dynamic interaction between the soil, foundation, and structure can influence the seismic response of the building through an earthquake. Using the finite element method (FEM), positioned on multilayer soil on a resistant building’s seismic response is investigated. Effective post- and preprocessing abilities make it easier to analyze and model.

The information. If an analysis is repeated, over a period, it is relatively straightforward to make modifications.

These soil parameters are critical for the hardening soil model to be employed in this work as data inputs. It also requires the use of data input from a 1940 earthquake (the El Centro earthquake) to analyze the behavior of shallow foundations under seismic waves using the finite element program PLAXIS 3D. As a result, it should be highlighted that soil is a common element in seismic wave transmission to the foundation.

This study investigation concentrates on the key problems of what effect the presence of a soft clay layer beneath the foundation has on the foundation’s output during an earthquake to find out the ability of the soft clay layer. Does the soft clay layer decrease or increase the settlement?

In addition, there is a difference between a foundation constructed on sandy soil and one built on sandy soil with a soft clay layer within it. The model’s results will be compared and discussed.

2 Research objectives

  1. One of the key objectives of this study is to assess the impact of a soft clay layer, with varying thickness and closeness distances, on the performance of a shallow foundation subjected to different seismic loads. The presence of such a layer, located beneath loose sand, can significantly affect the behavior of the foundation during an earthquake, making it crucial to evaluate its influence.

  2. The other objective is to evaluate the activity of shallow foundations under seismic excitation using real seismic data from Iraq, the USA, and Iran. To conduct the analyses, PLAXIS 3D finite element tools were used.

3 Literature review and research

The behavior of shallow foundations in earthquakes has advanced progressively over the last 60 years, such as the appearance and improvement solutions for several different surfaces of the overall challenges, prompted and stimulated by field observations. The growth of insights and strategies for the various facets of seismic foundation activity has been more rapid in recent years. Total solutions, predictably, necessitate numerical solution methods that make them less diaphanous than their predecessors. The analysis starts by looking at relevant aspects of soil and rock actions, some of which have not yet been fully studied. An analysis of the literature on the action of shallow foundations under seismic loading is presented in this chapter. This study highlights earthquake fundamentals, soil–structure interaction, and shallow foundations under earthquake activity.

A shallow foundation is usually located at a shallow depth and transmits loads to the near-surface strata. A foundation is shallow: according to Terzaghi and Peck (1967) if the structural bases with the least dimension (usually the width B) is equal to or greater than the foundation depth (Df). This is a criterion. It is appropriate for regular shallow foundations, but not for narrow or very small foundations. Df has been estimated to be as large as 3–4B by some scholars. Df is used in this situation. The masonry footings were dimension-stone footings made up of stones that had been carved and dressed to a precise size and shape [1]. An earthquake creates a series of waves, which move across the earth and inflict damage depending on their intensity. Instruments capable of tracking thousands of miles away from the epicenter can be used. The type of earthquake that occurred is revealed by the seismic wave. Individual wave paths separate in all directions as they move away from the source.

Waves of seismic activity: Huge strain energy emitted during an earthquake passes through the Earth’s layers as seismic waves in all directions, reflecting and refracting at each interface, as shown in Figure 1 [2].

Figure 1 Arrival of seismic waves at a site.
Figure 1

Arrival of seismic waves at a site.

4 Finite element program

Soil behavior is simulated using advanced foundational models. PLAXIS 3D is used to characterize the soil model and to simulate the performance of shallow foundations subjected to earthquake excitation. Since the relationship between soil, base, and structure influences the dynamic properties and seismic response of the building, the construction engineer must carefully consider these parameters to ensure a secure and cost-effective seismic design.

Since 1960, FEM has been used to solve geotechnical engineering problems. It was the beginning to insert this method and link it into geotechnical engineering. PLAXIS 3D is a full-featured 3D geotechnical element program that was created exactly for deformation study, stability, and flux in geotechnical engineering constructions.

It has advanced features in addressing modeling challenges in the most complex geotechnical projects that are difficult to represent on PLAXIS2D. It is now easy to model the finite elements (3D) [3].

FEM is a powerful tool for analyzing complex engineering problems. Developed over a decade, FEM divides large problems into smaller parts, minimizing the solution process. FEM is an effective and important method, widely used to solve complex engineering problems [4].

4.1 Geometry of the 3D model

The model has three dimensions: a width of 1.5 m, a length of 1.5 m, and a height of 0.5 m (X = 200 m, Y = 100 m, and Z = 40 m). The point load on the shallow base and prescribed displacements under the soil mode are shown in Figure 2a and b.

Figure 2 (a) Geometric model and soil layers and (b) shallow foundation and displacement.
Figure 2

(a) Geometric model and soil layers and (b) shallow foundation and displacement.

5 Sensitivity for the model dimension

The depth of the numerical model has been considered to be equal to 40 m since the position of the rock layer has been assumed to be at a depth of 40 m from the natural ground surface; a similar modeling approach has been used in other numerical analyses in the literature as mentioned by Van Nguyen et al. [5]. The width of the model has been considered equal to 200 m. The width has been selected based on parametric analyses conducted to investigate the influence of the FEM width on the settlement results. The parametric analyses have been carried out by simulating different model widths. It was found that the results of the analysis were not influenced by the FEM extension. The results of the model width study are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Sensitivity of soil dimensions.
Figure 3

Sensitivity of soil dimensions.

This clearly shows that the model width has an insignificant influence on the obtained results after an extension of x ≥ 200 m.

6 Modeling of soil

Soil representation models (soil models) are a quantitative representation of soil behavior since model parameters are used to determine soil properties. The more experience dealing with PLAXIS, the more accurate the results will be. The wider the understanding of soil models and the limits of the use of each model and the method of determining model parameters, the greater the judgment and the ability to understand the nature of the results in PLAXIS OUTPUT.

Table 1 gives the hardening soil parameters [6].

Table 1

Properties of hardening soil

Parameter Loose sand Medium sand Dense sand Unit
E 50 ref 20,000 30,000 40,000 kN/m2
E ur ref 60,000 90,000 120,000 kN/m2
E oed ref 20,000 30,000 40,000 kN/m2
Cohesion, c 0.0 0.0 0.0 kN/m2
Friction angle, ϕ 30 35 40 °
Dilatancy angle, ψ (ψ = ϕ – 30) 0 5 10 °
Poisson’s ratio, ν ur 0.2 0.2 0.2 —

Parameters of the Soft Soil model

c: cohesion

ϕ: friction angle

ψ: dilatancy angle

λ: modified compression index

κ: modified swelling index

ν ur: Poisson’s ratio for unloading/reloading.

K0nc: horizontal/vertical stress ratio in normally consolidated 1D compression (determines the shape parameter M)

In addition, you need to define the initial size of the yield surface by appropriate POP/OCR value! [7].

7 Verification model

The verification of PLAXSIS 3D of a shallow foundation resting on a dense sand layer and influenced by the El Centro earthquake, which has 6.9 intensity, was performed by comparing the results with the experimental work of “Al-Neami et al. (2021), which used a multi-degree freedom shaking table and a fixed container, which was manufactured in order to study the influence of earthquake intensity and soil relative density on the shallow foundation’s settlement. A series of shaking experiments were conducted using a 0.7 × 0.7 × 0.8 m container to study the shallow foundation behavior. The shallow foundation was resting at the center of dry sandy soil having two relative densities (55 and 80%) and influenced by two local magnitudes of earthquakes Jalisco and Guerrero having intensities of 6.4 and 7.2, respectively [8].

Figure 4 demonstrates the comparison between experimental work influenced by the Guerrero earthquake having 7.2 intensity results of Al-Neami et al. (2021) and finite analysis of a dense sand case influenced by the El Centro earthquake with 6.9 intensity. Acceleration histories of the used earthquakes are shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4 Shaking table.
Figure 4

Shaking table.

Figure 5 History of earthquake acceleration.
Figure 5

History of earthquake acceleration.

The results show that the settlement of a shallow foundation lying on a dense sand layer and influenced by the El Centro earthquake having 6.9 intensity is 34 mm, while the experimental work of Al-Neami is 24 mm for Guerrero, which has 7.2 intensity, and 20 mm for Jalisco, which has 6.4 intensity, influenced the shallow foundation. The results indicate that the settlement using a finite element analysis increased by 42% and this difference may be due to the difference between the dimension of the experimental box and the PLAXSIS 3D soil dimension, which shows more reality to the earthquake and the difference of earthquake intensity [8].

8 Results

8.1 Effect of sandy soil condition without soft clay layer presence on foundation settlement under effect earthquake

There are great benefits in using advanced models in order to recognize the reality of the initial soil structure and its subsequent damage caused by the applied dynamic loads. Soil deformations produced from the passageway of a seismic wave through the soil might threaten the stability of any geotechnical structure; therefore, PLAXIS 3D program was used to create different models, which include a shallow foundation with dimensions (1.5 m × 1.5 m × 0.5 m), which underlies the three layers. Two different conditions exist in two sandy soil layers (loose sand, medium, dense) and an intermediate soft clay layer with various thicknesses (3, 4, and 5 m), it was discovered that this alteration reduced settlement. Figure 6 shows the use of loose sandy soil, which produces a maximum amount for settlement of about 61.6309 mm at a 5.32 s time.

Figure 6 Amount of settlement in loose sand.
Figure 6

Amount of settlement in loose sand.

Moreover, Figure 7 shows the use of medium sandy soil, which produces a maximum settlement of about 42.78609 mm at a time of 6.16 s.

Figure 7 Amount of settlement in medium sand.
Figure 7

Amount of settlement in medium sand.

Moreover, Figure 8 shows the use of dense sandy soil, which produces a maximum settlement of about 34.01353 mm at a time of 6.16 s.

Figure 8 Amount of settlement in dense sand.
Figure 8

Amount of settlement in dense sand.

As a result, Figure 9 shows that dense sand reduces the settlement in the soil by a higher amount than medium sand and loose sand. Figure 10 illustrates a settlement competition for without loose sand case.

Figure 9 Amount of settlement in loose, medium, and dense sand.
Figure 9

Amount of settlement in loose, medium, and dense sand.

Figure 10 Maximum settlement competition without clay.
Figure 10

Maximum settlement competition without clay.

8.2 Effect of soft clay from closeness to the foundations base

In order to understand the seismic wave response, many parameters become important to discuss. As a result, to obtain the maximum benefit from many methods of seismic analysis, soil closeness to the foundation was one of the parameters that should be investigated.

8.2.1 For 2 m soft clay far from the base of the foundation case

Figure 11 illustrates the effect of a soft clay layer closeness. The 2m-thick layer of soft clay lying away from the base of the foundation and beneath a sandy soil having various conditions (loose, medium, and dense). It seems that the distance between the soft clay layer and the foundation is crucial. It is obvious that the presence of a 2 m soft clay layer affects the settlement produced due to the earthquake. The results show that the settlement under the shallow foundation reduced about 10.23, 17.2, and 19.1% for loose, medium, and dense sand cases, respectively. Because foundations are mostly placed at a depth Df below the ground surface, the term “Df” refers to the foundation’s depth in the soil. The overburdened soil’s shear strength is considered the same as the soil beneath the footing’s foundation. The depth impact may be lessened or ignored entirely if the overloaded soil is weaker than the foundation soil (John Wiley & Sons 2006 Analysis and Design of Shallow and Deep Foundations). Figure 12 illustrates the maximum settlement competition for 2 m soft clay layer case.

Figure 11 Soft clays (2 m) away from the base with (loose, medium, and dense sand).
Figure 11

Soft clays (2 m) away from the base with (loose, medium, and dense sand).

Figure 12 Maximum settlement comparison for 2 m soft clay.
Figure 12

Maximum settlement comparison for 2 m soft clay.

8.2.2 For 4 m soft clay far from the base of the foundation

Figure 13 illustrates the effect of a 4 m soft clay layer away from the base of the foundation having loose, medium, and dense sand. It seems the distance between the soft clay layer and the foundation affects the settlement. It is clear from the results that as farther the soft clay layer is from the foundation, the lower the settlement occurs, and the closer the soft clay layer is to the foundation, the higher the settlement occurs. The settlement reduced about 26.9, 38.1, and 33.6% with loose, medium, and dense, respectively. As a result, with increasing density, the settlement reduces greater than loose soil condition. Figure 14 illustrates the settlement competition for 4 m soft clay layer case.

Figure 13 Soft clays (4 m) away from the base with loose, medium, and dense sand.
Figure 13

Soft clays (4 m) away from the base with loose, medium, and dense sand.

Figure 14 Maximum settlement comparison for 4 m soft clay.
Figure 14

Maximum settlement comparison for 4 m soft clay.

8.2.3 For 6 m soft clay far from the base of the foundation

Figure 15 illustrates the effect of a 6 m soft clay layer away from the base of the foundation with loose, medium, and dense sand. It seems that the distance between the soft clay layer and the foundation affects the settlement. It is so clear that with increasing the distance from the base of the foundation, the settlement gets lesser.

Figure 15 Soft clays (6 m) away from the base with loose, medium, and dense sand.
Figure 15

Soft clays (6 m) away from the base with loose, medium, and dense sand.

The settlement reduced about 43.1, 46.7, and 39.6% for loose, medium, and dense sand, respectively. The less amount of settlement occurred with dense sand, so it is clear that the denser the sand is lesser, the settlement occurs. This result confirms that the uncertainty in site response results due to soft clay soil is much higher when compared to sandy soils. Figure 16 illustrates the maximum settlement competition for 6 m soft clay layer case.

Figure 16 Maximum settlement comparison for 6 m soft clay.
Figure 16

Maximum settlement comparison for 6 m soft clay.

8.3 Effect of thickness of soft clay layer

The extent of waves and degree of harm during an earthquake is powerfully influenced by the response of soil shaking. However, the most significant and usually problematic in geotechnical engineering earthquake is the estimation of ground response due to such motion. A parametric study was conducted to evaluate the effects of soft clay presence and thickness (T = 3, 4, 5 m) included in sandy soil models on shallow foundation performance.

8.3.1 For 3 m soft clay layer thickness

Figure 17 illustrates the effect of a 3 m soft clay layer thickness on the settlement of the foundation with the (loose, medium, and dense) sand cases. It is obvious that with the dense sand case, the settlement of the shallow foundation reduces much more than that of loose or medium sand cases. The results indicate that the settlement reduced by about 10.23, 17.2, and 19.1% for loose, medium, and dense sand cases due to the presence of a 3 m soft clay layer. It is clear from the results that dense sand cases showed less settlement. Figure 18 illustrates the maximum settlement comparison for 3 m soft clay layer case.

Figure 17 Soft clay thickness (3 m) with loose, medium, and dense sand.
Figure 17

Soft clay thickness (3 m) with loose, medium, and dense sand.

Figure 18 Maximum settlement comparison for (3 m) soft clay.
Figure 18

Maximum settlement comparison for (3 m) soft clay.

8.3.2 For 4 m soft clay layer thickness

Figure 19 illustrates the effect of a 4 m soft clay layer thickness on the settlement of the foundation having (loose, medium, and dense) sand cases. It is obvious that with dense sand cases, the settlement of the shallow foundation reduces much more than with loose or medium sand cases. The results indicate that the settlement reduced by about 14.65, 23.1, and 24.15% for loose, medium, and dense sand cases, respectively. As the sand gets denser, the settlement of the shallow foundation decreases about 10%. Figure 20 illustrates the maximum settlement comparison for 4 m soft clay layer case.

Figure 19 Soft clay thickness (4 m) with loose, medium, and dense sand.
Figure 19

Soft clay thickness (4 m) with loose, medium, and dense sand.

Figure 20 Maximum settlement comparison for 4 m soft clay.
Figure 20

Maximum settlement comparison for 4 m soft clay.

8.3.3 For 5 m soft clay layer thickness

Figure 21 illustrates the effect of a 5 m soft clay layer thickness on the settlement of the foundation with the (loose, medium, dense) sand cases. It is obvious that with dense sand cases, the settlement of the shallow foundation reduces much more than that of loose or medium sand cases. The results indicate that the settlement reduced by about 18.96, 28.47, and 25.2%, respectively, for loose, medium, and dense sand cases due to the presence of a soft clay layer lying 5 m away from the shallow foundation. The results indicate that dense sand cases showed the highest performance. Figure 22 illustrates the maximum settlement comparison for 5 m soft clay layer case.

Figure 21 Soft clay thickness (5 m) with loose, medium, and dense sand.
Figure 21

Soft clay thickness (5 m) with loose, medium, and dense sand.

Figure 22 Maximum settlement comparison for (5 m) soft clay.
Figure 22

Maximum settlement comparison for (5 m) soft clay.

9 Conclusion

  1. The closeness of a soft clay layer affected the performance of a shallow foundation exposed to a seismic wave. It was reached that as close the soft clay layer to the foundation as the settlement under the foundation increased.

  2. With increasing the thickness of the intermediate soft clay layer, the settlement of a shallow foundation reduction was higher for all soil conditions (loose, medium, and dense).

  3. A shallow foundation for cohesive soils is less sensitive to the earthquake, and that for dry cohesion less soil may be more susceptible.

  4. Wave propagation in cohesion soil is less than in cohesion-less soil.

  5. The stress increased with the acceleration of the earthquake increase.

  6. Earthquake with higher acceleration has a higher influence on shallow foundation stability.

  1. Funding information: The author states no funding involved.

  2. Conflict of interest: The author states no conflict of interest.

  3. Data avilability statement: The most datasets generated and/or analysed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-09-08
Revised: 2023-12-08
Accepted: 2023-12-23
Published Online: 2024-03-18

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0587
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
shallow foundation; soft soil layer; Plaxis 3D
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
  7. Influence of unsupported sleepers on flange climb derailment of two freight wagons
  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
  13. Adaptive multidimensional trust-based recommendation model for peer to peer applications
  14. Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam
  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
  16. Advanced vibrant controller results of an energetic framework structure
  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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