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An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher

  • Hiba Hilal Hadi EMAIL logo und Ammar Ali Neamah
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 6. März 2024
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Aus der Zeitschrift Open Engineering Band 14 Heft 1

Abstract

Digital image protection is crucial since images often contain private and sensitive information in business, medical, and military. One of the best techniques for securing the content of these images is encryption. This article introduces a cryptosystem known as the elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman Hill Cipher (ECDHHC) that uses the modified eliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key exchange protocol to generate the shared secret key integrated with the Hill Cipher. An elliptic curve point-based secret shared key matrix using the ECDHHC, which will be used for encryption and decryption, is generated. Thereafter, the input image is split into a set of 8 × 8 submatrices and then changes the values of these matrices by multiplying each block with the secret shared key matrix. The encrypted image is constructed by merging all encrypted blocks. With this combination, the correlation between adjacent pixels in the ciphered image is effectively removed, and the level of unpredictability and uncertainty for the ciphered image is also enhanced. The suggested approach used the key space, entropy, histogram, antinoise attack, differential attack, and correlation coefficient to evaluate the performance of the encryption method. According to simulation findings, the proposed method offers a high level of security and efficiency, and resists attackers.

Keywords: image encryption; elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol; Hill Cipher; security

1 Introduction

One mathematical technique employed to secure images from attacks and raise communication security is cryptography. Cryptography is divided into two main categories: symmetric key encryption and asymmetric key encryption. Symmetric one uses a shared key between the sender and the receiver for encryption and decryption. In contrast, asymmetric cryptography uses sender's public key to encrypt the plaintext and recipient's private key for decryption. Several approaches for multimedia data encryption, particularly digital images, were suggested and developed by researchers, such as DNA based [1,2,3], cellular automata based [4,5], chaotic based [6,7,8], and elliptic curves based [9,10,11,12,13,14]. Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is a robust public key cryptography algorithm introduced independently by Miller [15] and Koblitz [16]. One of the ECC benefits is the difficulty of solving the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem (ECDLP) from the attackers. Compared to other systems, such as RSA, ECC uses a tiny key size, a slight amount of memory, and low-power consumption [17].

Zhang and Wang [18] proposed an asymmetric image encryption method based on ECC. To produce the secret key, the Diffie-Hellman protocol is used. Permutation and diffusion are also performed using the chaotic system in conjunction with ECC. Hayat and Azam [19] introduced a method for encrypting an image using an elliptic curve (EC) based on pseudorandom integers and substitution boxes. Díaz et al. [20] suggested an effective encryption technique based on chaos and EC to encrypt BMP images without compression. Obaid and Alsaffar [21] proposed an image encryption technique based on ECC combined with Hilbert matrices of dimensions 2 × 2 and 4 × 4 . Liang et al. [22] suggested a public key image encryption technique based on ECC, in which the hash value produced from the plain image was ciphered using ECC. Abbas et al. [23] suggested a chaotic image encryption method using an addition operator over the EC points to produce a discrete chaotic sequence that can then be used to build the encryption scheme. Hayat et al. [24] suggested an efficient cryptographic system depending on an EC over finite rings and S-boxes. Castro et al. [25] introduced a hybrid asymmetric encryption technique based on ECC and AES employed to encrypt the medical image and fingerprint feature vector.

The Hill Cipher (HC), a traditional substitution cipher devised by Lester Hill in 1929, provides efficiency with a simple structure, is fast, and can shuffle plaintext [26]. The technique is classified as a security system due to the ability to encrypt and decode in a minimal period; however, it has security limitations since it is a symmetric cryptographic system. Many scholars sought to improve the security of the technique by proposing a new HC. Dawahdeh et al. [9] introduced an image encryption method integrating HC techniques and elliptic curves (ECCHC). The aim was to convert the HC approach from symmetric to asymmetric using ECC parameters to generate the private key. However, the method has a severe loophole in the form of private keys, which renders it subject to brute-force attacks. Ismail and Misro [14] suggested a modified ECCHC technique that combines a cubic Bézier coefficient matrix and HC to raise the image encryption/decryption level of security. It has over 2 100 key search, making it incredibly difficult for attackers to predict the keys required to break their scheme. However, they focused on encryption and decryption operations while overlooking computational complexity.

Related studies have some limitations such as small key space and the incapacity to fend against statistical and differential assaults. These drawbacks motivated us to suggest an efficient method based on the modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman (ECDH) key exchange algorithm to encrypt images. Thus, the study introduces the elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman Hill Cipher (ECDHHC) cryptosystem, which generates the shared secret key integrated with the HC using the ECDH key exchange algorithm to protect images from unauthorized usage. Furthermore, if the M 4 × 2 ( E ( F p ) ) matrix group is used, our approach can attain the best results when compared to the existing methodologies.

The contributions of this study are outlined below:

  • The first use of the ECDH key exchange protocol using an 8 × 8 self-invertible matrix.

  • The self-invertible matrix K m of size 8 × 8 is suggested to be combined with the modified ECDH key exchange protocol.

  • The fact that matrix's inverse does not always exist, which has an impact on the decryption procedure, is one of the fundamental shortcomings of the matrix produced by the modified ECDH key exchange protocol. To get around this issue, we used a self-invertible matrix, which increases the unpredictable nature of the pixel distribution during encryption while also lowering the computational operations during decryption.

  • The proposed key matrix K m increases the size of the key space to 2 768 , which prevents brute-force attacks.

  • A high level of security is provided by combining the HC with the matrix K m .

  • The performance of the proposed approach in terms of robustness, efficacy, and resistance to cryptanalysis is evaluated against all common attacks.

The article's remaining sections are organized as follows: Section 2 introduces the preliminaries of this study. The encryption structure of Dawahdeh’s system [9] is highlighted in Section 3. Section 4 presents the proposed image encryption technique with the implementation example given in Section 5. In Section 6, simulation results and security evaluation are introduced. Finally, the conclusion is presented in Section 7.

2 Preliminaries

2.1 Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)

Let E p ( a , b ) be an equation for an elliptic curve in a finite field F p , where E p ( a , b ) is written as follows:

(1) y 2 = x 3 + ax + b mod p ,

where a and b are two constants that fulfill 4 a 3 + 27 b 2 mod p ≠ 0 , and p is a prime number. The set of points (x, y) satisfying equation (1) and the point at infinity O ∞ constitute the elliptic curve group E ( F p ) [27].

2.2 Elliptic curve arithmetic operations

The elliptic curve scalar multiplication, which takes up the most time in encryption and decryption processes, is one of the primary operations connected to the elliptic curve function. Calculating the elliptic curve scalar multiplication requires two operations: point addition and point doubling [28].

Point addition and doubling: Assume P 1 = ( x 1 , y 1 ) and P 2 = ( x 2 , y 2 ) belong to E ( F p ) . Then P 1 ⊕ P 2 = ( x 3 , y 3 ) , which is also a point on E ( F p ) , can be defined as follows:

x 3 = λ 2 − x 1 − x 2 , y 3 = λ ( x 1 − x 3 ) − y 1 ,

and

(2) λ = y 2 − y 1 x 2 − x 1 if P 1 ≠ P 2 3 x 1 2 2 y 1 if P 1 = P 2 .

If P 2 = ⊖ P 1 , then P 1 ⊕ P 2 = O ∞ , where ⊖ P 1 = ( x 1 , − y 1 ) is the inverse of the point P 1 .

Scalar multiplication: Let P 1 be any point on the elliptic curve E p ( a , b ) . Then the repeated addition of the point P 1 to itself k times defines the scalar multiplication operation over P 1 . It is expressed as usual by

(3) [ k ] P 1 = P 1 ⊕ P 1 ⊕ P 1 ⊕ … ⊕ P 1 ︸ k times .

2.3 Proposed elliptic curve Diffie Hellman (ECDH) key exchange protocol

Two parties A and B can create a shared secret key using the ECDH key exchange protocol across an insecure channel. This protocol is based on the original Diffie-Hellman (DH) agreement, which was established by Diffie and Hellman in the mid-1970s [29]. The protocol's security is dependent on the difficulty of computing discrete logarithms on elliptic curves (ECDLP), which is currently regarded to be an intractable issue.

In 2023, Hadi and Neamah [30] introduced a development of the ECDH protocol by combining it with the matrix concept. The domain parameters of the protocol are ( M m × n ( E ( F p ) ) , β ) , where M m × n ( E ( F p ) ) is a matrix-group with m rows and n columns whose entries are points from E ( F p ) . E ( F p ) is an elliptic curve group with parameters a and b , F p is a prime field, and β = [ P ij ] is a base matrix such that the number of points of the elliptic curve is prime (i.e., all P ij are generators of E ( F p ) , for i = 1 , … , m , j = 1 , … , n ). The description of the proposed protocol is as follows:

  • Party A randomly selects his private matrix D A whose elements are integers and calculates his public key P A = D A ⊙ β and sends it to Party B.

  • Party B also selects his private matrix D B such that D B is the same as the size of the matrix β and calculates his public key P B = D B ⊙ β and sends it to Party A.

  • Then, both parties (A and B) secretly compute the shared secret key, K , as follows:

(4) K = D A ⊙ P B = D B ⊙ P A ,

where ⊙ represents elementwise multiplication operation.

2.4 HC

HC, a polyalphabetic substitution cipher based on linear algebra, was invented by Lester Hill in 1929 [26]. The key matrix used in this method, K ( m × m ) , will be the same by all parties engaged in encryption and decryption. The ordinary readable text is split into m -blocks that fulfill the key matrix size, K , by allocating a numerical value to each letter so that a = 0 , b = 1 , and so on until z = 25 . For instance, if the ordinary readable text O has a block size of 8 × 1 , then the invertible key matrix, which will be used for the encryption and decryption process, will be K 8 × 8 . Here, the encryption procedure will result in an encrypted text block of size 8 × 1 as follows:

C = K × O ( mod 26 ) ,

(5) C = k 11 k 12 k 13 k 14 k 15 k 16 k 17 k 18 k 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26 k 27 k 28 k 31 k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36 k 37 k 38 k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46 k 47 k 48 k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56 k 57 k 58 k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66 k 67 k 68 k 71 k 72 k 73 k 74 k 75 k 76 k 77 k 78 k 81 k 82 k 83 k 84 k 85 k 86 k 87 k 88 × o 1 o 2 o 3 o 4 o 5 o 6 o 7 o 8 ( mod 26 ) = c 1 c 2 c 3 c 4 c 5 c 6 c 7 c 8 .

Once the receiver obtains C , they can decode the encrypted text by finding K − 1 so that O = K − 1 × C ( mod 26 ) to obtain the original message, O .

3 Elliptic curve cryptosystem Hill Cipher (ECCHC)

This system was established by transforming the HC from secret-key cryptography to a public-key cryptography technique for improved security and effectiveness [10]. Consider a scenario in which the sender (Party A) wishes to communicate with the recipient (Party B) using ECCHC over an unsecured channel. They must first agree on the elliptic curve E ( F p ) with parameters a and b , and F p is a finite field such that p is a large prime, and G is the generator point. Then, each party must specify their secret key, d A and d B , as d A , d B ∈ [ 1 , 1 − p ] , which will be employed to compute their public keys, P A = [ d A ] G , P B = [ d B ] G . Then, by utilizing their respective secret keys along with their public keys, both parties (A and B) will secretly compute the first symmetric key, K i , as follows:

K i = [ d A ] P B = [ d B ] P A = ( x , y ) .

After that, both of them must compute K 1 and K 2 as follows:

K 1 = [ x ] G = ( k 11 , k 12 ) ,

K 2 = [ y ] G = ( k 21 , k 22 ) ,

K 1 and K 2 will then be utilized to produce the secret key matrix, K m for encryption, and K m − 1 for decryption. However, since K m 's inverse is not always present, the problem can be solved by using a self-invertible matrix, K m , as the key matrix [31]. Therefore, since K m = K m − 1 , the same K m will be utilized for the encryption/decryption process.

Let K m = k 11 k 12 k 21 k 22 ¯ k 13 k 14 k 23 k 24 ¯ k 31 k 32 k 41 k 42 k 33 k 34 k 43 k 44 be a self-invertible matrix, which can be divided as K m = K 11 K 12 K 21 K 22 . The suggested method makes that K 11 = k 11 k 12 k 21 k 22 , and then the values of the remaining partitions of the secret matrix key K m are determined by solving K 12 = I − K 11 , K 21 = I + K 11 , and K 11 + K 22 = 0 , where I is the identity matrix.

4 The proposed scheme

This study offers a modification of ECCHC to give an additional degree of security in the encryption/decryption of images by using the Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol based on block matrices combined with elliptic curves in ECCHC. The proposed improved protocol was recently introduced by Hadi and Neamah [30]. This improvement is intended to increase the efficiency and the key space. Suppose Party A and Party B agree upon an E ( F p ) with parameters a and b , and a base matrix β ∈ M 4 × 2 ( E ( F p ) ) such that the number of points of the curve E is a prime number. Then each party must specify their secret key, D A and D B whose elements are integers with the same size of the matrix β , which will be employed to compute their public keys, P A = D A ⊙ β , P B = D B ⊙ β . Then, by utilizing their respective secret keys along with their public keys, both parties (A and B) will secretly compute the secret shared key, K , as follows:

(6) K = D A ⊙ P B = D B ⊙ P A ( mod 256 ) = ( k 11 , k 12 ) ( k 21 , k 22 ) ( k 13 , k 14 ) ( k 23 , k 24 ) ( k 31 , k 32 ) ( k 33 , k 34 ) ( k 41 , k 42 ) ( k 43 , k 44 ) .

The key K will then be utilized to produce the secret key matrix K m for encryption and K m 's inverse for decryption. However, since K m 's inverse is not always present, the problem can be solved by using a self-invertible matrix, K m , as the key matrix [31]. Therefore, since K m = K m − 1 , the same matrix K m will be utilized for both processes (encryption and decryption). Since the definition of an image's pixels ranges from 0 to 255, the suggested technique uses a finite modular field of size 256.

Let K m ( mod 256 ) = k 11 k 12 k 13 k 14 k 15 k 16 k 17 k 18 k 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26 k 27 k 28 k 31 k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36 k 37 k 38 k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46 k 47 k 48 k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56 k 57 k 58 k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66 k 67 k 68 k 71 k 72 k 73 k 74 k 75 k 76 k 77 k 78 k 81 k 82 k 83 k 84 k 85 k 86 k 87 k 88 be a self-invertible matrix, which can be divided as K m = K 11 K 12 K 21 K 22 . The suggested method makes that K 11 ( mod 256 ) = k 11 k 12 k 13 k 14 k 21 k 31 k 41 k 22 k 32 k 42 k 23 k 24 k 33 k 34 k 43 k 44 , then the values of the remaining partitions of the secret matrix key K m are determined by solving K 12 ( mod 256 ) = I − K 11 , K 21 ( mod 256 ) = I + K 11 , and K 11 ( mod 256 ) + K 22 ( mod 256 ) = 0 , where I is the identity matrix.

4.1 The process of encryption

4.1.1 Encryption (Party A)

Party A must first divide image's pixels of M into blocks of 8 × 8 submatrices called ( O 1 , O 2 , O 3 , . . .) to cipher an input image employing the suggested approach. Then, Party A needs to multiply each block by the secret matrix K m of modulo 256 to obtain all the encrypted blocks ( C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , . . .). After that, the encrypted blocks will be rebuilt into input image's dimensions. Thus, Party B will receive C as an encrypted image. The flowchart for the encryption procedure is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The suggested approach's encryption process.
Figure 1

The suggested approach's encryption process.

4.2 The process of decryption

4.2.1 Decryption (Party B)

The decryption process flowchart for Party B is shown in Figure 2. When Party B receives the encrypted image, C , he must divide it into blocks of 8 × 8 submatrices C i = ( C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , . . .). Then, to decode the encrypted image, Party B must multiply all submatrices, E i , by K m − 1 with a finite modular field of size 256 since K m = K m − 1 . This will result in blocks ( O 1 , O 2 , O 3 , . . .), which are used to reconstruct the original image M .

Figure 2 The suggested approach's decryption process.
Figure 2

The suggested approach's decryption process.

5 Implementation example

Assume that two parties (A and B) decide to utilize the suggested approach for airplane image sending with size of 512 × 512 . They can reach an agreement to utilize the elliptic curve E : y 2 = x 3 + x + 15 mod 5003 , where 4 a 3 + 27 b 2 ( mod p ) = 6079 mod 5003 = 1076 ≠ 0 . Here, all points are a generator for the group E ( F 5,003 ) , since the number of points of the elliptic curve is 5081. Suppose they select β = ( 5000, 534 ) ( 4999, 1221 ) ( 4864, 3353 ) ( 4987, 4842 ) ( 4997, 3843 ) ( 4996, 1497 ) ( 4995, 4672 ) ( 4991, 91 ) to be the base matrix.

5.1 Key Generation

Party A (sender): Party A will compute his public key, key P A = D A ⊙ β = ( 5000, 534 ) ( 3904, 3751 ) ( 3980, 4365 ) ( 4987, 4842 ) ( 1402, 2809 ) ( 4501, 1847 ) ( 2467, 3574 ) ( 4991, 91 ) , by selecting D A = 1 3 4 1 3 5 4 1 as the private key, and submit it to Party B.

Party B (receiver): Party B will compute his public key, key P B = D B ⊙ β = ( 660, 2709 ) ( 3904, 3751 ) ( 2867, 292 ) ( 2182, 4483 ) ( 4316, 4517 ) ( 4996, 1497 ) ( 4563, 1363 ) ( 1197, 332 ) , by selecting D B = 2 3 5 4 5 1 3 6 as the private key, and submit it to Party A.

Shared private keys used by both parties:

Both parties will privately compute the shared private key K using their shared public keys, P A , P B and their own secret keys, D A and D B as follows:

K = D A ⊙ P B = D B ⊙ P A = ( 660 , 2709 ) ( 149 , 1479 ) ( 4278 , 2969 ) ( 2182 , 4483 ) ( 235 , 368 ) ( 4501 , 1847 ) ( 3569 , 2534 ) ( 1197 , 332 ) .

The matrix, K m , is then produced by finding the following equations so that

K 11 = K mod 256 = 660 2709 4278 2969 149 1479 2182 4483 235 368 4501 1847 3569 2534 1197 332 mod 256 = 148 149 182 153 149 199 134 131 235 112 149 55 241 230 173 76 ,

K 12 = ( I − K 11 ) mod 256 = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 − 148 149 182 153 149 198 134 131 235 112 149 55 241 230 173 76 = 109 107 74 103 107 58 122 125 21 144 108 201 15 26 83 181 ,

K 21 = ( I + K 11 ) mod 256 = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 + 135 251 134 41 150 25 88 104 228 247 153 23 8 237 54 106 = 149 149 182 153 149 200 134 131 235 112 150 55 241 230 173 77 ,

K 22 = − K 11 mod 256 = 108 107 74 103 107 57 122 125 21 144 107 201 15 26 83 180 ,

K m = 148 149 182 153 149 199 134 131 235 112 149 55 241 230 173 76 ¯ 109 107 74 103 107 58 122 125 21 144 108 201 15 26 83 181 ¯ 149 149 182 153 149 200 134 131 235 112 150 55 241 230 173 77 108 107 74 103 107 57 122 125 21 144 107 201 15 26 83 180 .

5.2 Encryption (Party A)

Party A will divide the pixel value of the airplane image into blocks of size eight as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 65 199 193 185 179 185 191 189 191 193 200 193 197 199 200 202 196 …
2 54 196 192 195 195 192 191 192 188 193 195 193 190 189 193 191 190 …
3 54 197 194 197 195 191 191 188 186 197 191 189 189 186 188 187 188 …
4 55 187 187 188 186 180 180 182 183 187 183 184 185 189 190 192 194 …
5 62 181 180 180 180 183 182 183 181 181 181 185 185 188 190 187 190 …
6 69 174 174 178 179 179 181 186 182 179 181 178 180 185 189 185 185 …
7 72 180 179 174 174 181 179 180 168 171 175 172 172 180 175 175 171 …
8 77 176 171 168 170 175 169 174 168 173 172 164 163 172 164 165 163 …
9 85 169 171 166 171 167 161 164 165 160 165 159 153 157 158 162 160 …
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : …

O 1 = 65 54 54 55 62 69 72 77 199 196 197 187 181 174 180 176 193 192 194 187 180 174 179 171 185 195 197 188 180 178 174 168 179 195 195 186 180 179 174 170 185 192 191 180 183 179 181 175 191 191 191 180 182 181 179 169 189 192 188 182 183 186 180 174 , O 2 = 191 188 186 183 181 182 168 168 193 193 197 187 181 179 171 173 200 195 191 183 181 181 175 172 193 193 189 184 185 178 172 164 197 190 189 185 185 180 172 163 199 189 186 189 188 185 180 172 200 193 188 190 190 189 175 164 202 191 187 192 187 185 175 165 .

Then, the first block will be multiplied by the key K m of modulo 256. The process will be carried out once again for the other blocks that produce ( C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , . . .), so that C i becomes the encrypted image, and C as follows:

C 1 = K m × O 1 = 148 149 235 241 149 149 235 241 149 199 112 230 149 200 112 230 182 134 149 173 182 134 150 173 153 131 55 76 153 131 55 77 109 107 21 15 108 107 21 15 107 58 144 26 107 57 144 26 74 122 108 83 74 122 107 83 103 125 201 181 103 125 201 180 × 65 54 54 55 62 69 72 77 199 196 197 187 181 174 180 176 193 192 194 187 180 174 179 171 185 195 197 188 180 178 174 168 179 195 195 186 180 179 174 170 185 192 191 180 183 179 181 175 191 191 191 180 182 181 179 169 189 192 188 182 183 186 180 174

= 217 115 103 224 129 21 231 211 65 139 158 62 7 202 46 79 117 79 31 201 75 102 37 255 153 74 28 61 39 234 119 126 27 134 146 17 113 227 15 36 63 249 230 49 101 151 59 16 11 48 98 166 31 253 65 85 221 57 101 53 68 130 235 216 , ⋯

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 217 65 117 153 27 63 11 221 72 53 143 122 60 83 1 17 …
2 115 139 79 74 134 249 48 57 72 113 197 127 50 13 191 1 …
3 103 158 31 28 146 230 98 101 85 86 127 228 34 41 252 148 …
4 224 62 201 61 17 49 166 53 176 53 95 219 192 67 22 157 …
5 129 7 75 39 113 101 31 68 219 33 107 113 147 80 8 3 …
6 21 202 102 234 227 151 253 130 57 97 74 153 49 11 40 210 …
7 231 46 37 119 15 59 65 235 124 83 86 182 216 12 8 165 …
8 211 79 255 126 36 16 85 216 245 24 113 223 86 65 223 106 …
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : …

5.3 Decryption (Party B)

When Party B receives the encrypted image, C , he must divide it into blocks of 8 × 8 submatrices C i = ( C 1 , C 2 , C 3 , . . .) as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 217 65 117 153 27 63 11 221 72 53 143 122 60 83 1 17 …
2 115 139 79 74 134 249 48 57 72 113 197 127 50 13 191 1 …
3 103 158 31 28 146 230 98 101 85 86 127 228 34 41 252 148 …
4 224 62 201 61 17 49 166 53 176 53 95 219 192 67 22 157 …
5 129 7 75 39 113 101 31 68 219 33 107 113 147 80 8 3 …
6 21 202 102 234 227 151 253 130 57 97 74 153 49 11 40 210 …
7 231 46 37 119 15 59 65 235 124 83 86 182 216 12 8 165 …
8 211 79 255 126 36 16 85 216 245 24 113 223 86 65 223 106 …
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : …

C 1 = 217 115 103 224 129 21 231 211 65 139 158 62 7 202 46 79 117 79 31 201 75 102 37 255 153 74 28 61 39 234 119 126 27 134 146 17 113 227 15 36 63 249 230 49 101 151 59 16 11 48 98 166 31 253 65 85 221 57 101 53 68 130 235 216 , C 2 = 72 72 85 176 219 57 124 245 53 113 86 53 33 97 83 24 143 197 127 95 107 74 84 113 122 127 228 219 113 153 182 223 60 50 34 192 147 49 216 86 83 13 41 67 80 11 12 65 1 191 252 22 8 40 8 223 17 1 148 157 3 210 165 106 ,

Then, Party B must multiply all submatrices, C i , by K m − 1 with modulo 256 to obtain ( O 1 , O 2 , O 3 . . .), which represent the values of the original pixel as follows:

O 1 = K m × C 1 = 148 149 235 241 149 149 235 241 149 199 112 230 149 200 112 230 182 134 149 173 182 134 150 173 153 131 55 76 153 131 55 77 109 107 21 15 108 107 21 15 107 58 144 26 107 57 144 26 74 122 108 83 74 122 107 83 103 125 201 181 103 125 201 180 × 217 115 103 224 129 21 231 211 65 139 158 62 7 202 46 79 117 79 31 201 75 102 37 255 153 74 28 61 39 234 119 126 27 134 146 17 113 227 15 36 63 249 230 49 101 151 59 16 11 48 98 166 31 253 65 85 221 57 101 53 68 130 235 216 ,

= 65 54 54 55 62 69 72 77 199 196 197 187 181 174 180 176 193 192 194 187 180 174 179 171 185 195 197 188 180 178 174 168 179 195 195 186 180 179 174 170 185 192 191 180 183 179 181 175 191 191 191 180 182 181 179 169 189 192 188 182 183 186 180 174 .

Thus, Party B will receive the groups of pixels that make up the plain image that Party A submitted, as seen below before pixels’ values are converted into bytes so that Party B can view the image.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 65 199 193 185 179 185 191 189 191 193 200 193 197 199 200 202 …
2 54 196 192 195 195 192 191 192 188 193 195 193 190 189 193 191 …
3 54 197 194 197 195 191 191 188 186 197 191 189 189 186 188 187 …
4 55 187 187 188 186 180 180 182 183 187 183 184 185 189 190 192 …
5 62 181 180 180 180 183 182 183 181 181 181 185 185 188 190 187 …
6 69 174 174 178 179 179 181 186 182 179 181 178 180 185 189 185 …
7 72 180 179 174 174 181 179 180 168 171 175 172 172 180 175 175 …
8 77 176 171 168 170 175 169 174 168 173 172 164 163 172 164 165 …
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : …

6 Experimental results and security analysis

To evaluate the performance of the encryption approach, various metrics (parameters) are employed to examine the gray scale image encryption effectiveness and compare the encrypted image with the original image.

6.1 Experimental platform

The implementation is performed on an i7 CPU 1.30 GHz HP laptop with 8 GB RAM. The technique mentioned earlier was implemented in MATLAB (R2018A).

6.2 Experimental results

The efficiency of the proposed approach was tested in these studies utilizing a variety of standard grayscale images (Baboon, Boat, Lena, Peppers, Clock, and House) with sizes of 256 × 256 and 512 × 512 . Datasets from SIPI contain these images [32]. Figure 3 displays the original images of size 256 × 256 , ciphered images, and decoded images. According to Figure 3, encrypted images are unexpected, with no apparent data from the plain images in the encrypted images.

Figure 3 (a)–(c) Original images; (d)–(f) corresponding ciphered images; and (g)–(i) are deciphered images.
Figure 3

(a)–(c) Original images; (d)–(f) corresponding ciphered images; and (g)–(i) are deciphered images.

6.3 Key space analysis

An exhaustive key search needs a 2 κ operation to successfully break a method, where κ is the size of the key in bits. In the proposed scheme, the significant keys utilized to decode the encrypted image are D A , D B , K , and K m . The key size of D A , D B , K , and K m is dependent on the value of p in equation (6), where D A and D B have a t key size, respectively, while K has a 16 t key size and t being the size of the key of p in bits for per element in the matrices. Since K m is an 8 × 8 matrix of the prime field modulo 256 with 8 bits assigned to each element, the key size is 512 bits. Consequently, the key space analysis of the suggested technique may be determined as follows:

2 8 t × 2 8 t × 2 16 t × 2 512 = 2 32 t + 512

Attackers who select an 8-bit value for p will need to carry out 2 32 ( 8 ) + 512 = 2 768 operations to defeat the method, which is robust enough to withstand brute-force attacks. When compared to other systems, such as those in Table 1, the key size is significantly large. As a result, the suggested approach offers a robust defense against brute-force attacks.

Table 1

Key space analysis

Scheme Dawahdeh et al. [9] Lone et al. [13] Ismail and Misro [14] Proposed algorithm
Key space size 2 144 2 272 2 301 2 768

6.4 The entropy

One of the statistical scalar features utilized to evaluate image encryption is entropy. It displays the patterns that appear the most frequently. It quantifies the degree of randomness based on the likelihood of the pixel values. The optimal entropy value for an encrypted image is eight, and if the entropy value is close to eight, the encrypted image efficiency improves. Generally speaking, the higher the entropy, the more difficult it is to crack the cryptographic system. Entropy is calculated using the following formula: size of

(7) H ( x ) = ∑ x = 0 2 N − 1 P ( x ) × log 2 1 p ( x ) ,

where N is the number of bits in pixel value x . p ( x ) denotes the probability of the pixel value x .

Table 2 shows the examined images' entropy, which is quite close to number eight, representing the optimum value. As a result, the proposed technique may withstand entropy attacks. When compared to previous strategies [9,10,11,13,14], our approach outperforms them in terms of information entropy. Hence, the suggested technique is immune to statistical attacks.

Table 2

The Entropy of the proposed method compared with other methods

Images Size Proposed algorithm Dawahdeh et al. [9] Rajvir et al. [10] Ye et al. [11] Lone et al. [13] Ismail and Misro [14]
Baboon 512 × 512 7.9994 — — — — 7.9993
Boat 512 × 512 7.9993 — — — — 7.9992
Lena 256 × 256 7.9974 7.9970 7.9969 — — —
Peppers 256 × 256 7.9970 — 7.9968 7.9976 7.9983 —
Baboon 256 × 256 7.9974 — 7.9971 — 7.9979 —
Barbara 256 × 256 7.9976 — — 7.9974 7.9979 —
Cameraman 256 × 256 7.9969 7.9848 — — — —
Clock 256 × 256 7.9958 — — — — 7.9916
House 256 × 256 7.9984 — — 7.9976 7.9982 7.9968

6.5 Histogram analysis

A histogram analysis is a graphical representation of the frequency distribution information between intensity values and pixel values of data. The equally distributed data of the cipher images is produced via a secure and good encryption algorithm. Figure 4 shows the outcomes of the test of grayscale images. The uniform distribution of the cipher image shows that the ciphered information is secure and that this method cannot reveal information to outsiders. Equation (8) can be used to establish data consistency using the chi-square test:

(8) χ 2 = ∑ K = 0 2 n − 1 ( μ K − ε K ) 2 ε K ,

where μ K is the observed frequency and ε K = mn 256 is the expected frequency of an image with size mn . At significance level a = 5 % with 255 degrees of freedom, the value of chi-square passes the hypothesis uniformity such that χ ( 0.05,255 ) 2 = 293.2478 . Table 3 shows that the chi-square values on a set of images are less than 293, which demonstrates that the histogram of the encrypted image is uniformly distributed.

Figure 4 (a)–(c) Histograms of original images shown in Figure 3a–c; (d)–(f) histograms of the ciphered images shown in Figure 3d–f; and (g)–(i) histograms of the deciphered images shown in Figure 3c–i.
Figure 4

(a)–(c) Histograms of original images shown in Figure 3a–c; (d)–(f) histograms of the ciphered images shown in Figure 3d–f; and (g)–(i) histograms of the deciphered images shown in Figure 3c–i.

Table 3

Chi-square test values

Size Barbara Lena Airplane Peppers House
256 × 256 220.8516 255.9844 268.5547 275.1172 277.6016

6.6 Anti-noise attack analysis

When ciphered images are sent across physical communications channels, they are sensitive to noise or interference. Thus, the encryption method has to be sufficiently resilient to decrypt the encrypted images even while noise accumulates. The peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) is used to determine how much the encrypted image and the plain image differ from one another. PSNR is calculated using the following formula:

(9) PSNR = 20 × log 10 max MSE ,

where max is the highest possible grayscale (8-bit) value. MSE can be defined as follows:

(10) MSE = 1 m × n ∑ i = 1 m ∑ j = 1 n ( A ij − C ij ) 2 ,

where A ij is the plain image's pixel value and C ij is the encrypted image's pixel value. The PSNR values for the 256 × 256 decrypted images are displayed in Table 4. The suggested method can withstand “salt and peppers” noise with an average PSNR of 37.461 db and a density of 0.0001. The average decreased to 26.46 and 16.94 dB when the noise intensity was increased to 0.001 and 0.01, respectively.

Table 4

The values of PSNR for noise attack

Images Clock House Baboon
Salt and Pepper noise (0.0001) 37.5650 39.7241 35.0959
Salt and Pepper noise (0.001) 25.4511 26.7390 27.2014
Salt and Pepper noise (0.01) 15.5780 17.5441 17.7068

6.7 Differential attack analysis

To evaluate the ability to access the differential attack, the number of pixel change rate (NPCR) and unified average changing intensity (UACI) are utilized. UACI calculates the difference between the original and ciphered images. The highest UACI indicates that the suggested approach is immune to differential attacks. The following equations are used to calculate NPCR and UACI for a grayscale image:

(11) NPCR = 1 m × n ∑ i = 1 m ∑ j = 1 n h ( i , j ) × 100 % ,

(12) UACI = 1 m × n ∑ i = 1 m ∑ j = 1 n | C 1 ( i , j ) − C 2 ( i , j ) | 255 × 100 % ,

where C 1 ( i , j ) and C 2 ( i , j ) are the encrypted images created by two plain images with a one-pixel difference, and h ( i , j ) is defined as follows:

(13) h ( i , j ) = 0 , if C 2 ( i , j ) = C 1 ( i , j ) 1 , if C 2 ( i , j ) ≠ C 1 ( i , j ) .

The value of NPCR has to be greater than 99%, and the value of UACI of the image encryption methods has to be bigger than 33% to guarantee the method's security. Table 5 presents the average UACI and NPCR values of images examined for cryptographic method validation. The average NPCR and UACI values of the tested image are 99.62 and 33.45, respectively. Therefore, the cyphered images' average NPCR and UACI values beat the methods [9,10,11]. The outcomes show that NPCR and UACI average values are ideal, meaning that the suggested strategy will successfully withstand differential assaults.

Table 5

NPCR and UACI values for the chosen images of size 256 × 256

Images Proposed algorithm Dawahdeh et al. [9] Rajvir et al. [10] Lone et al. [13]
NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI NPCR UACI
Lena 99.58 33.41 — 30.38 — 33.58 — —
Peppers 99.65 33.43 — — — 34.64 99.63 33.31
Baboon 99.63 33.46 — — — 27.36 99.62 33.31
Barbara 99.64 33.51 — — — — 99.63 33.34
House 99.61 33.43 — — — — 99.62 33.35

6.8 Correlation analysis

The relationship between adjacent pixels is referred to as correlation. Thus, in plain images, a dense correlation graph is used to find a strong correlation among the pixels, whereas, in cipher images, an evenly distributed graph is used to find a low correlation among the adjacent pixels. Table 6 depicts the correlation coefficient value for cipher images in the horizontal (H), vertical (V), and diagonal (D) axes and compares results with the existing methods. The suggested technique outperforms methods presented in studies by Liu et al. [11] and Mohammed and Adamu [13], as reported in Table 6. The formula used to compute the correlation coefficients is as follows:

(14) r x , y = cov ( x , y ) 1 N ∑ i = 1 N [ x i − E ( x ) ] 2 × ∑ i = 1 N [ y i − E ( x ) ] 2 ,

where cov ( x , y ) = 1 N ∑ i = 1 N [ x i − E ( x ) ] [ y i − E ( y ) ] and E ( x ) = 1 N ∑ i = 1 N x i and N is the total number of image pixels. As shown in Table 6, the correlation values of the different grayscale images are almost zero, which indicates that the suggested strategy successfully broke the strong relationship between nearby pixels in all tested images.

Table 6

Comparison correlation results for the plain and cipher images with existing techniques

Method Images Size Plain Cipher
H V D H V D
Proposed Airplane 512 × 512 0.9663 0.9641 0.937 0.0019 −0.0041 0.0001
Lena 512 × 512 0.9719 0.985 0.9593 −0.0007 0.0119 −0.001
Peppers 512 × 512 0.9768 0.9792 0.9639 −0.0011 0.0051 0.0029
Baboon 512 × 512 0.8665 0.7587 0.7262 −0.0029 0.0026 −0.001
Boat 512 × 512 0.9381 0.9713 0.9222 0.0022 −0.0007 0.0014
Airplane 256 × 256 0.9364 0.9302 0.8819 0.0003 0.0027 0.0047
Lena 256 × 256 0.9456 0.9727 0.9213 0.0025 0.009 0.0014
Peppers 256 × 256 0.9634 0.9704 0.9363 −0.0017 −0.0034 0.004
Baboon 256 × 256 0.8736 0.8261 0.7843 −0.0013 0.0019 −0.0023
Boat 256 × 256 0.9268 0.9452 0.8833 0.0023 −0.0042 −0.0059
Clock 256 × 256 0.9565 0.9741 0.9389 0.0015 0.0042 −0.0015
Ye et al. [11] Peppers 256 × 256 0.9719 0.9687 0.9488 0.004 −0.0044 −0.0012
Barbara 256 × 256 0.9693 0.8971 0.8487 0.007 −0.0193 0.0031
House 256 × 256 0.9664 0.978 0.9484 0.004 −0.0044 −0.0012
Lone et al. [13] Peppers 256 × 256 0.8548 0.8791 0.9399 0.0004 0.0019 0.0003
Baboon 256 × 256 0.8469 0.8456 0.8989 0.0021 0.0011 0.0011
Barbara 256 × 256 0.9568 0.9214 0.8745 0.0017 −0.002 0.0047
House 256 × 256 0.9654 0.9452 0.9624 −0.0019 0.0001 0.0029

7 Conclusion

This work developed a novel image encryption scheme that combines the ECCHC established by Dawahdeh et al. [9] with the ECDH key exchange protocol to improve the image cryptosystem's security. The investigation also shows that Dawahdeh’s system, and others are insecure and can be broken by a brute-force attack since its key space is small. To overcome these drawbacks, a modified and enhanced version of the method is provided, which employs the modification of the ECDH key exchange protocol in conjunction with HC. We first utilized the ECDHHC to generate a secret shared key matrix K that consisted of elliptic curve points. We then employed K to produce the secret key matrix, K m of size 8 × 8 , which will be used for the encryption and decryption processes. In the encryption stage, we divided the input image into a set of 8 × 8 sub-matrices, and we utilized the matrix K m to modify the pixels’ values for all submatrices. According to the findings of the security analysis, the proposed method has robust encryption since encrypted images' histograms are uniformly distributed. Security and robustness testing of the suggested approach also indicated excellent sensitivity to every pixel and resilience in the face of all common assaults. We applied the technique to grayscale images in this paper, and the recommended technology will be investigated in future work to be used for color images.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the University of Kufa for its support.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  2. Data availability statement: The most datasets generated and/or analysed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-09-01
Revised: 2023-10-18
Accepted: 2023-11-01
Published Online: 2024-03-06

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0552
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
image encryption; elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol; Hill Cipher; security
Creative Commons
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Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
  7. Influence of unsupported sleepers on flange climb derailment of two freight wagons
  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
  13. Adaptive multidimensional trust-based recommendation model for peer to peer applications
  14. Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam
  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
  16. Advanced vibrant controller results of an energetic framework structure
  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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