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Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation

  • Nadia S. Abd Ali EMAIL logo , Hasan H. Joni and Rasha H. A. Al-Rubaee
Published/Copyright: March 1, 2024
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is a sustainable and cost-effective way to reduce the need for virgin asphalt in road construction and rehabilitation. However, RAP is often hard and brittle, leading to performance problems. Rejuvenators can be used to restore RAP's physical and rheological properties, but many conventional rejuvenators are petroleum-based and have environmental drawbacks. The objective of this study is to assess the rutting and moisture resistance characteristics of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil (WEO), with a particular focus on regions characterized by hot climates, such as Iraq. This study investigated WEO as a rejuvenator for RAP and oxidized asphalt grade 30–40. WEO is a waste product that can be recycled and reused, making it a sustainable and environmentally friendly rejuvenator. The study found that asphalt mixes containing RAP rejuvenated with WEO had improved mechanical performance compared to conventional asphalt mixes. Marshall stability increased by up to 30%, indirect tensile strength increased by up to 29%, moisture resistance improved by up to 19%, resilience to stripping increased by up to 97%, and rutting resistance increased by up to 64.5%. The study findings suggest that asphalt mixtures containing RAP rejuvenated with WEO are a promising new technology for sustainable road construction and rehabilitation. WEO is a waste product that can be recycled, reused, and used to produce asphalt mixes with improved mechanical performance. The novelty of this study is the use of WEO as a rejuvenator for RAP. WEO is a waste product that can be regenerated and reused, making it a sustainable and environmentally friendly rejuvenator. The study also investigated the optimal WEO concentration for rejuvenating RAP asphalt mixes, which is important for producing asphalt mixes with the desired performance characteristics.

Keywords: rutting resistance; wheel tracking test; reclaimed asphalt pavement; waste engine oil; moisture damage

1 Introduction

Highways are one of the most important modes of transportation used for travelling persons and goods. The vast majority of these highways are constructed with hot asphalt pavement. Addressing society's need for transportation infrastructures while mitigating the resulting environmental damage poses significant challenges [1]. The growing demand for highway maintenance and construction, coupled with limited financial resources for high-quality paving materials, has resulted in an upward trend in the cost of these services. Recycling has been identified as one of the most efficacious strategies for addressing this particular challenge. Sustainable paving can be achieved by creating recycled combinations, which involve grinding aged road materials and their subsequent blending with newer elements [2]. Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is generated from asphalt pavement scraps that are produced by rehabilitating roadways. The grinding method and the asphalt mix preparation perform a role in how RAP works out [3]. Recycling of asphalt pavement is common in industrialized and developing nations [4]. One of the primary benefits associated with using RAP is the reduction in binder requirements, resulting in a positive environmental impact [5]. From a different perspective, and due to the rise of the paving business, much effort has been put into protecting natural resources and reducing the adverse effects on the environment [6]. Nationally, more hot asphalt pavements have been constructed or rebuilt today. These circumstances increase the need for the aggregate that constitutes approximately 95% of hot mix asphalt (HMA) combinations [7]. The utilization of RAP has been increasingly prevalent in HMA pavements. This shift can be attributed to the rising demand for RAP and the development of reclamation methods, which have facilitated the replacement of fresh asphalt binders and aggregates with RAP [8]. Understanding the effect on asphalt mixture parameters is crucial for incorporating RAP into mix design [9]. The stiffness of the combination can be greatly enhanced by raising the amount of RAP used in the mix. However, its effectiveness will decrease if the combination contains too much RAP. In order to counteract this hardening impact and return the asphalt pavement to its natural state, rejuvenation can be used to enhance the binder characteristics of the asphalt [10]. Throughout history, rejuvenator categorization has largely revolved around two fundamental categories. A substance possessing revitalizing and softening characteristics. The utilization of softening compounds can effectively reduce the viscosity of aged bitumen, while the application of rejuvenating agents can assist in restoring its damaged chemical and physical qualities [11]. Researchers are consistently motivated to explore the feasibility of incorporating various waste materials as modifiers or rejuvenators for bitumen in the HMA industry. Recycling waste offers the advantage of minimizing the costs associated with disposal and generating sustainable building materials that possess enhanced qualities [12]. The high cost of traditional bitumen and stringent environmental laws have served as significant incentives for these authorities. Additionally, the improper disposal of waste oils presents an additional difficulty for investigators to address in terms of their recycling within the HMA business. Waste oils have emerged as a significant environmental issue due to their propensity to contaminate rivers, lakes, and natural resources [13]. Additionally, a potential local waste material that can be utilized for the revitalization of RAP is automotive motor oil. The structure of waste engine oil (WEO) exhibits similarities to the molecular structures found in asphalt that possesses a significant aromatic content. This similarity enables the formation of a cohesive bond by modifying its constituents and revitalizing the deteriorated asphalt [14]. Several investigations have been conducted to assess the performance of RAP rejuvenated with WEO. DeDene [15] studied the effect of moisture damage on asphalt mixtures. There were four distinct kinds of specimens, including a control blend, a mix at 25% of RAP, a mix at 25% of RAP and 4% WEO by the weight of the binder, and a mix at 25% of RAP and 8%WEO by the weight of the binder. These four kinds of specimens were referred to as the control, 0% oil, 4% oil, and 8% oil specimens. The findings stated that specimens had Tensile strength ratio (TSR) values between 0.80 and 0.93, which is well within the appropriate limit. Both the pure RAP specimens and the RAP specimens blended with waste motor oil showed a decrease in tensile strength when compared to the control. Mamun and Abdul Wahhab [16] performed a TSR evaluation on three types of mixes including control mix with 0% RAP, recycled mixes with commercial rejuvenators, and recycled mixes with WEO. The outcomes presented that in comparison to the blend with no RAP and the blend revitalized by a commercial rejuvenator, all mixes (up to 50% of RAP) with 7–20% of WEO have reduced moisture damage than the highest permitted value and presented superior moisture resilience capability.

Roads and highways frequently exposed to heavy loadings are at a greater risk of experiencing severe pavement damage [17]. According to the American Association for State Highway and Transportation Officials' Road Test, rutting is a longitudinal channel depression in the wheel pathway produced by repetitive traffic loads pressuring and lateral movement of the pavement layers [18]. In addition to the severe stresses produced by heavy vehicles and heavily distended wheels, rutting or surface destruction develops because one or more paving layers have weakened. It is also caused by increased axle loads, elevated temperatures, a weaker build, and the breakdown of one or further structural layers. It may then lead to severe safety concerns [19]. Rutting is a critical phenomenon that must be carefully considered in constructing flexible pavements [20]. Findings from studies showed that RAP added to virgin bitumen mixes makes them stiffer and more resistant to rutting. Silva et al. [21] evaluated four different mixtures for their ability to withstand permanent deformation: a standard mix, a mix made up of 100% RAP, and a mix made up of 100% RAP plus different rejuvenators, including WEO. The findings demonstrated that the original and changed mixes exhibited the same behaviors. They determined that the rut resilience of those mixes was comparable to that of standard mixes. The comparison is necessary to affirm that the permanent deformation of completely recovered HMA blends with the addition of rejuvenators is not excessive, and that permanent deformation issues are not anticipated with such mixes.

The RAP mix exhibited the highest permanent deformation efficiency. Zaumanis et al. [22] conducted a comparative analysis of recycling agents for mixtures consisting of 100% RAP and HMA. The evaluation encompassed conventional petroleum and novel bio-recycling materials, including organic oil, aromatic extract, WEO, distilled tall oil, waste vegetable oil (WVO), and waste vegetable grease. In each occurrence, the potential for high-temperature rutting was below the specified criteria of the Hamburg wheel tracking (HWT) test. Mogawer et al. [23] revealed that the incorporation of 40% RAP in HMA resulted in a significant increase in resistance to rutting. In Iraq, approximately 1 year after building, rutting trouble developed at several highway locations related to the higher axle loads and relentlessly elevated summer temperatures. For instance, in Baghdad, Iraq's capital, the average air temperature may exceed 50°C for approximately 3 months (and the road surface temperature may approach 60°C), which exacerbates the rutting issue on roads in the area [24].

Currently, the road pavements in Iraq are undergoing various forms of deterioration due to unfavorable environmental conditions and the substantial volume of vehicular traffic. The task necessitates the removal of the deteriorated pavement and the subsequent restoration of the road. This process results in accumulating substantial amounts of RAP, which is considered as an environmental issue. In Iraq, the RAP is not employed to manufacture asphalt mixtures, leading to the wastage of this precious substance for impractical and non-beneficial purposes.

Although previous studies have revealed the prospective of utilizing waste oil as a rejuvenator for RAP and enhancing the quality of asphalt mixtures, further investigation is required to broaden the research subject matter. This can be achieved by exploring various types and grades of asphalt, such as oxidized asphalt grade 30–40, which is currently produced in Iraqi refineries but remains untapped in paving construction. By incorporating renewable materials such as waste oils, the properties of this asphalt can be enhanced, resulting in an appropriate substance for asphalt mixture production. Furthermore, an alternative oil variant, specifically waste heavy vehicle engine oil, was employed. The impact of this oil on asphalt mixtures has not been previously investigated, as it possesses distinct qualities compared to previously utilized oils. Most prior research has used vegetable and culinary oils, with a few using waste oil from automobile engines.

The RAP utilized in different studies also varies in age, characteristics, and source. Moreover, the present study focused on examining the durable nature of asphalt mixtures, including RAP and WEO, as well as their ability to withstand rutting. It is worth noting that previous research has not extensively addressed these specific characteristics.

The global and local efforts to explore the utilization of waste oil for the renewal of RAP have been quite limited. Additionally, research has been performed to investigate the resistance of asphalt mixtures to rutting. Nevertheless, advancing scientific knowledge necessitates expanding research parameters to investigate the impact of rejuvenators on various sources of RAP in different regions and climatic conditions (for instance, Iraq). Advocating for broadening scientific boundaries to include the recycling of waste materials like waste oil and recovered asphalt will help save the environment from the negative impact of waste oil and petroleum waste. Simultaneously, it aids in cost reduction for road development by minimizing the requirement for new asphalt and aggregate supplies. Hence, the present research aligns with the concept of utilizing recycled materials for the production of building materials, regarding the growing demand for sustainable construction materials by valuing recycled materials and transforming them into sustainable construction products with additional benefits.

The primary objective of this research is to explore the feasibility of utilizing WEO to alter the characteristics of oxidized asphalt. Subsequently, the modified asphalt will be employed to regenerate reclaimed pavement. The study will also involve an assessment of the resistance of regenerated asphalt mixtures to rutting and moisture-induced damage Figure 1 depicts an overview of experimental work.

Figure 1 Flow chart of the experimental work.
Figure 1

Flow chart of the experimental work.

2 Materials and method

2.1 Oxidized asphalt

Oxidized asphalt was gained from Nasiriyah Refinery in southern Iraq. Table 1 displays the physical characteristics of oxidized asphalt following the ASTM method (D-5, D-36, D-113, D-92, D-4402, D-1754, and D-70) [25–31].

Table 1

Physical properties of oxidized asphalt

Tests Results
Penetration (1/10 mm) 35
Softening point (°C) 57
Ductility (cm) 100
Flashpoint (°C) 300
Rotational viscosity (cP)
@ 135°C 615
@ 165°C 235
Residue after thin film oven test
 Retained penetration % 94.2
 Retained ductility (cm) 91
Specific gravity 1.069

2.2 Coarse and fine aggregate

In this investigation, crushed aggregates were brought from Al-Nibaie Quarry. The physical characteristics are shown in Table 2 for coarse and fine aggregates. Figure 2 depicts the particle distribution of sizes of each aggregate category, including the specification limitations and the surface layer's chosen midpoint.

Table 2

Physical characteristics of aggregate

Property ASTM designation Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Specification
Bulk specific gravity C127, C128 2.615 2.625 —
Apparent specific gravity C127, C128 2.642 2.661 —
Percent water absorption C127, C128 0.362 0.48 —
Angularity D5821 97% — Min. 95%
Toughness C535 20.8% — Max. 30%
Soundness C88 4.1 — Max. 12%
Figure 2 Gradation chart of aggregate with specification limits of surface layer.
Figure 2

Gradation chart of aggregate with specification limits of surface layer.

The aggregate gradation chosen for this project follows the mid-point gradation to fulfil the prerequisites of the (SCRB R/9, 2003) [32] specification for the HMA-paving mixture. According to this specification, the maximum aggregate size in the surface layer type IIIA must be 19 mm, and the nominal maximum size must be 12.5 mm.

2.3 Filler

The filler utilized in the current study was ordinary Portland cement with a bulk specific gravity of 3.2, acquired from Karasta Company. Table 3 presents the physical characteristics of ordinary Portland cement.

Table 3

Characteristics of the ordinary Portland cement

Characteristics Test result
Bulk specific gravity 3.2
Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm) 97%

2.4 RAP

The reclaimed asphalt employed in this study was gathered from one of the Directorate of Roads and Bridges of Dhi Qar's projects by removing the surface layer of the Nasiriyah-Basra highway. The RAP was obtained by removing approximately 5 cm of the road's pavement surface with milling equipment. Surface impurities and silt accumulated on the RAP were guaranteed to be absent. Table 4 displays the RAP grading before and after extraction. The RAP had a 3.8% asphalt content.

Table 4

Gradation of RAP before and after extraction

Sieve size Iraqi Specification (SCRB R9,2003) surface layer type IIIA (% passing) RAP specification
Standard sieves English sieves Min. Max. Passing%
Before After
19 mm 3/4″ — 100 100 100
12.5 mm 1/2″ 90 100 91.2 94
9.5 mm 3/8″ 76 90 79 84
4.75 mm #4 44 74 49.4 55
2.36 mm #8 28 58 32 36
0.3 mm #50 5 21 6.6 13
0.075 mm #200 4 10 4.5 5.2
Pan —

It should be noted that extraction measurement was conducted using ASTM D2172 [33] to identify RAP's bitumen content and aggregate size distribution at the National Center for Laboratories and Structural Research in Baghdad.

2.5 WEO

This study's WEO originates from the motor oil of heavy vehicles. After passing the WEO through a #200 filter to remove any remaining particles, its Viscosity, specific gravity, and water content were measured, as shown in Table 5.

Table 5

Physical properties of WEO

Tests Results
Viscosity (cP) 169
Specific gravity 0.97
Water content % 0.2

The tests were performed at Baghdad's National Center for Laboratories and Structural Research.

3 Methods

3.1 Asphalt modification process

Three percentages (2, 3, and 4%) of WEO were blended with oxidized asphalt to create the WEO-modified bitumen. The waste oil and oxidized Asphalt were blended with an experimental mixer over 30 min at 1,300 rpm to create a homogenous mixture [34]. As Asphalt was being heated, waste oils were added. Based on the results obtained from the rotating viscosity test conducted on the asphalt, it was seen that the mixing temperature, as depicted in Figure 3, was determined to be at 170°C. After that, the samples were left to cool to room temperature to prepare for testing later.

Figure 3 Temperature–viscosity diagram for oxidized asphalt.
Figure 3

Temperature–viscosity diagram for oxidized asphalt.

All modified asphalt specimens are subjected to the following asphalt cement tests: Penetration, softening point, ductility, flash point, specific gravity, rotational viscosity, and loss on heating, which were conducted in accordance with ASTM D5, D36, D113, D2170, D92, D70, D-4402, and D 1754. Table 6 displays the physical properties of oxidized asphalt with and without WEO.

Table 6

Physical properties of oxidized asphalt with and without WEO

Tests Results ASTM Standard
0% WEO 2% WEO 3% WEO 4% WEO
Penetration @ 25°C, 100 g, 5 s (0.1 mm) 35 38 46 66 D5
Softening point (ring and ball) (°C) 57 55 50 49 D36
Ductility @ 25°C, 5 cm/min (cm) 100 116 135 140 D113
Flash point (°C) 300 295 280 275 D92
Rotational viscosity (cP) D-4402
@ 135°C 615 579 519 429
@ 165°C 235 255 175 123
Specific gravity 1.069 1.06 1.054 1.047 ASTM D70
After thin film oven test (ASTM D-1754, 2015)
Retained penetration, % of original 94.2 92 80.5 89.4 D1754
Retained ductility @ 25°C, 5 cm/min (cm) 91 102 110 125

The results in Table 6 demonstrate that oxidized asphalt and 3% WEO and oxidized asphalt and 4% WEO are comparable to virgin binders with penetration grades of 40–50 and 60–70, respectively.

3.2 Marshall mixes design methods

Marshall method estimates optimal asphalt content. This technique involved preparing a set of cylindrical samples that were 4 inches (101.6 mm) in diameter and 2.5 inches (63.5 mm) in height and contained different percentages of asphalt binder (4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, and 6%). In this investigation, three separate samples are generated for each proportion of asphalt binder, and then the average is calculated. Two grades of asphalt binder are utilized (the two modified asphalts oxidized asphalt and 3% WEO with penetration grade 40–50 and oxidized asphalt and 4% WEO with penetration grade 60–70. At this stage, the mixture's temperature must be underneath the mixing temperature limitations. At asphalt temperatures corresponding to viscosities of 170 ± 20 cP (0.17 ± 0.02 Pa s) and 280 ± 30 cP (0.28 ± 0.03 Pa s), respectively, asphalt mixes are mixed and compacted. According to the outcomes of the asphalt's rotational viscosity test, the blending temperature was between 162 and 167°C and the compaction temperature was between 158 and 154°C for asphalt grade 40–50 and the blending temperature was between 154 and 158°C and the compaction temperature was between 143 and 147°C for asphalt grade 60–70. Figures 4 and 5 display the relation between asphalt binder viscosity and temperature as a function of the rotational viscosity of the utilized asphalt during temperatures of 135 and 165°C, respectively, using the Brookfield viscometer test as described in ASTM D-4402.

Figure 4 Temperature–viscosity diagram for asphalt type 40–50.
Figure 4

Temperature–viscosity diagram for asphalt type 40–50.

Figure 5 Temperature–viscosity diagram for asphalt type 60–70.
Figure 5

Temperature–viscosity diagram for asphalt type 60–70.

The optimal amount of asphalt is determined by calculating the average amount needed to achieve the maximum bulk specific gravity, the total amount of stability, and 4% air voids in the overall mix while following the restrictions of the Iraqi requirements (SCRB R/9, 2003). The Marshall stability, flow, and bulk density assessments, as well as the volumetric values, indicate that the ideal asphalt content for surface layer type AIII is (4.9%) for asphalt binder grade 40–50 and 5% for asphalt binder grade 60–70.

3.3 Preparation of recycled hot asphalt mixtures

In the present study, various RAP concentrations (20, 30, 40, and 50% by weight of the blend) were implemented following (AASHTO M-323) [35] and (NCHRP Report-452, 2001) [36], and all recycled asphalt blends were generated with the optimal amount of binder. The efficiency of reclaimed asphalt mixtures has been compared to the mechanical attributes of a virgin asphalt mixture consisting of (oxidized asphalt + 3% WEO) with a penetrating grade of 40–50 and 0% RAP concentration. All HMA mixtures were generated and compacted in conformity with the Marshall mix design procedure in the laboratory. RAP is required to be heated for 1 h before its addition to preheated dried aggregate, then blended with asphalt at the mixing temperature. In this approach, 20% RAP undergoes rejuvenation with (oxidized asphalt and 3% WEO), which has a penetration grade of 40–50, while the remaining proportions of RAP are rejuvenated with (oxidized asphalt and 4% WEO), which has a penetration grade of 60–70, taking into consideration the content of binder of RAP. According to the (NCHRP Report-452, 2001) recommendations, the asphalt grade was altered when more than 20% RAP was utilized. The alteration of the asphalt binder grade is carried out by the approach outlined in the NCHRP Report-452 from 2001 when the amount of RAP exceeds 20%. This rise in RAP content necessitates the utilization of a less viscous asphalt binder. The amount of virgin asphalt binder replaced by RAP binder is determined by equation (1) [37].

(1) P r = P c − ( P a × P p ) ,

where, P r is the percentage of virgin asphalt to be added to the mix containing RAP, P a is the percentage of RAP asphalt in the mix, P c is the percentage of total asphalt in the mix, and P p is the percentage of RAP in the mix.

Table 7 presents detailed percentages of an aggregate of both old and new kinds and the asphalt percentages of both old and new for each percentage of RAP in the asphalt mixes.

Table 7

Asphalt and RAP content in the mixtures

RAP (%) Optimum binder content Asphalt content (%) Aggregate content (%)
New RAP New RAP
0 4.9 4.9 0 100 0
20 4.9 4.14 0.76 80 20
30 5 3.86 1.14 70 30
40 5 3.48 1.52 60 40
50 5 3.1 1.9 50 50

4 Testing program

4.1 Marshall tests

This test's primary objective is to assess blends' flow and stability qualities. The specimens were immersed in a water stream at an average temperature of 60 ± 1°C for 30–40 min. Following this, the samples were prepared for testing in a Marshall stability apparatus according to the ASTM D6729 standard procedure [38]. The load deforms at a consistent rate of 50.8 mm (2 in) per minute till it breaks. Marshall stability measures the highest force at which a sample fails, and Marshall flow measures the total amount of deformation. The specific gravity, density, and % air voids were determined for each mixing sample according to ASTM-D2726-17 [39] and D3203-17 [40], respectively.

4.2 Indirect tensile strength test (ITS)

The combinations' tensile strength and temperature susceptibility will be evaluated as part of this test, which is the primary reason for its execution. The evaluation method consisted of an indirect tensile strength measurement (ASTM D-6931) [41]. The effects of moisture on HMA were evaluated using a standardized test approach (ASTM-D-4867) [42]. All samples were compacted to reach 7 ± 1% air voids, comparable to voids quantities typically found in the field. This level of air voids, typically within 6–8%, was attained by conducting multiple tests using a variety of compacting blows, as illustrated in Figure 6. After conducting several examinations, employing a range of different compaction blows, the number of blows needed to create the test samples that matched to air voids at a percentage of 6–8% was found to be between 40–57 blows.

Figure 6 The relation between the number of blows and the proportion of the air voids.
Figure 6

The relation between the number of blows and the proportion of the air voids.

For each asphalt combination with different RAP percentages (0, 20, 30, 40, and 50%), three subgroups of samples are generated, and they are

  1. Unconditioned specimens by soaking them in a bath of water at 25°C for 30 min (dry samples).

  2. Conditioned samples by soaking them in a bath of water at 60°C for 24 h, followed by 1 h at 25°C (wet condition).

  3. Conditioned samples after putting the samples in the vacuum saturation and subjecting them to pressure of about 10–26 inHg, the specimens were frozen for a minimum of 16 h at a temperature of around −18 ± 3°C. Then, the samples were kept in a bath of water for 24 h at a temperature of 60°C, and after that, they were taken out and set in the water bath for 1 h at a temperature of 25°C (freeze condition).

For ITS testing, all six examples are used. The tensile strength of conditional samples divided by the average tensile strength of unconditioned samples is known as the TSR. According to the ASTM D4867-17 [42] specification, the TSR number must be at least 80%.

4.3 Double punch shear test

This evaluation approach aimed to estimate the separation of the binder from the aggregate. Numerous investigations have been conducted to document this test. The equation to estimate punching force is presented as follows:

(2) σ t = p π ( 1.2 bh − a 2 ) ,

where, σ t is the punching shear stress, Pa, p is the maximum load, N, a is the radius of punch, mm, b is the radius of the specimen, mm, and ℎ is the height of the specimen, mm.

The test employed Marshall samples for experimentation. The specimens underwent a conditioning process in which they were immersed in a water bath at a temperature of 60 ± 1°C for 30 min. The specimen was positioned centrally between two precisely aligned cylindrical steel punches with a diameter of 2.54 cm. Subsequently, it was subjected to a loading rate of 2.54 cm/min until failure occurred. The measurement of the maximal resistance was thereafter conducted.

4.4 Wheel tracking evaluation

The rutting susceptibility of asphalt blends is typically evaluated using the HWT test, which is a loaded wheel test designed to imitate road conditions. The procedure adheres to BS EN 12697-22, 2003 [43] and AASHTO: T324, 2013 [44] standards. The test findings show how quickly a concentrated moving load causes permanent deformation. A steel wheel (of the appropriate size) bearing a further force of 705 N (158 pounds) is employed to roll over the asphalt mix specimen's surface. All slab types were tested at temperatures of 50 and 60°C to mimic the weather conditions and elevated temperature, notably in Iraq, where the pavement undergoes throughout the operation.

The process is carried out for a total of 10,000 times, which equates to 20,000 passes, or until the amount of distortion reaches 20 mm. Using the wheel-tracking device, the test specimen can be moved in a horizontal orientation beneath the loaded steel wheel to perform back-and-forth motions. Per the manufacturer's directions, the samples of compacted asphalt slabs (30 cm wide, 40 cm long, and 5 cm thick) were cooled at ambient temperature for 24 h [43]. The asphalt slab samples were first pressed into a mold before being put through their paces on the wheel track devices. Samples of asphalt slabs are identified with the mixture type information, and the necessary test data are entered into the computer. If the highest possible rutting depth (20 mm) is reached before the requisite number of cycles (10,000, 20,000 passes) are completed, the testing apparatus will immediately shut down. The testing arm would return to its starting position as soon as it was finished, and the device's screen would show the outcomes of the test, which could be written down or transmitted to another screen.

5 Analysis and discussion

5.1 Marshall test results

All combinations' stabilities, flow, bulk densities, and air voids are displayed in Figures 7–10, respectively. Every combination satisfies the requirements for bulk density and air voids, as well as the 8 kN stability criterion for surface layers of roads with high traffic volumes. In addition, the Marshall flow requirement of 2–4 mm is met by all configurations. The results show that the stability value starts with 11 kN at 0% RAP and then increases with an increase in the RAP percentage until it reaches the highest value at 40% RAP with an increase in 30%. The increase in the stability values ​​is attributed to the increase in the strength of the asphalt mixture with the increase in the RAP ratio, in addition to the success of the regeneration process and an improvement in workability as well as compaction in the presence of regenerators (oxidized asphalt + waste oil) and this supports the decrease in air voids and the increase in the density of the asphalt mixture. After that, the Marshall stability value decreases at 50% RAP as a result of the increase in hardness with the increase in the RAP ratio, as this is noted by the difficulty of mixing and compaction so that the process of rejuvenation with this ratio of RAP became useless, and this can be proven by the increase in the proportion of air voids at 50% RAP. The outcomes acquired in this study are exceptional and consistent with findings from earlier studies [45–48]. It is worth noting that the improvement in Marshall stability observed in this research surpasses that reported in the referenced studies, highlighting the effectiveness of the rejuvenation procedure employed in this current investigation.

Figure 7 Effect of RAP on Marshall stability.
Figure 7

Effect of RAP on Marshall stability.

Figure 8 Effect of RAP on Marshall flow.
Figure 8

Effect of RAP on Marshall flow.

Figure 9 Effect of RAP on bulk density value.
Figure 9

Effect of RAP on bulk density value.

Figure 10 Effect of RAP on air void value.
Figure 10

Effect of RAP on air void value.

5.2 Indirect tensile test results

The results of the indirect tensile test for unconditioned (dry condition), conditioned (wet condition), and frozen condition samples are shown in Figures 11–13, respectively. It is clear from the results that the value of ITS increases with the increase in the percentage of RAP compared to the reference mixture. The results show that the highest value of indirect tensile strength is at 40% RAP, with an increase of 14.6% for dry conditions, 19.9% for wet conditions, and 24% for freezing conditions. The increase in the ITS value with the increase in the ratio of RAP is due to the increase in the stiffness of the asphalt mixture and the high hardness resulting from the quality of bonding and cohesion between the asphalt and the aggregates as a result of modifying the properties of the ageing asphalt with regenerators (oxidized asphalt with WEO). Prior literature has demonstrated a positive correlation between the percentage of RAP and the value of ITS. Aghazadeh Dokandari et al. [37] demonstrated a 16% enhancement in ITS when utilizing 70% RAP, while Khaled [49] identified that the optimal ITS values were achieved with 45% RAP. Furthermore, the present study's findings align with previous research [50,51].

Figure 11 Effect of RAP on dry ITS.
Figure 11

Effect of RAP on dry ITS.

Figure 12 Effect of RAP on wet ITS.
Figure 12

Effect of RAP on wet ITS.

Figure 13 Effect of RAP on freezing ITS.
Figure 13

Effect of RAP on freezing ITS.

Figures 14 and 15 present the TSR for the wet and frozen conditions. It is clear that there is an improvement in the durability against damage from moisture when adding the RAP compared to the reference mixture, and the TSR value increases with the increase in the proportion of RAP as the value of TSR rose from 84% at 0% RAP to 95% at 40% RAP in the wet condition. Also, in the case of the frozen condition, the value of TSR increased from 80% at 0% RAP to 88% at 40% RAP. The improvement in the resistance of the asphalt mixture to moisture damage is due to the effectiveness of the rejuvenation process of the RAP in the presence of the regenerating materials (oxidized asphalt + WEO). The mixture of WEO and asphalt covers the aggregates with a thick layer that reduces air voids, prevents moisture from reaching the aggregates, and increases the bond between asphalt and aggregate. The current research results demonstrate a notable improvement in the performance of asphalt mixtures incorporating RAP in resisting moisture damage compared to the findings of previous studies [45,47,48].

Figure 14 Effect of RAP on TSR for wet condition.
Figure 14

Effect of RAP on TSR for wet condition.

Figure 15 Effect of RAP on TSR for freezing condition.
Figure 15

Effect of RAP on TSR for freezing condition.

5.3 Double punch shear

The outcomes of the double punch test, conducted with different proportions of RAP, are depicted in Figure 16. As determined by measurements, the punching power is enhanced when more RAP is used in the mixes. The punching resistance starts with 190 kPa at 0% RAP and continues to increase with the increase in the RAP ratio until it reaches its highest value of 375 kPa with an increase rate of 97% at 40% RAP. The observed phenomenon can be attributed to the fact that adding WEO to asphalt improves the cohesive properties of the mixture, resulting in the desired attributes of elasticity, elongation, and binder viscosity. Consequently, the asphalt mixture exhibits increased resistance to the pressure imposed by the machinery, namely, the punching force. The current research yielded superior results compared to the findings of Joni et al. [47]. Joni observed a 13% increase in punching resistance when using asphalt mixtures consisting of 100% RAP rejuvenated with waste motor oil. However, the current research aligns with earlier studies that showed significant improvement [45,52].

Figure 16 Effect of RAP content on punching strength.
Figure 16

Effect of RAP content on punching strength.

5.4 Wheel tracking test results

The wheel track test was conducted on two mixtures: the reference combination without RAP and the second mixture including 40% RAP. The asphalt mixture containing 40% RAP was selected after considering the outcomes of Marshall tests, indirect tensile tests, the TSR, and double punch shear test. These tests indicated that the asphalt mixture with 40% RAP exhibited the most favorable performance results among the various RAP ratios tested. Two sets of mixtures, each including the same types of combinations, were prepared for testing under two different temperatures, specifically 50 and 60°C. These temperatures were chosen to simulate weather and elevated temperatures, particularly in Iraq. Rut depth results are displayed in Figures 17 and 18 for two test temperatures of 50 and 60°C, respectively. The results indicate a noticeable enhancement in the resistance to rutting and a reduction in the rutting depth in the combinations that were enhanced with RAP compared to the original mixtures. The findings reveal that including RAP rejuvenated with WEO substances in virgin asphalt mixes increases mixture strength, suggesting greater rutting resistance. This is attributed to the significant influence of old asphalt in RAP on the general structure of HMA. The utilization of RAP has been found to enhance the resistance to permanent deformation due to the increased stiffness of the binder in RAP. It is anticipated that the presence of a stiff binder in the RAP will have an advantageous effect on the rutting behavior of the HMA combination. Using waste oil-modified asphalt effectively rejuvenated the deterioration of the reclaimed pavement (RAP), reinstating its elastic characteristics and facilitating the absorption of the light constituents depleted over its operational lifespan. This process added another advantage while maintaining the appropriate viscosity and hardness and made better overlapping and increased the bonds and cohesion between the asphalt and the aggregate, in addition to surrounding the aggregates with a thicker layer of improved asphalt, as well as the substantial interlocking between the aggregate particles, all of these factors worked to increase the rutting resistance.

Figure 17 Effect of RAP addition on rutting depth value at 50°C.
Figure 17

Effect of RAP addition on rutting depth value at 50°C.

Figure 18 Effect of RAP addition on rutting depth value at 60°C.
Figure 18

Effect of RAP addition on rutting depth value at 60°C.

6 Conclusion

This study investigated the use of WEO to rejuvenate oxidized asphalt and the use of RAP in HMA mixtures. The following conclusions can be drawn:

  • The incorporation of WEO in oxidized asphalt improved its physical and rheological properties. The optimal WEO concentrations for restoring oxidized asphalt with a penetration grade of 30/40 to its original penetration grades of 40/50 and 60/70 were determined to be 3 and 4%, respectively.

  • The incorporation of RAP into HMA mixtures improved their mechanical performance. When RAP was added to HMA at concentrations of 20, 30, 40, and 50%, Marshall stability increased by 21, 25, 30, and 10%, respectively, and flow decreased by 1, 3, 5, and 14%, respectively. The air void content of the mixtures remained within allowable ranges.

  • RAP increased the moisture resistance of HMA mixtures. The incorporation of 20, 30, 40, and 50% RAP in the mixture led to an increase in moisture resistance by approximately 11, 8, 13, and 5% for wet conditions and 12, 5, 9, and 12% for freezing condition, in comparison to a pure mixture without any RAP.

  • RAP increased the resistance to stripping in HMA mixtures. Implementing 20, 30, 40, and 50% RAP resulted in respective increases of 74, 93, 97, and 86% in the resilience to stripping.

  • RAP increased the rutting resistance of HMA mixtures. The mixes containing 40% RAP demonstrated a 63.7 and 64.5% improvement in rutting resistance at 50 and 60°C, respectively.

This study demonstrated that incorporating RAP in hot-mix asphalt mixtures improved their performance under elevated temperatures. This methodology can be considered an ecologically mindful strategy that fosters sustainability principles, as it reduces the need for virgin asphalt and promotes the reuse of recycled materials.

# These authors contributed equally to this work.

  1. Funding information: We declare that the manuscript was done depending on the personal effort of the author, and there is no funding effort from any side or organization.

  2. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: Most datasets generated and analyzed in this study are in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-09-05
Revised: 2023-11-01
Accepted: 2023-11-04
Published Online: 2024-03-01

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0555
Keywords for this article
rutting resistance; wheel tracking test; reclaimed asphalt pavement; waste engine oil; moisture damage
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Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Methodology of automated quality management
  3. Influence of vibratory conveyor design parameters on the trough motion and the self-synchronization of inertial vibrators
  4. Application of finite element method in industrial design, example of an electric motorcycle design project
  5. Correlative evaluation of the corrosion resilience and passivation properties of zinc and aluminum alloys in neutral chloride and acid-chloride solutions
  6. Will COVID “encourage” B2B and data exchange engineering in logistic firms?
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  8. A hybrid detection algorithm for 5G OTFS waveform for 64 and 256 QAM with Rayleigh and Rician channels
  9. Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy
  10. Exploring the potential of ammonia and hydrogen as alternative fuels for transportation
  11. Impact of insulation on energy consumption and CO2 emissions in high-rise commercial buildings at various climate zones
  12. Advanced autopilot design with extremum-seeking control for aircraft control
  13. Adaptive multidimensional trust-based recommendation model for peer to peer applications
  14. Effects of CFRP sheets on the flexural behavior of high-strength concrete beam
  15. Enhancing urban sustainability through industrial synergy: A multidisciplinary framework for integrating sustainable industrial practices within urban settings – The case of Hamadan industrial city
  16. Advanced vibrant controller results of an energetic framework structure
  17. Application of the Taguchi method and RSM for process parameter optimization in AWSJ machining of CFRP composite-based orthopedic implants
  18. Improved correlation of soil modulus with SPT N values
  19. Technologies for high-temperature batch annealing of grain-oriented electrical steel: An overview
  20. Assessing the need for the adoption of digitalization in Indian small and medium enterprises
  21. A non-ideal hybridization issue for vertical TFET-based dielectric-modulated biosensor
  22. Optimizing data retrieval for enhanced data integrity verification in cloud environments
  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
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  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
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  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
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  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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