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The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials

  • Samer Kareem Turki ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Sarmad I. Ibrahim and Mohammed H. D. Almaamori
Published/Copyright: April 13, 2024
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Open Engineering
From the journal Open Engineering Volume 14 Issue 1

Abstract

The goal of the investigation is to produce a cement mortar for building units and a high-performance ceramic tile adhesive by using V autoclaved aerated concrete as a partial substitute for cement. The combination consists of sand, crushed limestone, and polymeric additives. The experimental procedures were conducted utilizing contemporary laboratory equipment to facilitate the manufacturing of the product and the subsequent investigation of its characteristics, in accordance with the standards outlined in EN12004 and ASTM C1660. The laboratory tests carried out, which included splitting tensile strength, bonding strength, and open application duration, have demonstrated conformity to the product standards. The raw materials undergo many examinations prior to their utilization in the preparation process. The conducted tests encompassed chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction, and viscosity evaluation. These experiments aimed to ascertain the mixing ratios and determine the optimal quantity of water required for the preparation procedure. A thickness of 3 mm was employed, rendering it very cost-effective and environmentally sustainable due to the utilization of recycled resources. This particular adhesive possesses supplementary characteristics, such as its self-sufficiency on the site, since it is readily used without the need for extra materials, requiring only the addition of the necessary amount of water. Extensive research has been conducted on a range of mix designs and particle sizes for raw materials, together with varying proportions of additives, to determine the optimal ratio that satisfies both criteria and cost considerations. The adhesion strength of the building units was determined to be 7 N/mm2, surpassing the specified value in ASTM C1660. This indicates that the material is deemed successful and meets the required specifications for its application as a mortar for building units, as per the standard stating that an adhesion strength test exceeding 5 N/mm2 is necessary. The evaluation of the characteristics of the material employed as tile adhesive mortar was conducted in accordance with the EN1348 standard, revealing satisfactory compliance with all specified criteria. The application duration of the tile adhesive exceeds 25 min, while its tensile strength surpasses 10 N/mm2, thereby meeting the criteria for classification as a Class A tile adhesive.

Keywords: sustainability; waste recycled; tile adhesive; cement mortar; polymer-modified mortar

1 Introduction

Dry adhesive cement-based mortars are often utilized in a wide range of building projects, including both modern and traditional constructions. As a result, they have become a prevalent composite material with significant influence in the fields of masonry and plastering. Furthermore, the production of these mortars requires the utilization of resources and energy for the manufacturing of binders and aggregates, leading to the handling of a substantial quantity of waste [1].

In recent years, researchers from many different fields have conducted an increasing amount of studies investigating the sustainable possibilities of recycled aggregates. The previously mentioned aggregates are derived from the destruction of structure and demolition waste, as well as the manufacturing process of construction materials. Several researches have established that the utilization of recycled aggregates produces equivalent outcomes to those achieved via the use of natural aggregates. In addition, the integration of waste materials or by-products into the construction process has yielded enhanced ecological outcomes [2].

In 1924, the autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) was developed through the collaborative efforts of architect Dr. Johan Axel Eriksson from Swedish and Henrik Kreuger [3]. It is a structural material that does not negatively affect the environment in any way because it is made from modern waste and materials that are not toxic or poisonous. It is possible that using AAC will speed up the development process by about 20%. The utilization of AAC block can reduce the cost of construction for establishments such as schools and hospitals by approximately 5%, and it can reduce the cost of operating expenses for places of accommodation and commerce by 30–40% over time. According to the findings of one study, the application of AAC now constitutes more than 40% of all building activity in the United Kingdom and more than 60% of all development in Germany [4]. The manufacturing procedure for autoclaved cellular concrete yields a distinct building material that can be differentiated from other types of concrete due to its unique characteristics. It is not at all like regular lightweight aggregate or any of the other kinds of concrete because it is made up of a vast number of tiny cells that form during the manufacturing process. This concrete is unique in that rather than being cured using air or moisture, it is cured using steam in a high-pressure autoclave. This is yet another way that it stands out. A chemical reaction takes place within the concrete as a direct consequence of this one-of-a-kind process. The manufacturing procedure for autoclaved cellular concrete yields a distinct building material that can be differentiated from other types of concrete due to its unique characteristics. It is not at all like regular lightweight aggregate or any of the other kinds of concrete because it is made up of a vast number of tiny cells that form during the manufacturing process. This concrete is unique in that rather than being cured using air or moisture, it is cured using steam in a high-pressure autoclave. This is yet another way that it stands out. A chemical reaction takes place within the concrete as a direct consequence of this one-of-a-kind process [5].

2 Al + 3 Ca ( OH ) 2 + 6 H 2 O → 3 CaO ⋅ Al 2 O 3 ⋅ 6 H 2 O + 3 H 2 .

Generating from demolishing the heat insulation walls, AACW is a prevalent but weak cement-based residue [6]. Typically comprised of porous AAC block, this low-strength building material is produced using calcium and silicate materials like cement, lime, fly ash, and sand. As green building regulations demand energy-saving solutions, Chinese consumption of this concrete alternative to clay bricks has seen a rapid rise Feng et al. [7], a production of around 110,000,000 m3 of blocks made by AAC in 2015, with fly ash making up to 7% of its raw materials. As a result, the AAC block production generated scraps and wastes of approximately 3–5%, leading to large amounts of AAC residues. Furthermore, waste AAC blocks were created in huge numbers during construction and demolition. In response to the construction industry’s growing demands, AAC has become increasingly prevalent. Suwan and Wattanachai [8] have reported on this development. One of the promising ways to repurpose AAC waste is as a lightweight aggregate in concrete, which was thoroughly researched. The study confirmed that manufacturing errors can make up between 3 and 5% of AAC production. Interestingly, the rise in both volume and coarseness of the particles of AAC-LWA concrete led to a decrease in its compressive strength.

In 2012, Renman and Renman [9] introduced an innovative approach to utilizing AAC as a tool to support efforts to improve the environment. In this study, bench-scale and field pilot-scale experiments were conducted to investigate the efficacy of crushed AAC (2–4 mm) also referred to as CAAC, in removing phosphorus (P) from pure wastewater or a solution by filtering PO4-P. CAAC is another name for crushed aerated clay. CAAC was found to have slow phosphate removal kinetics; however, the removal efficiency was remarkable, coming in at 93–99%. After coming into contact with moving wastewater, the solid CAAC exhibited concentrations of 39.6 g/kg when subjected to mineralogical testing with an ICP-OES instrument. After that, X-ray powder diffraction was utilized to determine the minerals that were present in AAC. The results of this procedure demonstrated that tobermorite (Ca5Si6O16(OH)2·4H2O) was the predominant mineral. When the crystalline structure of tobermorite was dissolved, a material was produced that was porous and rich in tobermorite. This material was able to remove P and organic matter from domestic wastewater because of its rich tobermorite content. Crushing and screening are the only steps that are required to obtain the desired particle size distribution before putting it to use in a variety of technical applications. The production process of autoclaved cellular concrete creates a distinctive building material that sets it apart from other kinds of concrete. Made up of countless small cells that develop during manufacturing, it is not like standard lightweight aggregate or other types of concrete. The first type is that cementation-based tile adhesives include polymers that are used to enhance their bonding to the substrate and improve their elasticity. The building chemistry industry was able to begin manufacturing polymer-modified dry mix adhesives after the development of this technology. The second technique was the improvement of substrates.

2 Experimental works

In the process of the research, the production of polymer-modified cement adhesive mortar is carried out in stages: the first stage is preparing sand by sieving the sand until reaches to size below 600 µm, the second stage is balancing the raw materials cement, sand, and polymeric additives in desired weight. The third stage is mixing all the materials with water and testing the final mixture.

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Manufacturing of waste AAC powder

The building and construction industry has, over the past few decades, made significant efforts to reduce the adverse effects it has on the surrounding environment by embracing environmentally responsible building techniques. This strategy includes utilizing by-products, recycled materials, and waste products from industrial processes in the building process.

The powder used in this investigation was made using a procedure consisting of two stages. After having its size reduced with a jaw crusher machine, the waste from the AAC blocks was then filtered to the point where it could pass through a sieve with a size of 4.75 mm. Second, to finish the milling process, we made use of the planetary apparatus shown in Figure 1. Ball mills are useful tools for carrying out processes involving the ultra-fine grinding of fragile materials. This piece of machinery is comprised of a container that is hollow and cylindrical. The inside of the container is coated with manganese steel, and it can rotate on its axis. The grinding medium in the ball mill consists of steel or stainless steel balls of varying sizes. These balls were created specifically for use in the ball mill. The diameter of these balls must be significantly higher than that of the largest chunks of material that are going to be ground. The contents of the milling bowl, as well as the inner wall of the bowl, are subjected to the impact of stainless-steel balls with diameters ranging from 12 to 32 mm, which revolve along the container’s center line. The process of producing AAC waste powder sustainably is depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Sustainable powder production process.
Figure 1

Sustainable powder production process.

2.1.2 Cement

Ball mill

In this experiment, a common Portland cement of the Falcon brand, which consists of components that are readily available, was used. It was preserved in a dry atmosphere so that it would not be affected by environmental factors such as humidity. As a result of this, the chemical and physical properties of the cement, which are detailed in Table 1, demonstrate that it was in accordance with Iraq’s requirements (I.Q.S.) No. 5/1984. [10].

Table 1

Chemical and physical properties of cement

Composition SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 CaO MgO SO3 F.CaO L.O.I. I.R.
Test results 20.4 5 4.3 63.5 2.5 1.6 1 2 1
SD ±0.2 ±0.2 ±0.2 ±0.3 ±0.3 ±0.2 ±0.2 ±0.3 ±0.2
Test type L.S.F C3S C2S C3A C4AF
Test results (%) 93 54.5 19.3 3.16 15
Blain (cm2/g) Initial setting time (min) Final setting time (min) Compressive strength (MPa)
2 days 28 days
Test result 3,400 190 280 23.6 44.8

2.1.3 Sand

As a fine aggregate, natural sand from the Safwan region was utilized, and its maximum particle size was measured to be 0.6 mm. Table 2 outlines the types of sand that were used in this investigation, along with their respective grades and physical properties. Sand is graded using Iraqi Standard No. 45/1984 as the grading system [11] (Table 3).

(1) ing = W − W 1 W × 100 .

Table 2

Sand sieving analysis

Sieve no. Sieve opening (mm) Mass retained (g) Percent of mass retained Rn Cumulative percent retained ∑Rn Percent finer (100 − ∑Rn)
10 2 0 0 0 100
20 1.85 5.76 1.152 1.152 99.76
30 0.6 10.28 2.05 3.202 96.79
40 0.426 186 37.2 40.402 59.598
50 0.3 214 42.8 83.202 16.798
200 0.075 77.8 15.56 98.762 1.238
Pan — 5.2 1.04 100 0
Total 499.04
Table 3

Sand chemical analysis

Chemical analysis % by weight Sand
L.O.I 2.76
SiO2 87.96
Al2O3 —
MgO —
SO3 0.78
Fe2O3 —
CaO —
Silt 1.2
TSS 1.9
CL 0.08

Mass loss = 0.192%.

2.1.4 Calcium carbonate

Reduced porosity and improved early-age strength are two benefits that come from using finely ground calcium carbonate (90 μm) [12,13] The chemical composition of the calcium carbonate that was supplied by the Karbala lime production, which is owned by the Iraqi southern cement company, is detailed in Table 4.

Table 4

Calcium carbonate chemical analysis

Element CaCO3% SiO2% SO3% L.O.I.
Test results 81.3 11.2 1.75 31.7

Table 4 shows specific information regarding the chemical composition of the calcium carbonate that was supplied by the Karbala lime factory, which is located in Iraq and is owned by the Iraqi Southern Cement Company.

2.1.5 Polymer

In the following, we will discuss two of the additives that were investigated in this study. Both were found to have positive effects. In their make-up, you will find both hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) powder. Both a thickening agent and a water-retaining agent, HPMC can be found in dry mortars thanks to its versatility [14].

A straightforward opening and operating time reduces the complexity of the tile-laying process and makes it simpler for workers to fix any mistakes. The use of HPMC makes it easy to combine dry powder components without the formation of agglomeration, which results in time savings throughout the working process. In addition to this, it improves the building’s energy efficiency, which in turn raises employee productivity and decreases total costs. The use of HPMC in tile adhesives resulted in an increase in both their plasticity and their flexibility [15]. PVA is a type of water-soluble polymer that is frequently used in a wide variety of industries due to the fact that it possesses outstanding mechanical and chemical properties. Construction companies frequently make use of polyvinyl alcohol in a variety of applications, including as an adhesive, a modifier and pretreatment agent for aggregate surfaces, fiber reinforcement, and so on. Many studies have shown that increasing the malleability of cement-based materials and their capacity to retain water products by adding a modest quantity of polyvinyl alcohol to the fresh mixing process can accomplish both goals. Kim et al. [1] found that this approach could reduce the porosity of materials based on modified cement in terms of them to 6% by taking a prewetting step before manufacturing polyvinyl alcohol-modified cement-based materials. proposed that a prewetting step before manufacturing polyvinyl alcohol-modified cement-based materials. PVA is added to new mortar and concrete at a concentration of less than 2% to increase the air-void content and perceived fluidity while simultaneously reducing bleeding. As fluidity rises, there is a corresponding increase in slump in the changed concrete [16].

Over the last few decades, the construction industry has been making great efforts to decrease the negative environmental impacts it produces by adopting sustainable construction practices. This involves the utilization of by-products, recycled materials, and industrial waste in construction. The building and construction industry has, over the course of the past few decades, made significant efforts to reduce the adverse effects it has on the surrounding environment by embracing environmentally responsible building techniques. In this practice, by-products, recycled materials, and waste from industrial processes are included in the building process.

2.2 Mix proportion

To comply with recommendations for fresh properties, various trial mixes were conducted to determine the appropriate mixture ratio for cementation tile adhesive mortar. Dry mixing was the technique utilized. Here is the production’s mixing process:

  1. Until a consistent distribution is achieved, mix together cement with additives like HPMC and PVA powder by hand.

  2. While the mixer operates at a low speed for 1 min, include the fine sand (measuring 0.6 mm).

  3. While the mixer operates at low speed for a minute, include the fine calcium carbonate, as well as AAC waste with particles smaller than 100 µm.

  4. Using the Brookfield viscometer, the standard viscosity range of 450–550 mPa s can be utilized to calculate water volumes for each sample.

After that, the tile adhesive mortar was used to evaluate the properties according to EN12004. Details of the mix proportion for tile adhesive mortar are given in Table 5 [17].

Table 5

Mix proportion

Mix id For 1,000 g Compressive strength (MPa)
Cement Sand AACW 7 days 28 days
Mix R 400 540 0 22 30.4
Mix 1 380 540 20 20 28.3
Mix 2 360 540 40 18.5 27.8
Mix 3 340 540 60 17 27.3
Mix 4 320 540 80 16 24.6
Mix 5 300 540 100 14 23.5

3 Tests

Mortar cement can be divided into Type M, Type N, and Type S categories according to the physical criteria. The temperature and relative humidity of the air around the mixing slab, as well as the molds, base plates, dry materials, as well as the mixing bowl, must all conform to certain specifications to pass the Test Method C109/C109M [18].

3.1 Physical tests

3.1.1 Consistency test

Before the dry mortar can be applied to a substrate, it must first be combined with a specific quantity of water. The ideal consistency for the application can be achieved with the help of the appropriate amount of water. The mortar takes on unexpected qualities when the amount of water used is either too high or too low. The fluidity of cement mortar is a fundamental characteristic that is crucial for a wide range of applications. It is particularly important when it comes to the rapid construction of tall buildings within a short period of time [19]. Figure 2 shows a mortar sample being initially placed in a conical mold, and then having the mold removed, a mechanical drop being applied to the entire table after the mold has been removed. It is common practice to measure the frequency of the table shocks 15 times in the space of 15 s [20].

Figure 2 Flow-table apparatus according to ASTM C270.
Figure 2

Flow-table apparatus according to ASTM C270.

3.1.2 Open time test

The open time test is designed to evaluate the behavior of the adhesive when, after being applied to the substrate, it remains exposed to the air for a lengthy time. This is the case when the operator tiles a big surface and, as a result, spends more time applying all the tiles (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Open time test.
Figure 3

Open time test.

Test procedure

  1. The first contact layer of the adhesive to be tested is applied to the concrete slab. Immediately afterward, a second layer is applied, combing it with 6 mm × 6 mm (cementitious adhesives).

  2. Ceramic tiles of type V1 lay in wait for different intervals of 30, 10, 5, and 20 min before undergoing installation. These tiles experienced pressure amounting to 20 ± 0.05 N during a 30-s duration [21].

3.2 The mechanical test

3.2.1 Tensile test

The thin-bed mortar used for AAC (also known as AAC) masonry must adhere to these requirements [22] (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Tensile test.
Figure 4

Tensile test.

3.2.2 Pull-off test

This test is performed in accordance with C1583/C1583M-13 [23] standards. Various types of testing equipment are utilized in accordance with this way of testing. When reporting results, the particular instrument that was utilized should be specified. This test is damaging, and some spot repairs may be required (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Pull-off test.
Figure 5

Pull-off test.

3.3 Structural test

3.3.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Following a reaction with crystalline material atoms that are spread uniformly and periodically in the habit, the XRD test is performed to determine the crystal structure of solids by utilizing XRD to identify the crystal structure of solids. An XRD examination was carried out by the Building Materials Labs, as well as the Faculty of Materials Engineering and the Department of Ceramics Engineering at Babylon University (Type XRD-6000, Shimadzu). The XRD device is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 XRD device.
Figure 6

XRD device.

3.3.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX)

The interface region and the microstructure between polymer-modified mortar and ceramic tiles have been observed via using Thermo Scientific Axia ChemiSEM EDX and SEM, respectively, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 SEM device.
Figure 7

SEM device.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Characterization of AAC waste powder

XRD results for AAC waste powder were demonstrated in Figure 8. It showed that the material contains quartz, etteringite, and quantities of tobermorite. Tobermorite is a mineral composed of calcium silicate hydrate and has the formula To SiH4: Ca5Si6O16(OH)2·4H2O or Ca5Si6(O, OH)18·5H2O, the principal crystal hydration product in AACW is tobermorite. The quartz might be a component of the fine aggregate (sand). Calcite should be produced by the carbonation of calcium hydroxide (lime).

Figure 8 XRD pattern for AACW.
Figure 8

XRD pattern for AACW.

This is shown by the dehydroxylation of the water molecules that exist in the AACW structure by heat treatment. The major peak present in the AAC was at 2Ɵ = 26.63° which was attributed to residual quartz in the material.

4.2 SEM for AAC waste powder

The SEM image shown in Figure 9a clearly shows the complex structure of the hydration reaction showing the ettringite phase [24]. SEM micrographs of tobermorite produced by hydration of AAC curried for 12 h under 12 bar at 200 °C are shown in Figure 9b [25]. Figure 9 shows the morphological pictures of AACW acquired by SEM, the milled raw AACW is porous, according to the initial observation. This physical texture enables it high water absorption, resulting in internal effective potential [26]. The image in Figure 10 depicts the porous composition of AAC waste powder, which results in a significant water absorption capacity. Additionally, the increased porosity of the material contributes to a reduced bonding strength [27].

Figure 9 SEM image of the complex structure of the hydration reaction shows tobermorite.
Figure 9

SEM image of the complex structure of the hydration reaction shows tobermorite.

Figure 10 SEM image of the complex structure of the hydration reaction shows tobermorite with porous structure.
Figure 10

SEM image of the complex structure of the hydration reaction shows tobermorite with porous structure.

4.3 Result of EDS for AACW

From Figure 11 and Table 6, we can see that C, O, Ca, Si, and Al were shown in tobermorite in AAC waste powder; the contents of Ca (14.5%), Si (19.4%), C (13.9%), and O (48%). The Al contents (1.4%) due to the use of the aluminum powder that was used as a foaming agent, the percentage of Al shown in Table 6 that the quantity used in the production process of AAC is low and that is a fact.

Figure 11 Show the EDS analysis for AAC waste powder.
Figure 11

Show the EDS analysis for AAC waste powder.

Table 6

The results of the EDS test

Element Weight% Atomic%
C 13.9 21.7
O 48.0 56.1
Na 0.5 0.4
Mg 0.5 0.4
Al 1.4 1.0
Si 19.4 12.9
S 0.2 0.1
Cl 0.1 0.0
K 0.7 0.3
Ca 14.5 6.8
Fe 0.9 0.3

4.4 Microstructural analysis – SEM for hardened mortar

SEM imaging is effective in identifying the microstructural properties of polymer-modified mortar. From observations, it was found that the microstructure of such mortar was uniformly distributed. A denser microstructure was formed due to the presence of additional hydration (C–S–H). This densification enhanced the interfacial transaction zone between the polymer-modified cement paste and the tile interface surface. Incorporating particle additives into the cement mortar led to reduced pore size and increased density of the microstructure, making it less permeable compared to standard mortar. Powder particles play a dual role in enhancing the performance of the interfacial transition zone between polymer-modified cementitious materials and tile surfaces, while also improving the quality of cement matrix. In combination with water, the micro-AAC waste powder and Portland cement undergo hydrating, resulting in the formation of calcium silicate hydrates.

Figure 12 demonstrates that the distribution of microparticle powder allowed for identical and superior microstructures of hardened mortar.

Figure 12 SEM image at the bonding zone for optimum reference mix.
Figure 12

SEM image at the bonding zone for optimum reference mix.

Observing the microstructural properties of polymer-modified cement through SEM images would provide clarity. It is apparent that a uniform microstructure had formed. The interfacial transition zone between the polymer-modified cement paste and tile interface surface underwent densification due to the creation of an additional hydration product (C–S–H), leading to the production of a denser microstructure. A comparison to the microstructure of reference mortar reveals that the addition of particles in polymer-modified cement mortars resulted in a more compact and less permeable microstructure with smaller pores. Micro-AAC waste powder and Portland cement hydrate mix with water to form calcium silicate hydrates, which enhance the quality of the cement matrix and the interfacial transition zone between the tile surface and the polymer-modified cementitious components. In addition, the microparticle powder would react with an excess of calcium hydroxide to generate a finely dispersed gel that covers the large pores and micro-cracks. As a consequence, the cured cement paste would include fewer calcium hydroxide crystals and would have fewer large capillary pores. Figure 12 also shows that the distribution of microparticle powder made it possible to make identical products with improved microstructures of the hardened mortar.

SEM images would clarify the microstructural properties of the polymer-modified composite cement mortar. The microstructure was shown to be uniform. The production of a denser microstructure and densification of the interfacial transition zone between the polymer-modified cement paste and the tile interface surface can also be observed as a result of the formation of the additional hydration product (C–S–H). In comparison to the microstructure of the reference mortar, the microstructure of polymer-modified cement mortars containing particle additions was found to be less permeable, with smaller pores and a densified microstructure. The powder particles serve as a filler or binder to improve the cement matrix’s overall quality and the performance of the interfacial transition zone between the tile surface and the polymer-modified cementitious components [28]. The presence of micro-AAC waste powder and Portland cement hydrate together with water tends to form calcium silicate hydrates.

The hydrated form of calcium silicate(C–S–H) and Ca(OH)2 on the hexahedron may be seen connecting on SEM images of the aggregation of mortar-hydration products on the bonded interface between mortar and tile. It is clear that the C–S–H gel was linked by a network structure and formed a fine fibrous structure on the mortar’s surface. The “root pile” effect of the C–S–H gel, which is produced by the hydration reactions of the cement with AAC waste adhering to the fine aggregate pores, enhanced the bonding capability. Figure 13 demonstrates how the strength was mainly responsible for the bonding between the mortar and aggregate [29].

Figure 13 SEM image of the interface area between a polymer-modified tile adhesive (left) and a ceramic tile (right). The film of the polymer is visible at the interface.
Figure 13

SEM image of the interface area between a polymer-modified tile adhesive (left) and a ceramic tile (right). The film of the polymer is visible at the interface.

4.5 EDS for hardened mortar

Analysis conducted by EDS focused on the interface zone between the tile surface and the polymer-modified cement mortar. The optimal mixture batch was used for testing, as shown in Figure 14. The results revealed that free ions Ca2+ played a significant role in the formation of C–A–S–H gel at the interfacial zone. It is believed that these ions were produced from the breakdown of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) during the OPC concrete hydration process. Through SEM mapping, Figure 8 demonstrates that strong bonding and mechanical strength were improved by the formation of a C–A–S–H gel with a predominant ratio at the interfacial zone. In contrast, potassium-activated GP yielded an inferior and feeble interface region, depicted in Figure 15.

Figure 14 EDS analysis for the interface between ceramic tile and adhesive.
Figure 14

EDS analysis for the interface between ceramic tile and adhesive.

Figure 15 EDS mapping of the tile adhesive/ceramic interface of mix 3.
Figure 15 EDS mapping of the tile adhesive/ceramic interface of mix 3.
Figure 15

EDS mapping of the tile adhesive/ceramic interface of mix 3.

As seen in Table 7, EDS analysis focused on the optimal mix batch and examined the interface zone where the polymer-modified cement mortar met the tile surface. The outcome of the analysis revealed the presence of the C–A–S–H gel, which was formed through the involvement of free ions Ca2+ in the interfacial zone.

Table 7

The weights percentage of each element at the interface zone

Element Weight% Atomic%
C 10.7 17.2
O 50.5 60.8
Mg 1.8 1.4
Al 3.0 2.1
Si 11.9 8.2
S 0.4 0.2
Ca 18.7 9.0
Fe 2.8 1.0

From Figure 14, and Table 7, we can see that C, O, Ca, Si, and Al were shown in the interface region, the contents of Ca (18.7%), Si (11.9%), C (10.7%), and O (50.5%), this quantity led to the effect of AAC waste powder react with other component and shown strong structure cause the increase in strength. The Al contents (3%) due to the use of the aluminum powder that was used as a foaming agent, the percentage of Al shown in Table 7 that the quantity used in the production process of AAC is low and that is a fact.

4.6 Consistency test

The dry mortar is mixed with a certain amount of water before applying to support. A sufficient amount of water produces the desired consistency in the application. A higher or lower amount of water causes unexpected properties of the mortar. Therefore, the controlling of the mortar consistency plays an important role in the construction. For the mortar in the fresh state, the consistency is identified using a flow-table apparatus (ASTM C270 [20]), in which a mortar sample is first placed in a conical mold, and then the mold is removed before applying a mechanical drop to the whole table. The frequency of the table shocks is often taken 15 times in 15 s. The results presented in Table 8 show the results of the consistency test, which matched with standard limitation.

Table 8

Shows the results of the consistency test

Mix no. Mixing water % of solid content Consistency (mm)
R 24 176
Mix 1 25 180
Mix 2 27 182
Mix 3 30 184
Mix 4 33 192
Mix 5 38 198

The examination was carried out in accordance with the ASTM standard C270. In accordance with the consistency of mortars that have a bulk density of over 1,200 kg/m3, the required mixing water content should be 175 mm 10 mm, and this was the criterion that was used to establish the amount of mixing water.

4.7 Open application time

Figure 16 shows that the open application time of the reference mix is higher than the market mix because the content of the additive is higher than the market brand. The open application time (in minutes) is the period after which a tile adhesive will no longer have the required tensile strength. according to EN 12004 is reached [13].

Figure 16 Open application time test for average results.
Figure 16

Open application time test for average results.

Despite the porosity found in AACW powder and its fineness, this finding held. Free water within fresh cement paste can be categorized as either filling water or absorption water – the former resides in the area between particles while the latter is absorbed by the surface or interior of particles. It follows that consistency increases as absorption water content rises, given that the water/binder ratio remains constant. It is evidenced that AACW possesses physical porosity. AAC’s pore size can span from just a few millimeters to dozens of microns. As a result, the higher water requirement in the same consistency of reference mix is due to the water absorption of porous AACW.

4.8 Setting time

Table 9 illustrates the setting times of cement mixtures that were modified with polymer and other materials. When cement was substituted with AACW, there was a minor delay seen in both the beginning and final setting times. This waste material is a solid that has undergone hydration and can be classified as having medium rehydration activity. When AACW was added at a replacement level of 20%, the setting process was prolonged. Kim and Choi [30] stated that other types of concrete waste also caused delays in setting time. The slurry from AACW had a unique impact on setting time in cement pastes, unlike most solid waste additions which were studied by Bentz and Ferraris [31]. The increase in setting time induced by solid waste was seen to follow a pattern that was identical in the case of ground waste concrete powder. Despite this, AACW was responsible for a delay in both the initial and final setting times. This phenomenon may be attributed to the leaching behavior of AACW slurry. Breaking up and refining hydration products such as C–S–H and tobermorite, the milling process enables the production of newly hydrated products from AACW through cement hydration. The significance of the setting is illustrated in Table 9, which displays the slight increase in initial and final setting time. Maintaining the properties of this material is crucial for certain applications, as they require time to use the material without compromising its effectiveness.

Table 9

The setting time test

Mix no. Initial setting time (min) Final setting time (min)
Mix R 312 458
Mix 1 315 462
Mix 2 318 478
Mix 3 321 482
Mix 4 326 503
Mix 5 330 525

More time is needed to preserve tile adhesive properties due to the longer implementation process for tiles compared to laying bricks. For instance, laying bricks is a quicker task in comparison.

4.9 Splitting tensile strength

Figure 17 shows the results turn out that is the splitting tensile strength of polymer-modified cementation mortar higher than the mortar used from the market [32]. The increase in splitting strength was due to the tobermorite that was deposited in the AACW powder, which is a very strong component when compared to the C–S–H system of cement. The inclusion of quartz results in the production of tobermorite, meaning that the formation of tobermorite causes the strength to increase.

Figure 17 Tensile strength test results.
Figure 17

Tensile strength test results.

The study results show that the splitting tensile strength of polymer-modified cementation mortar increased with the increase of microparticle size powders, and it was continuously developed then started to decrease after 15% of waste according to the water absorption ratio mentioned below the increasing of water content causing decreasing of strength compared to reference mortar. The result of the test compared with ASTM C1660 is acceptable [33].

4.10 Pull-off test

The result shown in Figure 18 illustrates that the polymer-modified cementation composite adhesive is better than the adhesive supplied by the market in the pull-off test, and both passed the quality limit mentioned in EN 12004 standard [17].

Figure 18 Pull-off test results.
Figure 18

Pull-off test results.

The pull-off samples including 15% of AACW passed the requirement of EN 12004 type C1 [17].

5 Conclusions

In this section, the positive effects, both on the environment and the economy, of getting rid of AACW and using it for cement substitution were analyzed. After taking into account the cost of disposal and the energy consumption of AACW treatment, both the amount of blended cement binder and its associated CO2 emissions were drastically reduced.

The following inferences can be drawn in light of the findings of this investigation, which were as follows:

The current study evaluated whether or not AAC debris may successfully replace cement as a building material (AACW).

  1. After using the dry milling process, the AAC waste can be successfully employed as a partial substitute cement-based material in adhesive mortar, instead of the existing landfill disposal.

  2. Environmental and financial benefits resulted from the use of AACW in the manufacturing of construction materials.

  3. In comparison to normal cement paste, the bonding strength of 100 m AACW substituted cement pastes is greater or equal, within a 15% replacement level. In addition, the fine dry-milling AACW significantly improved the structure.

  4. The inclusion of AAC waste 100 µm particle size for a percentage (15–20%) of cement weight increased bonding strength, splitting tensile strength, and percentage (40–48%) at 28 days of age. Furthermore, it caused to reduction in dry density.

  5. The SEM results indicated a strong and compact interface which achieved between polymer-modified cementation adhesive mortar and ceramic tile. The effect of the C–S–H gel, which was formed by the hydration reaction of the cement, and the film formation from the reaction of PAV powder led to the enhancement of bonding strength.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the University of Technology for its commitment to Major Innovation in Technology and its unwavering support.

  1. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  2. Data availability statement: The most datasets generated and/or analysed in this study are comprised in this submitted manuscript. The other datasets are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author with the attached information.

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Received: 2023-10-30
Revised: 2023-12-22
Accepted: 2024-01-09
Published Online: 2024-04-13

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/eng-2022-0580
Keywords for this article
sustainability; waste recycled; tile adhesive; cement mortar; polymer-modified mortar
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

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  23. Performance analysis of nonlinear crosstalk of WDM systems using modulation schemes criteria
  24. Nonlinear finite-element analysis of RC beams with various opening near supports
  25. Thermal analysis of Fe3O4–Cu/water over a cone: a fractional Maxwell model
  26. Radial–axial runner blade design using the coordinate slice technique
  27. Theoretical and experimental comparison between straight and curved continuous box girders
  28. Effect of the reinforcement ratio on the mechanical behaviour of textile-reinforced concrete composite: Experiment and numerical modeling
  29. Experimental and numerical investigation on composite beam–column joint connection behavior using different types of connection schemes
  30. Enhanced performance and robustness in anti-lock brake systems using barrier function-based integral sliding mode control
  31. Evaluation of the creep strength of samples produced by fused deposition modeling
  32. A combined feedforward-feedback controller design for nonlinear systems
  33. Effect of adjacent structures on footing settlement for different multi-building arrangements
  34. Analyzing the impact of curved tracks on wheel flange thickness reduction in railway systems
  35. Review Articles
  36. Mechanical and smart properties of cement nanocomposites containing nanomaterials: A brief review
  37. Applications of nanotechnology and nanoproduction techniques
  38. Relationship between indoor environmental quality and guests’ comfort and satisfaction at green hotels: A comprehensive review
  39. Communication
  40. Techniques to mitigate the admission of radon inside buildings
  41. Erratum
  42. Erratum to “Effect of short heat treatment on mechanical properties and shape memory properties of Cu–Al–Ni shape memory alloy”
  43. Special Issue: AESMT-3 - Part II
  44. Integrated fuzzy logic and multicriteria decision model methods for selecting suitable sites for wastewater treatment plant: A case study in the center of Basrah, Iraq
  45. Physical and mechanical response of porous metals composites with nano-natural additives
  46. Special Issue: AESMT-4 - Part II
  47. New recycling method of lubricant oil and the effect on the viscosity and viscous shear as an environmentally friendly
  48. Identify the effect of Fe2O3 nanoparticles on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of aluminum matrix composite produced by powder metallurgy technique
  49. Static behavior of piled raft foundation in clay
  50. Ultra-low-power CMOS ring oscillator with minimum power consumption of 2.9 pW using low-voltage biasing technique
  51. Using ANN for well type identifying and increasing production from Sa’di formation of Halfaya oil field – Iraq
  52. Optimizing the performance of concrete tiles using nano-papyrus and carbon fibers
  53. Special Issue: AESMT-5 - Part II
  54. Comparative the effect of distribution transformer coil shape on electromagnetic forces and their distribution using the FEM
  55. The complex of Weyl module in free characteristic in the event of a partition (7,5,3)
  56. Restrained captive domination number
  57. Experimental study of improving hot mix asphalt reinforced with carbon fibers
  58. Asphalt binder modified with recycled tyre rubber
  59. Thermal performance of radiant floor cooling with phase change material for energy-efficient buildings
  60. Surveying the prediction of risks in cryptocurrency investments using recurrent neural networks
  61. A deep reinforcement learning framework to modify LQR for an active vibration control applied to 2D building models
  62. Evaluation of mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls for different soil–structure interaction methods: A review
  63. Assessment of heat transfer in a triangular duct with different configurations of ribs using computational fluid dynamics
  64. Sulfate removal from wastewater by using waste material as an adsorbent
  65. Experimental investigation on strengthening lap joints subjected to bending in glulam timber beams using CFRP sheets
  66. A study of the vibrations of a rotor bearing suspended by a hybrid spring system of shape memory alloys
  67. Stability analysis of Hub dam under rapid drawdown
  68. Developing ANFIS-FMEA model for assessment and prioritization of potential trouble factors in Iraqi building projects
  69. Numerical and experimental comparison study of piled raft foundation
  70. Effect of asphalt modified with waste engine oil on the durability properties of hot asphalt mixtures with reclaimed asphalt pavement
  71. Hydraulic model for flood inundation in Diyala River Basin using HEC-RAS, PMP, and neural network
  72. Numerical study on discharge capacity of piano key side weir with various ratios of the crest length to the width
  73. The optimal allocation of thyristor-controlled series compensators for enhancement HVAC transmission lines Iraqi super grid by using seeker optimization algorithm
  74. Numerical and experimental study of the impact on aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA0012 airfoil
  75. Effect of nano-TiO2 on physical and rheological properties of asphalt cement
  76. Performance evolution of novel palm leaf powder used for enhancing hot mix asphalt
  77. Performance analysis, evaluation, and improvement of selected unsignalized intersection using SIDRA software – Case study
  78. Flexural behavior of RC beams externally reinforced with CFRP composites using various strategies
  79. Influence of fiber types on the properties of the artificial cold-bonded lightweight aggregates
  80. Experimental investigation of RC beams strengthened with externally bonded BFRP composites
  81. Generalized RKM methods for solving fifth-order quasi-linear fractional partial differential equation
  82. An experimental and numerical study investigating sediment transport position in the bed of sewer pipes in Karbala
  83. Role of individual component failure in the performance of a 1-out-of-3 cold standby system: A Markov model approach
  84. Implementation for the cases (5, 4) and (5, 4)/(2, 0)
  85. Center group actions and related concepts
  86. Experimental investigation of the effect of horizontal construction joints on the behavior of deep beams
  87. Deletion of a vertex in even sum domination
  88. Deep learning techniques in concrete powder mix designing
  89. Effect of loading type in concrete deep beam with strut reinforcement
  90. Studying the effect of using CFRP warping on strength of husk rice concrete columns
  91. Parametric analysis of the influence of climatic factors on the formation of traditional buildings in the city of Al Najaf
  92. Suitability location for landfill using a fuzzy-GIS model: A case study in Hillah, Iraq
  93. Hybrid approach for cost estimation of sustainable building projects using artificial neural networks
  94. Assessment of indirect tensile stress and tensile–strength ratio and creep compliance in HMA mixes with micro-silica and PMB
  95. Density functional theory to study stopping power of proton in water, lung, bladder, and intestine
  96. A review of single flow, flow boiling, and coating microchannel studies
  97. Effect of GFRP bar length on the flexural behavior of hybrid concrete beams strengthened with NSM bars
  98. Exploring the impact of parameters on flow boiling heat transfer in microchannels and coated microtubes: A comprehensive review
  99. Crumb rubber modification for enhanced rutting resistance in asphalt mixtures
  100. Special Issue: AESMT-6
  101. Design of a new sorting colors system based on PLC, TIA portal, and factory I/O programs
  102. Forecasting empirical formula for suspended sediment load prediction at upstream of Al-Kufa barrage, Kufa City, Iraq
  103. Optimization and characterization of sustainable geopolymer mortars based on palygorskite clay, water glass, and sodium hydroxide
  104. Sediment transport modelling upstream of Al Kufa Barrage
  105. Study of energy loss, range, and stopping time for proton in germanium and copper materials
  106. Effect of internal and external recycle ratios on the nutrient removal efficiency of anaerobic/anoxic/oxic (VIP) wastewater treatment plant
  107. Enhancing structural behaviour of polypropylene fibre concrete columns longitudinally reinforced with fibreglass bars
  108. Sustainable road paving: Enhancing concrete paver blocks with zeolite-enhanced cement
  109. Evaluation of the operational performance of Karbala waste water treatment plant under variable flow using GPS-X model
  110. Design and simulation of photonic crystal fiber for highly sensitive chemical sensing applications
  111. Optimization and design of a new column sequencing for crude oil distillation at Basrah refinery
  112. Inductive 3D numerical modelling of the tibia bone using MRI to examine von Mises stress and overall deformation
  113. An image encryption method based on modified elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol and Hill Cipher
  114. Experimental investigation of generating superheated steam using a parabolic dish with a cylindrical cavity receiver: A case study
  115. Effect of surface roughness on the interface behavior of clayey soils
  116. Investigated of the optical properties for SiO2 by using Lorentz model
  117. Measurements of induced vibrations due to steel pipe pile driving in Al-Fao soil: Effect of partial end closure
  118. Experimental and numerical studies of ballistic resistance of hybrid sandwich composite body armor
  119. Evaluation of clay layer presence on shallow foundation settlement in dry sand under an earthquake
  120. Optimal design of mechanical performances of asphalt mixtures comprising nano-clay additives
  121. Advancing seismic performance: Isolators, TMDs, and multi-level strategies in reinforced concrete buildings
  122. Predicted evaporation in Basrah using artificial neural networks
  123. Energy management system for a small town to enhance quality of life
  124. Numerical study on entropy minimization in pipes with helical airfoil and CuO nanoparticle integration
  125. Equations and methodologies of inlet drainage system discharge coefficients: A review
  126. Thermal buckling analysis for hybrid and composite laminated plate by using new displacement function
  127. Investigation into the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight mortar using commercial beads or recycled expanded polystyrene
  128. Experimental and theoretical analysis of single-jet column and concrete column using double-jet grouting technique applied at Al-Rashdia site
  129. The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials
  130. Seismic resilience: Innovations in structural engineering for earthquake-prone areas
  131. Automatic human identification using fingerprint images based on Gabor filter and SIFT features fusion
  132. Performance of GRKM-method for solving classes of ordinary and partial differential equations of sixth-orders
  133. Visible light-boosted photodegradation activity of Ag–AgVO3/Zn0.5Mn0.5Fe2O4 supported heterojunctions for effective degradation of organic contaminates
  134. Production of sustainable concrete with treated cement kiln dust and iron slag waste aggregate
  135. Key effects on the structural behavior of fiber-reinforced lightweight concrete-ribbed slabs: A review
  136. A comparative analysis of the energy dissipation efficiency of various piano key weir types
  137. Special Issue: Transport 2022 - Part II
  138. Variability in road surface temperature in urban road network – A case study making use of mobile measurements
  139. Special Issue: BCEE5-2023
  140. Evaluation of reclaimed asphalt mixtures rejuvenated with waste engine oil to resist rutting deformation
  141. Assessment of potential resistance to moisture damage and fatigue cracks of asphalt mixture modified with ground granulated blast furnace slag
  142. Investigating seismic response in adjacent structures: A study on the impact of buildings’ orientation and distance considering soil–structure interaction
  143. Improvement of porosity of mortar using polyethylene glycol pre-polymer-impregnated mortar
  144. Three-dimensional analysis of steel beam-column bolted connections
  145. Assessment of agricultural drought in Iraq employing Landsat and MODIS imagery
  146. Performance evaluation of grouted porous asphalt concrete
  147. Optimization of local modified metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete by Taguchi method
  148. Effect of waste tire products on some characteristics of roller-compacted concrete
  149. Studying the lateral displacement of retaining wall supporting sandy soil under dynamic loads
  150. Seismic performance evaluation of concrete buttress dram (Dynamic linear analysis)
  151. Behavior of soil reinforced with micropiles
  152. Possibility of production high strength lightweight concrete containing organic waste aggregate and recycled steel fibers
  153. An investigation of self-sensing and mechanical properties of smart engineered cementitious composites reinforced with functional materials
  154. Forecasting changes in precipitation and temperatures of a regional watershed in Northern Iraq using LARS-WG model
  155. Experimental investigation of dynamic soil properties for modeling energy-absorbing layers
  156. Numerical investigation of the effect of longitudinal steel reinforcement ratio on the ductility of concrete beams
  157. An experimental study on the tensile properties of reinforced asphalt pavement
  158. Self-sensing behavior of hot asphalt mixture with steel fiber-based additive
  159. Behavior of ultra-high-performance concrete deep beams reinforced by basalt fibers
  160. Optimizing asphalt binder performance with various PET types
  161. Investigation of the hydraulic characteristics and homogeneity of the microstructure of the air voids in the sustainable rigid pavement
  162. Enhanced biogas production from municipal solid waste via digestion with cow manure: A case study
  163. Special Issue: AESMT-7 - Part I
  164. Preparation and investigation of cobalt nanoparticles by laser ablation: Structure, linear, and nonlinear optical properties
  165. Seismic analysis of RC building with plan irregularity in Baghdad/Iraq to obtain the optimal behavior
  166. The effect of urban environment on large-scale path loss model’s main parameters for mmWave 5G mobile network in Iraq
  167. Formatting a questionnaire for the quality control of river bank roads
  168. Vibration suppression of smart composite beam using model predictive controller
  169. Machine learning-based compressive strength estimation in nanomaterial-modified lightweight concrete
  170. In-depth analysis of critical factors affecting Iraqi construction projects performance
  171. Behavior of container berth structure under the influence of environmental and operational loads
  172. Energy absorption and impact response of ballistic resistance laminate
  173. Effect of water-absorbent polymer balls in internal curing on punching shear behavior of bubble slabs
  174. Effect of surface roughness on interface shear strength parameters of sandy soils
  175. Evaluating the interaction for embedded H-steel section in normal concrete under monotonic and repeated loads
  176. Estimation of the settlement of pile head using ANN and multivariate linear regression based on the results of load transfer method
  177. Enhancing communication: Deep learning for Arabic sign language translation
  178. A review of recent studies of both heat pipe and evaporative cooling in passive heat recovery
  179. Effect of nano-silica on the mechanical properties of LWC
  180. An experimental study of some mechanical properties and absorption for polymer-modified cement mortar modified with superplasticizer
  181. Digital beamforming enhancement with LSTM-based deep learning for millimeter wave transmission
  182. Developing an efficient planning process for heritage buildings maintenance in Iraq
  183. Design and optimization of two-stage controller for three-phase multi-converter/multi-machine electric vehicle
  184. Evaluation of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al1050/Al2O3/Gr composite processed by forming operation ECAP
  185. Calculations of mass stopping power and range of protons in organic compounds (CH3OH, CH2O, and CO2) at energy range of 0.01–1,000 MeV
  186. Investigation of in vitro behavior of composite coating hydroxyapatite-nano silver on 316L stainless steel substrate by electrophoretic technic for biomedical tools
  187. A review: Enhancing tribological properties of journal bearings composite materials
  188. Improvements in the randomness and security of digital currency using the photon sponge hash function through Maiorana–McFarland S-box replacement
  189. Design a new scheme for image security using a deep learning technique of hierarchical parameters
  190. Special Issue: ICES 2023
  191. Comparative geotechnical analysis for ultimate bearing capacity of precast concrete piles using cone resistance measurements
  192. Visualizing sustainable rainwater harvesting: A case study of Karbala Province
  193. Geogrid reinforcement for improving bearing capacity and stability of square foundations
  194. Evaluation of the effluent concentrations of Karbala wastewater treatment plant using reliability analysis
  195. Adsorbent made with inexpensive, local resources
  196. Effect of drain pipes on seepage and slope stability through a zoned earth dam
  197. Sediment accumulation in an 8 inch sewer pipe for a sample of various particles obtained from the streets of Karbala city, Iraq
  198. Special Issue: IETAS 2024 - Part I
  199. Analyzing the impact of transfer learning on explanation accuracy in deep learning-based ECG recognition systems
  200. Effect of scale factor on the dynamic response of frame foundations
  201. Improving multi-object detection and tracking with deep learning, DeepSORT, and frame cancellation techniques
  202. The impact of using prestressed CFRP bars on the development of flexural strength
  203. Assessment of surface hardness and impact strength of denture base resins reinforced with silver–titanium dioxide and silver–zirconium dioxide nanoparticles: In vitro study
  204. A data augmentation approach to enhance breast cancer detection using generative adversarial and artificial neural networks
  205. Modification of the 5D Lorenz chaotic map with fuzzy numbers for video encryption in cloud computing
  206. Special Issue: 51st KKBN - Part I
  207. Evaluation of static bending caused damage of glass-fiber composite structure using terahertz inspection
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