Startseite Characteristics and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs in Fei-3 Member of Feixianguan Formation of Lower Triassic, Puguang area
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Characteristics and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs in Fei-3 Member of Feixianguan Formation of Lower Triassic, Puguang area

  • Shenjian Wang , Guosheng Xu EMAIL logo , Yingling Hou , Wenjie Zhuang , Guomin Chen , Wei Wang , Xinyi Wang , Jianxia Bi , Changbing Huang , Qing Liu , Qiuchan Zhuang und Qing Luo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 22. August 2024
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Aus der Zeitschrift Open Geosciences Band 16 Heft 1

Abstract

In recent years, studying dolomite diagenesis and controlling factors of reservoir development from microscopic perspective has become a hot subject in deep carbonate gas exploration. In this study, we have carried out a fine classification of different types of dolomite reservoirs in the Fei-3 Member of the Lower Triassic Feixianguan Formation in the Puguang area, and the distribution law and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs have been clarified. The results show that the dolomite reservoirs of the Fei-3 Member in the Puguang area include three rock types: residual structure dolomite, microbial dolomite, and crystalline dolomite, and the main reservoir space types are intergranular pores, solution pores/caves, and inter-crystalline pores, respectively, and the solution fractures are mainly developed in the residual structure and microbial dolomites. Most of the dolomite reservoirs are distributed in the Fei 31 sub-member, and the residual structure dolomite is mainly distributed in the relative paleomorphic highs of the Fei 31 sub-member; microbial dolomite is mainly developed in the platform environment with shallow water and intermittent exposure, and is controlled by the growth conditions of microorganisms; the crystalline dolomite is mostly distributed in the relatively shallow water and relatively limited dolomite flat environment. On the plane, the dolomite reservoirs are distributed in the form of clumps. The distribution of residual structure dolomite reservoir is controlled by paleotopography and early exposure corrosion. Microbial dolomite is formed in the microbial mat microfacies, and the distribution range of microbial mat controls the development of microbial dolomites. The diagenetic types of the dolomites in the target layer include dolomitization, dissolution, rupture, and material filling. Various kinds of pores formed by syngenetic dissolution provide channels for later buried dissolution, and organic acids formed by organic matter maturation under deep burial conditions play a crucial role in dissolution of dolomite and promote the formation of dissolution pores. In the burial stage, hydrocarbons enter the dolomite, which can effectively prevent the growth of late authigenic minerals, thus promoting the preservation of pores. The structural fracture system formed by late tectonic movement can communicate with different pore groups and improve the reservoir quality.

Keywords: Sichuan Basin; Puguang area; Fei-3 Member; dolomite reservoir; main control factor

1 Introduction

In recent years, studying dolomite diagenesis and controlling factors of reservoir development from microscopic perspective has become a hot subject in deep carbonate gas exploration. The Changxing Formation, Upper Permian Series, and the Feixianguan Formation, Lower Triassic Series are the main gas exploration and development strata in the Puguang area, Sichuan Basin, China [1,2,3]. After years of exploration, the gas reserves of the Changxing and Feixianguan Formations in the Puguang area have been proved to be over 100 billion cubic meters. This area has become the largest marine carbonate gas field in China [4,5].

Carbonate deposits are well developed in the Permian and Triassic Systems in the Puguang area, and their sedimentary facies types include platform margin reef facies, platform margin shoal facies, open platform facies, restricted platform facies, evaporative platform facies, carbonate slope facies, and basin facies [6,7]. Among them, the platform margin reef and shoal facies are the main favorable zones for reservoir development [8,9]. In addition, industrial air flow has been found in some internal shoal subfacies of confined and evaporative platform [10,11]. The main reservoir rock types are the residual oolitic dolomites and crystalline dolomites formed by penosyngenetic dolomitization located in the platform margin facies belt [12,13]. Favorable sedimentary facies zones, contemporaneous dolomitization, surface exposure dissolution, and buried sulfate thermochemical reduction dissolution jointly control the distribution of high-quality reservoirs in the Puguang area [14,15]. At present, the Changxing Formation and the first and second members (Fei-1 and Fei-2 Members) of the Feixianguan Formation in the Puguang area have entered the comprehensive development stage of natural gas, and the water cut of main gas wells has gradually increased, so, it is urgent to find new replacement layers for stable and high production of natural gas. In recent years, industrial gas flow has been obtained from several wells drilled in the Fei-3 Member, which shows great potential for natural gas exploration and development in the Puguang area. Therefore, the Fei-3 Member is one of the realistic replacement layers in this region in the future [16,17].

As the main rock type for high-quality reservoir development in the Puguang area, dolomite reservoir has received extensive attention [1,2,3]. The source of magnesium ions, fluid migration channels, hydrodynamic mechanism of dolomites, and effective thermal/dynamic conditions to overcome the obstacles of dolomitization have become the key to the genetic research of dolomites [16,17]. It is very important to use a variety of advanced technologies for comprehensive evaluation of reservoir properties [18,19,20]. Previous studies on the dolomites of the Feixianguan Formation mainly focus on rock types, sedimentary facies, diagenesis, diagenetic sequence, and gas bearing properties [13,16,19]. In recent years, with the increasing difficulty of natural gas exploration in the Feixianguan Formation and the requirement of fine natural gas exploration, the formation mechanism of different types of dolomites and the control mechanism of reservoir quality have become a hot topic. Modes such as mixed water dolomitization, reflux seepage dolomitization, buried metasomatic dolomitization, hydrothermal dolomitization, buried metasomatic superposition and mixed water dolomitization, and buried metasomatic superposition and reflux seepage dolomitization have been proposed [21,22,23,24,25]. In the past, the exploration of natural gas in the Puguang area mainly focused on the Permian Changxing Formation and the first and second members (Fei-1 and Fei-2 Members) of the Triassic Feixianguan Formation. Currently, the knowledge of natural gas enrichment patterns of the Fei-3 Members is very limited.

In this study, we have carried out a fine classification of different types of dolomite reservoirs in the Fei-3 Member in the Puguang area. Then, combined with the stratigraphic, tectonic-sedimentary pattern, the distribution law and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoir are clarified. This study can provide geological basis for efficient exploration and development of natural gas in carbonate reservoir in similar areas.

2 Geological background

The Sichuan Basin is located in the southwest part of China and has an area of more than 18 × 104 km2. The research area is located in the northeast region of the Sichuan Basin (Figure 1). The crystalline basement of the Sichuan Basin was formed during the Chengjiang movement (700 Ma ago) [3,4,5]. The Caledonian movement raised the basin as a whole and a large area of the strata was exposed, resulting in the loss of the Devonian and Carboniferous Systems in the basin. The Indosinian Movement ended the marine sedimentary process in the Sichuan Basin, and after the Late Triassic, the basin entered the evolution stage of continental lacustrine basin. The Yanshanian movement caused the rock mass around the basin to begin to fold and deform, and the basin outline was formed and preserved until now [2,3]. During the Himalayan movement, the basin uplifted as a whole. The sedimentary system of the Sichuan Basin has undergone three evolutionary stages: (1) From Sinian to Middle Triassic, marine carbonate dominated sediments were formed in the stretching environment; (2) from Late Triassic to Eocene, continental sediments were dominated under the background of compressional environment; and (3) under the influence of the Himalayan movement, continuous folding and uplifting have occurred since the Oligocene [26,27].

Figure 1 Location and regional structure of Puguang area.
Figure 1

Location and regional structure of Puguang area.

The Triassic system in the Sichuan Basin includes the Feixianguan Formation, the Jialingjiang Formation, the Middle Leikoupo Formation, and the Upper Xujiahe Formation. The underlying layer of the Lower Triassic Feixianguan Formation corresponds to the Permian Changxing Formation, and they are in an integrated contact. There was a large-scale transgression in the early Feixianguan Formation. With the rise of sea level, open platform margin deposits were developed in the Lower Triassic Feixianguan period in the study area. Furthermore, there were several intra-abutment shoal deposits of different scales developed in the open platform, and the northeastern part of the basin was located at the platform edge, and the platform edge shoal facies were developed [28,29,30].

The study area is located in the northeast part of the Sichuan Basin, and its regional structure is located at the intersection of the Dabashan pre-arc fold belt, the East Sichuan high-steep tectonic belt, and the middle Sichuan gentle tectonic belt. The south region is connected with the Laojun structure, and the north area is the Maoba and Dawan structure (Figure 1). According to lithology, the Feixianguan Formation is divided into four members, which are referred to as the Fei-1, Fei-2, Fei-3, and Fei-4 Members, respectively. In the Fei-1 and Fei-2 periods, the sedimentary environment was mainly the platform edge shoal, and in the Fei-3 period, the study area changed to the limited platform tidal flat sedimentary environment. The Fei-3 Member is further subdivided into three sub-members, which are referred to as Fei-31, Fei-32, and Fei-33 sub-members, respectively. The Fei-31 sub-member is mainly composed of calcareous dolomite, sandy dolomite, gravel dolomite, and microbial dolomite, and there are gray micrite interlayers between different dolomites. The Fei-32 sub-member is mainly composed of gray dolomitic limestone and gray micritic limestone, while the Fei-33 sub-member is mainly composed of gray micritic limestone (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Comprehensive column diagram of reservoir of the Fei-3 Member of Well PG 2. Meaning of logging parameters: GR, CNL, RT, and DEN represent natural gamma, compensated neutron, resistivity, and rock density, and their units are API, %, Ω m, and g/cm3, respectively.
Figure 2

Comprehensive column diagram of reservoir of the Fei-3 Member of Well PG 2. Meaning of logging parameters: GR, CNL, RT, and DEN represent natural gamma, compensated neutron, resistivity, and rock density, and their units are API, %, Ω m, and g/cm3, respectively.

3 Methods

The purpose of this study is to solve the problem of the unknown diagenetic evolution process and the controlling factors of reservoir development of deep complex lithology dolomites in the Sichuan Basin. The experiments carried out in this study include thin section and petrophysical properties testing. At the same time, the thickness of dolomite reservoir in the target layer is identified by logging data and then the diagenetic sequence of the dolomite is recovered. Finally, the controlling factors of dolomite development and their influence on the reservoir quality are clarified.

3.1 Thin section identification

The preparation of the cast thin section was completed in the Zhanjiang Experimental Center of CNOOC Engineering Technology Company. The instrument used is a 2T-2 type rock pore casting instrument produced by the Jiangsu Hai’an Petroleum Instrument Factory. The identification of thin section was done at the Zhanjiang Experimental Center of CNOOC Energy Development Co., Ltd Engineering Technology Company using an Axio Scope A1 POL. The instrument uses an ICCS optical system, and the mirror body uses an FEM design ACR code. In the process of rock thin section identification, the color, shape, protrusion and cleavage of minerals are observed under single polarized light, and the interference color of minerals is observed under orthogonal light, and the minerals are identified according to the interferogram characteristics of minerals under cone light. Finally, the minerals are identified under orthogonal light, and the mineral content and surface porosity are quantitatively estimated.

3.2 Petrophysical property experiments

The instrument testing porosity is a PQKY-2 type porosity meter of the Hai’an Huada Petroleum Instrument Co., Ltd, while the instrument testing permeability is a STY-3 gas permeability measuring instrument of the Hai’an Huada Petroleum Instrument Co., LTD. The gas state equation is used to measure the porosity of the sample, and the rock porosity is obtained by isothermal expansion of helium gas. First, the gas is input into the reference chamber using the gas state equation, and the gas pressure in the reference chamber is set to P1; then, the gas in the reference chamber is isothermally expanded into the sample chamber, and the final equilibrium pressure is measured as P2 after gas expansion. According to the mass conservation of gas before and after expansion, the relationship between pressure and volume of gas before and after expansion can be obtained. The permeability of the samples is measured using the Darcy’s law of one-dimensional stable gas flow when gas flows through the rock.

3.3 Principle of diagenetic sequence recovery

The original porosity of ancient deposits is difficult to determine accurately. Previous studies have found that the particle size, sorting, and stacking mode of sediments have the most significant influence on porosity. Therefore, assuming that the sediment particles accumulate randomly, the previous constructed expression equation of porosity of carbonate reservoirs use the sorting coefficient, which has been widely used in the calculation of initial porosity of carbonate rocks [5,6]. This technique is accurate in the quantitative characterization of the evolution of porosity in carbonate reservoirs. In this study, the present surface porosity, cement content, and intergranular pore content estimated in thin section identification were used to quantitatively recover the porosity changes during diagenetic evolution.

The specific calculation formulas are as follows [4,5,6]:

The original porosity of carbonate rocks in the target layer is 40% (calculated by the Beard formula [6]).

Apparent compaction rate = (Original porosity – Intergranular porosity after compaction)/Original porosity × 100%;

Intergranular Porosity after compaction = Present porosity + Porosity occupied by interstitial material; Apparent compaction loss porosity = Original porosity × Apparent compaction rate;

Apparent cementation rate = Total cement/Original porosity × 100%;

Porosity with apparent cementation loss = Original porosity – (Porosity with apparent compaction loss + Present porosity) + porosity with dissolution increase.

3.4 Logging interpretation

In this study, conventional logging series were used to identify the lithology of the Fei-3 Member in the study area, including limestone, microbial dolomite, crystalline dolomite, and residual granular dolomite. The logging series used include GR, AC, RS, RD, DEN, and CNL. The logging parameters of different lithology are calibrated according to the core observation results. The value ranges and average values of different logging series of different lithologies are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Logging parameter characteristics of different lithology in Fei-3 Member of the study area

Lithology GR (API) AC (µs/ft) RS (Ω·m) RD (Ω·m) DEN (g/cm3) CNL (%)
Range Average Range Average Range Average Range Average Range Average Range Average
Limestone 17.1–47.9 34.7 48.7–50.7 49.8 727.2–3741.9 1629.8 710.6–3774.1 1580.2 2.447–2.741 2.657 0.722–4.798 2.975
Microbial dolomite 14.9–30.5 18.6 45.5–51.4 47.8 205.5–3338.6 1378.6 373.9–6927.3 2750.1 2.68–2.84 2.76 0.12–5.84 3.47
Crystalline dolomite 8.66–34.0 15.7 46.5–53.1 48.5 1870.1–93683 24776 1,740–21,345 12,497 2.323–2.733 2.56 0.497–4.913 1.29
Residual granular dolomite 16.6–28.4 20.9 46.3–54.4 49.1 337–4129 2110 505–9407 4605 2.61–2.79 2.82 2.33–8.73 3.84

Notes: GR is natural gamma; AC is acoustic wave time difference; RS is shallow lateral resistivity; RD is deep lateral resistivity; DEN is rock density; CNL is compensated neutron.

4 Results

4.1 Petrological characteristics of dolomite reservoir

Thin section analysis was carried out on the samples of the Fei-3 Member in the Puguang area. The lithology of the Fei-3 Member reservoir is mainly dolomite, including microbial dolomite, crystalline dolomite, and residual structure dolomite.

4.1.1 Microbial dolomite

The microbial dolomites of the Fei-3 Member in the Puguang area are mainly crypto-algal dolomites, including stromatolite microbial dolomites and clotted microbial dolomites. The stromatolite microbial dolomite consists of dark algal layer and slightly brighter matrix layer. The dark algal lamella is microcrystalline dolomite, which mostly has horizontal or wavy structure (Figure 3a), while the matrix dolomite crystals are slightly coarser, which mainly shows the structure of powdery dolomite within the microcrystals. Some of the organisms were dissolved in the matrix and algal lamina, and the dissolved pores were mostly filled with late dolomites, while a few were filled with calcites (Figure 3a). For clotted microbial dolomites, they usually have a blocky, speckled structure and lack lamellar structure (Figure 3b). Its mineral composition is mainly microcrystalline dolomite, and a large number of bird’s-eye or pane pores can be seen. In addition, these pores are mostly filled with late dolomites, and a few are filled with calcites (Figure 3b).

Figure 3 Microscopic thin section images of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member. (a) Stromatolite dolomite, Well PG 10, 6110.58; (b) coagulated dolomite, Well PG 2, 4781.62 m; (c) powder-fine dolomite, Well PG 2, 4821.11 m; (d) fine-mesocrystalline dolomite, Well PG 2; 4823.51 m; (e) residual granular dolomite, Well PG, 4828.78 m; and (f) residual granular dolomite, Well PG 2, 4826.78 m.
Figure 3

Microscopic thin section images of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member. (a) Stromatolite dolomite, Well PG 10, 6110.58; (b) coagulated dolomite, Well PG 2, 4781.62 m; (c) powder-fine dolomite, Well PG 2, 4821.11 m; (d) fine-mesocrystalline dolomite, Well PG 2; 4823.51 m; (e) residual granular dolomite, Well PG, 4828.78 m; and (f) residual granular dolomite, Well PG 2, 4826.78 m.

4.1.2 Crystalline dolomite

The crystalline dolomite of the Fei-3 Member include powdery dolomite (Figure 3c) and powdery-fine dolomite (Figure 3d). Thin sections show that the dolomites have crystal particle structure, which mainly consist of dolomite and organic matter, and the volume fraction of dolomite is 80–95%. The powdery crystal dolomite and fine crystal dolomite are heteromorphic to hemi-idiomorphic structures with flat crystal planes and many of the crystals have fog-centered bright edge structures. Black organic matter is generally filled in intergranular pores (Figure 3c and d).

4.1.3 Residual structure dolomite

Residual structure dolomites retain the original granular limestone structure (Figure 3e). The residual structure of some samples has undergone dolomitization completely, which is similar to the crystalline dolomite. However, the phantom structure of the particles can be observed (Figure 3f), and this feature is used to distinguish crystalline dolomite (Figure 3d). Residual structure dolomite is mainly composed of dolomite and organic matter. The dolomite crystal is medium-coarse crystal, the crystal surface is dirty, with a fog core and bright edge structure, and most of them have a semi-idiomorphic and idiomorphic granular form. Organic matter is filled in the intergranular pores or distributed in the edge of them. The large number of remaining intergranular pores represent a higher surface porosity [31,32,33].

4.1.4 Developmental characteristics and distribution of different types of dolomites

The dolomite reservoirs of the Fei-3 Member in the Puguang area have three main rock types: residual structure dolomite, microbial dolomite, and crystalline dolomite. Most of the dolomite reservoirs are distributed in the Fei-31 sub-member, and the residual structure dolomite is mainly distributed in the relative paleomorphic highs of the Fei-31 sub-member; microbial dolomite is mainly developed in the platform environment with shallow water and intermittent exposure, and is controlled by the growth conditions of microorganisms; the crystalline dolomite is mostly distributed in the relatively shallow water and limited dolomite flat environment. In the Fei-33 sub-member, there are a few microbial and crystalline dolomites, and the residual granular dolomites are very rare; and there is no distribution of dolomites in the Fei-33 sub-member. On the plane, the dolomite reservoirs are distributed in clusters. The distribution of residual structure dolomite reservoir is controlled by paleotopography and early exposure corrosion. Microbial dolomite is formed in the microfacies of microbial mat and the distribution range of microbial mat controls the development of microbial dolomite. The growth of microorganisms is controlled by both paleogeomorphology and seawater salinity. Crystalline dolomites are mostly associated with residual granular dolomites or microbial rocks, so paleogeomorphology also controls the distribution of crystalline dolomites.

Figure 4 shows the distribution of thickness of various dolomites in the Puguang area. As can be seen from Figure 4a, the residual structure dolomite is mainly distributed in the northern PG3, the central PG2∼PG12, the southern PG10, and the western PG6∼PG11 well areas. In addition, in the PG1 well area to the north of the work area, there are 6 m thick residual structure dolomite distribution. The distribution range of microbial dolomites is generally consistent with that of residual structural dolomites (Figure 4b). However, crystal dolomite in the study area is mostly micro-powder crystal structure, and no phantoms of particles can be seen, and its distribution in the work area is scattered and its thickness is thin (Figure 4c). In general, the dolomite with residual granular structure controls the distribution of dolomite in the study area.

Figure 4 Distribution of different types of dolomites in the target layer in the study area. The red numbers represent the thickness of the dolomite observed in the cores. (a) Residual structural dolomite. (b) Microbial dolomite. (c) Crystal dolomite.
Figure 4

Distribution of different types of dolomites in the target layer in the study area. The red numbers represent the thickness of the dolomite observed in the cores. (a) Residual structural dolomite. (b) Microbial dolomite. (c) Crystal dolomite.

4.2 Reservoir space type

The microbial dolomite, crystalline dolomite, and residual structural dolomite of the Fei-3 Member in the study area have experienced a certain degree of dissolution. The types of reservoir space observed under microscope include dissolved pore/cave, intergranular pore, inter-crystalline pore, and solution fracture.

4.2.1 Dissolved pore/cave

Most of the dissolved pores in the dolomite of the Fei-3 Member range from 1 to 20 mm, and some of them expand into caves due to further dissolution (Figure 5a and b). This type of pores are mainly found in microbial dolomite and partly in residual structural dolomite (Figure 5c), and they are usually distributed along the bedding. Under the microscope, the pore distribution is irregular, and the edge of the pore usually presents a harbor shape.

Figure 5 Reservoir space characteristics of dolomite in Fei-3 Member. (a) Dissolved pore/cave dolomite, Well PG 6, 4872.17 m; (b) granular microbial dolomite with developed inter-crystalline dissolution pores, Well PG 6, 4890.2 m; (c) residual granular dolomite with developed intergranular dissolved pores, Well PG 2, 4826.25 m; (d) residual structure dolomite with developed dissolved fissures, Well PG 2, 4825.51 m; (e) residual structure dolomite with an unfilled microfracture in the middle part, Well PG 2, 4828.40 m; and (f) dolomite containing oolitic residue of organisms, and a small number of karst caves, and enlarging dissolution fractures are well developed, Well PG 1, 5304.10 m.
Figure 5

Reservoir space characteristics of dolomite in Fei-3 Member. (a) Dissolved pore/cave dolomite, Well PG 6, 4872.17 m; (b) granular microbial dolomite with developed inter-crystalline dissolution pores, Well PG 6, 4890.2 m; (c) residual granular dolomite with developed intergranular dissolved pores, Well PG 2, 4826.25 m; (d) residual structure dolomite with developed dissolved fissures, Well PG 2, 4825.51 m; (e) residual structure dolomite with an unfilled microfracture in the middle part, Well PG 2, 4828.40 m; and (f) dolomite containing oolitic residue of organisms, and a small number of karst caves, and enlarging dissolution fractures are well developed, Well PG 1, 5304.10 m.

4.2.2 Intergranular pore

The size of intergranular pores of dolomite in the Fei-3 Member ranges from 20 to 300 μm, and they are distributed among particles or residual particles in irregular long columns (Figures 3e and f, 5d). Some intergranular pores were further dissolved into intergranular dissolved pores (Figure 5c). Intergranular dissolved pore is the main pore type and is found in various residual structure dolomites.

4.2.3 Inter-crystalline pore

The size of inter-crystalline pores is 12–150 μm, and the pore edges are relatively straight and the surface porosity is low. The connectivity between pores is poor, and the pores are mainly distributed in various crystalline dolomite (Figure 3c and d), and are often filled with organic matter. Some inter-crystalline pores evolve into inter-crystalline enlarged solution pores (Figure 5b), which are formed by the dissolution of bioclastic dolomite crystals.

4.2.4 Solution fracture

Microfractures through pores (Figure 5e) and solution fractures (Figure 5f) in the residual structure of the dolomites were observed. Obvious corrosion can be observed under the joint surface of these fractures. The width of the solution fractures ranges from 10 µm to several millimeters. The edges of the solution fractures are mostly harbor like, and some of them are filled with edge-like organic matter [34,35,36,37]. The connectivity of solution fractures is good, and they are mainly distributed in various residual structure dolomites and dissolved pore dolomites, but are rare in crystalline dolomites.

4.3 Reservoir petrophysical characteristics

The petrophysical properties of 203 rock samples from different types of dolomite reservoirs in the Fei-3 Member were analyzed, and the results are shown in Table 2 and Figure 6. The porosity of microbial dolomite reservoir ranges from 1.0 to 20.9%, with an average porosity of 3.4%; and the permeability is distributed in the range of (0.0174–95) × 10−3 μm2, and the average permeability is 2.08 × 10−3 μm2. The porosity of the residual structure dolomite reservoir ranges from 1.22 to 11.77%, with an average porosity of 3.06%; and the permeability distribution is (0.0116–83.95) × 10−3 μm2, and the average permeability is 1.59 × 10−3 μm2. In addition, the porosity of the crystal dolomite reservoir ranges from 0.53 to 3.91% with an average porosity of 1.84%, and the permeability ranges from 0.016 to 17.02 × 10−3 μm2 with an average permeability of 1.27 × 10−3 μm2. From microbial dolomite, residual structure dolomite to crystal dolomite, the reservoir quality gradually becomes poor.

Table 2

Petrophysical characteristics of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 member

Dolomite type Porosity range/% Average porosity/% Permeability range/10−3 µm2 Average permeability/10−3 µm2
Microbial dolomite 1.0–20.9 3.4 0.0174–95 2.08
Residual structure dolomite 1.22–11.77 3.06 0.0116–83.95 1.59
Crystal dolomite 0.53–3.91 1.84 0.016–17.02 1.27
Figure 6 Histogram of distribution of porosity and permeability of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member. (a) Distribution of porosity; and (b) distribution of permeability.
Figure 6

Histogram of distribution of porosity and permeability of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member. (a) Distribution of porosity; and (b) distribution of permeability.

5 Discussion

5.1 Diagenetic analysis

5.1.1 Dolomitization

Dolomitization is the main diagenesis type of the Fei-3 Member dolomite reservoir in the study area, and it is also the key diagenesis that affects the reservoir quality. According to previous research works, the crystalline dolomites are mainly formed by reflux osmosis in the shallow burial stage [38,39]. However, the residual structural dolomites and microbial dolomites of the Fei-3 Member are mostly developed in relatively high paleogeomorphology, indicating that they were formed by mixed water dolomitization involving microorganisms in the syngenetic and quasi-syngenetic stages [38,39].

The improvement of reservoir performance by dolomitization is reflected in the following two aspects: On the one hand, the density and hardness of dolomite are greater than that of calcite under the same conditions. Therefore, in buried environment, dolomite has a greater compaction resistance than limestone, and the primary pores of carbonate rock can be more easily preserved [40,41,42]. On the other hand, because dolomite has a smaller molar volume than calcite, when calcite particles are transformed into dolomitic particles in a closed system, the rock volume decreases by 14.8% and the pore volume increases relatively [43,44]. In addition, the high brittleness of dolomite makes it more prone to rupture than limestone under deep burial conditions, so the reservoir quality is improved. Therefore, the microbial dolomite and residual structure dolomite formed in the early stage of the Fei-3 Member in this area will significantly improve the reservoir property. Crystalline dolomite is formed in shallow burial stage, and the formation time is later than that of microbial and residual structure dolomites. Its original limestone particles are small, the primary pores are poorly developed and are mainly dolomite inter-crystalline pores, whose reservoir performance is worse than that of microbial dolomites and residual structural dolomites [45,46,47]. Dolomite cement produced in the late period can fill into the solution pores or fractures formed in the earlier period, resulting in a decline in the petrophysical properties of the reservoir (Figure 4b).

5.1.2 Dissolution

Dissolution is an important diagenetic process for the formation of reservoir pore system [48,49,50]. Two major dissolution processes occurred in the dolomite of the Fei-3 Member. The first stage is quasi-simultaneous atmospheric freshwater dissolution. Shortly after the deposition of the particle shoal and microbial mat in the platform, the sea level rose and fell frequently. In addition, some of the higher parts of the landform periodically emerge from the surface and accept the selective dissolution of atmospheric fresh water, and then mold pores or microbial lattice pores are formed. Most of these pores have stratified distribution characteristics. Although these pores are often partially or completely filled by late dolomite, calcite, and other minerals (Figure 3a and b), the remaining pores provide an effective channel for the entry of late buried solution fluids. The second stage of dissolution of dolomite in the Fei-3 Member is the dissolution of organic acid after large-scale maturation of organic matter. The dissolved pores are mostly distributed along grains or crystals, and black organic matter can be seen in most pore walls in a marginal state filling, and some pores are completely filled (Figures 3c, e, and f, 5c and d). These phenomena are the important evidence of the second stage of dissolution.

5.1.3 Rupture

Several groups of fractures in different directions are developed in the dolomite of the Fei-3 Member (Figure 5a and d), and some of the fracture walls are filled with black organic matter. The fractures cut each other, which indicates that there are multiple stages of structural fractures, and the fractures generated in the relatively late stage are mostly effective fractures due to less filling degree [51,52].

5.1.4 Material filling

Material filling refers to the phenomenon that pores or fractures developed in dolomite are filled by various minerals in the later stage [52]. In the dolomite of the Fei-3 Member, inter-granular pores or inter-granular dissolution pores of residual structure and inter-crystalline pores of crystalline structure are mostly filled with organic matter (Figures 3e and f, 5c and d), and some of the dissolution pores are filled with dolomite (Figure 5b and c). Filling reduces the pore space of the reservoir, which has a negative effect on the quality of the dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member.

5.2 Diagenetic evolution sequence

During the Feixianguan Formation period in the Puguang area, the relatively high semi-consolidated particle shoal and microbial mat in the paleogeomorphic landscape were exposed, the rocks were in the seepage zone of atmospheric water, and the atmospheric fresh water flowed from top to bottom, and preliminary dissolution and dolomitization of mixed water occurred. The residual structure and microbial dolomites in this area were mostly formed at this stage. With the increase in overlying sediments and burial depth, the Fei-3 Member reservoir entered the shallow burial stage. This stage is also a stage of rapid reduction of pores, and compaction and cementation are dominant. In addition, due to the infiltration of brackish water in the Feixianguan Formation, reflux infiltration dolomitization occurred, and the crystalline dolomites in the study area were mostly formed at this stage [52,53]. After the Feixianguan Formation entered the medium-deep burial stage, the source rocks of the Permian began to generate hydrocarbon in the late Triassic period. Hydrocarbon generation reached its peak in the middle Jurassic period, which represented the second critical period of reservoir formation characterized by organic acid dissolution [54,55]. Under this special evolutionary background, the dolomite strata of the Fei-3 Member underwent a stage of deposition → exposure → shallow burial → medium-deep burial → re-uplift (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Diagenetic evolution process of Fei-3 Member in Puguang area. The variation in porosity at each stage was quantitatively described according to the original porosity, the average content of cement, and dissolution pores in thin section statistics. (a) Mud crystal sets on the surface of sand grains are indicative of the seafloor diagenetic environment, Well PG10, 6116.8 m,single polarized light; (b) dissolution pore algal grain dolomite, dissolution pores are developed, the pores are parallel to the rock layer, some of the pores are filled with small gravels, which is a sign of exposed dissolution, Well PG6, 4872.17 m; (c) compacted deformation or fracture of sandy debris particles, a typical sign of shallow burial, Well PG10, 6117.6, single polarized light; (d) the crystalline dolomite is in close contact (concave or embedded contact), a typical signature of medium-deep burial, Well PG2, 4835.1 m, single polarized light; and (e) the internal dissolution of particles forms intragranular dissolution pores, and there is no asphalt in the dissolution pores or asphalt is inside the pores, which is a sign of tectonic uplift dissolution, Well PG6, 4867.8, red cast, single polarized light.
Figure 7

Diagenetic evolution process of Fei-3 Member in Puguang area. The variation in porosity at each stage was quantitatively described according to the original porosity, the average content of cement, and dissolution pores in thin section statistics. (a) Mud crystal sets on the surface of sand grains are indicative of the seafloor diagenetic environment, Well PG10, 6116.8 m,single polarized light; (b) dissolution pore algal grain dolomite, dissolution pores are developed, the pores are parallel to the rock layer, some of the pores are filled with small gravels, which is a sign of exposed dissolution, Well PG6, 4872.17 m; (c) compacted deformation or fracture of sandy debris particles, a typical sign of shallow burial, Well PG10, 6117.6, single polarized light; (d) the crystalline dolomite is in close contact (concave or embedded contact), a typical signature of medium-deep burial, Well PG2, 4835.1 m, single polarized light; and (e) the internal dissolution of particles forms intragranular dissolution pores, and there is no asphalt in the dissolution pores or asphalt is inside the pores, which is a sign of tectonic uplift dissolution, Well PG6, 4867.8, red cast, single polarized light.

Syngenetic seawater diagenesis can be divided into two stages before and after cementation. Before cementation, micritization of various particles occurred. At this stage, the carbonate sediments have high original porosity. Subsequently, the first generation of fibrous to pectinaceous cementation occurred in the seabed, and the original porosity of carbonate sediments, especially granular carbonate sediments, was reduced to a certain extent.

During the contemporaneous exposure stage, the relative sea level has a downward trend. At this time, the relatively high semi-consolidated particle shoal and microbial sheet in the paleogeomorphic landscape were exposed, and the rocks are in the seepage zone of atmospheric water. The atmospheric fresh water flows from top to bottom, and penetrates from the upper particles to the lower part, and a certain degree of dissolution and dolomitization of mixed water occurred. Furthermore, some intragranular-dissolved pores, mold pores, and microbial lattice pores were formed [56,57]. At the same time, quasi-syngenetic dolomitization occurred, and residual structural dolomites and microbial dolomites were formed [56,57]. Due to the filling and replenishment in the Fei-3 period, the terrain is flat and the water body is extremely shallow. A slight drop in sea level will lead to the exposure of a large area of landform [57,58].

With the increase in overlying sediments and burial depth, the Feixianguan Formation reservoir entered the shallow burial stage. The calcite deposits are not yet cemented, so they are still in the form of loose sediments. Compaction results in a rapid decrease in porosity. For the microbial dolomites and residual structure dolomites that have been dolomitized in the early stage, a large number of primary pores can be preserved due to the stronger compaction resistance of dolomites. In addition, due to the downward reflux infiltration of overlying brackish water, dolomitization occurred in some of the microcrystalline limestones, and microcrystalline dolomite was formed [59,60]. After dolomitization, the overall rock volume of microcrystalline dolomite shrinks, and some inter-crystalline pores are formed (Figure 3c). On the whole, the diagenesis in this stage is dominated by compaction and cementation, and the carbonate sediments are completely consolidated after this stage.

In the middle to deep burial stage, the basin settled and the formation temperature continued to rise, recrystallization occurred in the microcrystalline dolomite, and then the powdery dolomite was formed (Figure 3d). Hydrocarbon generation began in the late Triassic for the Permian source rocks and reached a peak in the middle Jurassic [60,61]. Organic acids are injected into the pores along the original pore system including microbial lattice pores, intergranular pores and inter-crystalline pores developed in microbial and residual structure dolomites. Therefore, the pores are further dissolved and expanded into various intergranular and inter-crystalline dissolution pores (Figure 5a–c), and the pore space of the reservoir is significantly increased. The evidence is that residual organic matter is common to be seen in the pore wall of the harbor-shaped pores, which is often seen in various dolomites. Therefore, the transformation of the original pore system by organic acids mainly occurs in this stage, which becomes the second key period for the formation of efficient reservoirs. In the early Yanshanian period, continuous burial occurred in the basin, and the continuous rise of formation temperature resulted in the maturation of organic matter and the generation of large amounts of natural gas. In this case, local solution pores are created and are usually filled without organic matter.

The tectonic uplift stage represents the late Yanshanian-Himalayan tectonic movement stage. At this stage, the whole uplift occurred in the Sichuan Basin, and the buried depth in the Puguang area decreased. Complex tectonic processes lead to the development of fractures in the reservoir, and unfilled and half-filled fractures in the cores are generally the product of diagenesis at this stage (Figure 5a). The fractures generated in this period played a role in the communication of pores, and the reservoir quality was significantly improved.

5.3 Main controlling factors of reservoir development

5.3.1 Influence of pre-deposition on reservoir formation

Figure 8 shows the vertical development characteristics of the dolomite reservoir. The thickness of dolomite in the Fei-3 Member of the PG2 Well is 55.5 m (Figure 8). Vertically, the dolomite reservoir is mainly distributed in the Fei-31 sub-member, with a small amount of dolomite in the Fei-32 sub-member, and almost no dolomites in the Fei-33 sub-member. This phenomenon indirectly indicates that the dolomite in the Fei-3 Member is not formed by the reflux infiltration of the higher salinity brine in the Fei-4 Member. There are two segments of dolomite in the Fei-31 sub-member: the first segment is located in the upper part of the Fei-31 sub-member with a thickness of 27 m; the second segment is located at the lower part of the Fei-31 sub-member, with a thickness of 28.5 m; these dolomites are all light gray powder-fine crystalline dolomites. The sedimentary facies zones are developed in granular shoal subfacies of open platform and microbial mat subfacies of tidal flat deposition. Residual structure dolomite, microbial dolomite, and crystalline dolomite can be seen in thin sections. As shown in Figure 8, the dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member is relatively developed in Well PG2, and there is a 12 m thick dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 sub-member of Well PG1, while the PG5 and PG8 Wells in the south of the working area are mainly lime-dolomite or dolomitic limestone. Because of the low purity of dolomite, it is difficult to form effective reservoir. On the whole, the dolomite reservoirs in the Fei-3 Member are distributed discontinuously in the working area. In the vertical direction, the dolomite is mainly concentrated in the Fei-31 sub-member, a small amount is distributed in the Fei-32 sub-member, and there is basically no dolomite distribution in the Fei-33 sub-member.

Figure 8 A cross-well profile of Fei-3 Member through Wells PG1, PG2, PG5, and PG8 in the study area.
Figure 8

A cross-well profile of Fei-3 Member through Wells PG1, PG2, PG5, and PG8 in the study area.

The reservoir of the Fei-3 Member is mainly dolomite. Among them, the reservoir rocks with high surface porosity and most frequent occurrence are residual granular dolomite, followed by microbial dolomite, and then crystalline dolomite. The main storage spaces of residual granular dolomites are intergranular pores and intergranular dissolved pores, and that of microbial dolomites are lattice pores and various kinds of dissolved pores, while that of crystalline dolomites are inter-crystalline pores and inter-crystalline dissolved pores. The proportion of crystalline dolomite is relatively low, and its surface porosity is low, and the reservoir petrophysical properties are poor (Figure 9). The quality of dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member is directly related to rock type. Residual granular dolomite and microbial dolomite are better reservoir rock types than crystalline dolomite. Residual granular and microbial dolomite are formed by the transformation of granular limestone and microbial rocks through dolomitization in the process of syndiagenesis [47,48]. This shows that the granular shoal facies are a favorable zone for the development of dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member, and followed by the microbial mat facies.

Figure 9 Histogram of pore type distribution of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member, Puguang area.
Figure 9

Histogram of pore type distribution of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member, Puguang area.

However, not all granular shoal and microbial mat facies can develop into dolomite reservoirs. The granular shoal and microbial mat facies revealed in some Wells (such as the Fei-31 sub-member of Well PG9) are developed, but their dolomitization degree is low, the content of limestone components is high, and the reservoir performance is poor, which cannot form effective reservoirs.

5.3.2 Influence of dolomitization on reservoir quality

Dolomitization is the key factor of formation of dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member. The oolitic limestone, which is also the product of the granular shoal facies zone, and the residual structure dolomite formed by dolomitization of the Fei-3 Member of the Well PG2 form a high-quality reservoir. Due to the weak dolomitization in the PG5 well area, the reservoir transformation is not thorough enough, and the dolomitic limestone cannot be transformed into an effective reservoir. The whole period of the Fei-3 Member was in the restricted tidal flat environment, the water body was extremely shallow, and there was a temporary exposure phenomenon. The arid climate and high salinity are conducive to the occurrence of quasi-syngenetic dolomitization. The contribution of dolomitization to the reservoir is reflected in the preservation of intergranular pores. The intergranular pores of dolomite are essentially the inheritance of the intergranular pores of the original rock, which is reflected in the fact that the intergranular pores are distributed around the residual particles instead of inside them. According to the previous, dolomitization of residual structure dolomites and microbialites in the Fei-3 Member occurred at an earlier diagenetic stage. Because of the strong anti-compaction ability of dolomite, it plays a role in protecting the pores in the subsequent burial stage. In the process of dolomitization, due to the replacement of calcite by dolomite, the volume of the rock is relatively reduced and the inter-crystalline pores are formed. However, due to the lack of primary pore development with fewer particles, and the different degrees of recrystallization in the later stage, dolomite crystals with unequal grain structure occupy the dolomite inter-crystalline pores, resulting in poor overall pore development of grain dolomite, low surface porosity, poor reservoir physical properties, and even no pore development [44,45,46,47,48].

Figure 10 shows the development characteristics of dolomite revealed by a connecting well profile. Most of the dolomitization favorable to reservoir quality in the Fei-3 Member was formed in the same generation or shallow burial period. However, dolomite formed in late diagenesis is mostly sparry block structure or sparry autotype. Late stage dolomites are mostly filled between particles or inside the solution pores, because it occupies intergranular pores or micro-fractures, the pore volume becomes smaller and the reservoir petrophysical properties become worse.

Figure 10 A cross-well profile through Wells PG6, PG2, PG9, and PG10 that show the distribution characteristics of the dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member.
Figure 10

A cross-well profile through Wells PG6, PG2, PG9, and PG10 that show the distribution characteristics of the dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member.

5.3.3 Influence of dissolution on reservoir quality

The dolomite reservoir of the Fei-3 Member of the Puguang Gas Field has been reformed by multi-stage dissolution. There are two main dissolution periods. The first period is quasi-simultaneous atmospheric freshwater dissolution. Shortly after the deposition of granular shoal or microbiolith, the quasi-syngenetic dolomitization occurred, the sea level decreased relatively, and some parts of the higher landform periodically emerged to the surface and received atmospheric fresh water dissolution [35,36,37,38]. Under the action of atmospheric fresh water, the remaining calcite is more vulnerable to dissolution, and various intergranular pores and microbial lattice pores are formed, which provide a channel for the entry of buried solution fluids in the later period. The second stage is buried dissolution. When the temperature reaches a certain level, the organic acids formed by the maturation of organic matter enter the dolomite reservoir along the early remaining pores, and the dissolution pores are formed. The dissolution pores are irregular and black organic matter can be seen at the edge of the dissolution pores [39,40,41]. In addition, hydrocarbons enter the dolomites and occupy intergranular pores (Figure 5c and d), effectively preventing the growth of late authigenic minerals and thus the pores can be preserved. Dissolution is one of the important diagenetic processes in the formation of dolomite reservoir pore system, which is conducive to the improvement of reservoir quality.

The dolomite reservoirs in the Fei-3 Member are distributed in clumped form throughout the study area. It is mainly distributed in the PG3 Well area, PG101-PG4 Well area, PG2-PG12 Well area, PG5-PG9 Well area, and PG10 Well area (Figure 11). Among them, well areas PG101-PG4, PG2-PG12, and PG10 have the largest dolomite reservoir thickness, and the cumulative thickness of dolomite revealed by a single well is generally greater than 30 m. The results show that the dolomite reservoir is controlled by paleogeomorphology and sedimentary facies. The relatively high part of paleogeomorphology has strong hydrodynamic conditions, high primary porosity, easy occurrence of syngenetic dolomitization, strong atmospheric freshwater dissolution, good reservoir petrophysical properties, and large reservoir plane distribution scale.

Figure 11 Thickness distribution of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member, Puguang area. The red numbers represent the thickness of the dolomite observed in the cores.
Figure 11

Thickness distribution of dolomite reservoir in Fei-3 Member, Puguang area. The red numbers represent the thickness of the dolomite observed in the cores.

5.3.4 Effect of fracture on fluid migration

The tectonic processes affecting the development of dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member are mainly the multi-stage tectonic fractures produced in the Yanshanian-Himalayan stage in the Sichuan Basin. Most of these fractures are filled by calcite or dolomite, and the remaining unfilled fractures become important components of the pore system of the dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member. They can be used both as transport channels for geological fluids and as effective pore systems in themselves, as well as communication pores (Figure 12).

Figure 12 A cross-well profile across Wells PG6 and PG2 showing fracture development characteristics in Fei-3 Member.
Figure 12

A cross-well profile across Wells PG6 and PG2 showing fracture development characteristics in Fei-3 Member.

5.4 Prediction of favorable distribution area of dolomite reservoir

This study shows that the lithology of dolomite of the Fei-3 Member in the study area includes residual structure dolomite, microbial dolomite, and crystal dolomite. The residual structure dolomite is formed by the dolomitization of granular limestone in the granular shoal facies, which is mainly developed in the relative paleomorphic highs inside the platform. Therefore, the platform shoal deposits located in the paleomorphic highs are the basis for the formation of residual structure granular dolomite.

Microbial dolomite is formed by the dolomitization of microbial limestone developed from microbial mat or microbial mounds, and the distribution of microbial dolomite is determined by the development of microorganisms. The cryptoalgae microorganisms in the Fei-3 Member of the study area were controlled by the dual factors of paleogeomorphology and seawater salinity. The distribution of microorganisms in the medium salinity seawater is consistent with the distribution of granular shoal, i.e., the microbial rocks mostly grow in the high geomorphic zone developed in the inner shoal. However, when the salinity of the sea increases to a certain extent, the growth of microorganisms stops. Although it is a paleogeomorphic highland granular shoal deposit, there is no microbial growth, and thus there is no microbial dolomite formation.

The crystalline dolomite is distributed under the residual granular structure dolomite in the longitudinal direction, and belongs to the granular shoal stucco deposit in the transverse direction. Due to the strong compaction of the stucco deposits, the rocks are relatively dense, the pores are poorly developed, and the micro-powdery dolomites formed after dolomitization have low porosity. It is usually poor reservoir or non-reservoir.

Of course, not all granular shoal and microbial sheet facies can develop into dolomite reservoirs. Although granular shoal and microbial sheet facies are developed in some areas (such as Well PG9), the degree of dolomitization is low, the content of limestone is high, and effective reservoirs are difficult to form. Planar distribution of sedimentary facies in Fei-3 Member of Puguang area is shown in Figure 13a. The area where the limestone developed is the low depression area of the paleomorphology. Based on the analysis of sedimentary geology and diagenesis, a favorable differentiation map of dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member of the study area was compiled (Figure 13b). As can be seen from Figure 13b, favorable distribution areas of the dolomite reservoir in the Fei-3 Member of the study area are mainly distributed in the northern PG3∼PG1 Well area, the middle PG12∼PG11 Well area, and the southern PG10 Well area.

Figure 13 (a) Planar distribution of sedimentary facies in Fei-3 Member of Puguang area; and (b) favorable areas of dolomite development in Fei-3 Member of the study area.
Figure 13

(a) Planar distribution of sedimentary facies in Fei-3 Member of Puguang area; and (b) favorable areas of dolomite development in Fei-3 Member of the study area.

Overall, the reflux infiltration dolomitization pattern in the Fei-3 Member of the Puguang area is shown in Figure 14. The residual granular dolomite of the Fei-3 Member in the study area was formed in the syn- or quasi-syn-phase at a lower sea level. The Mg-rich seawater acts as a downward osmotic reflux along the microbial mats of the intraplateau beach-phase granulites with good pore permeability or relatively well-developed primary pores. In the process of downward infiltration, the degree of dolomitization of the underlying lithology gradually decreases with the gradual decrease in Mg ions.

Figure 14 Reflux infiltration dolomitization pattern in the Fei-3 Member of the Puguang area.
Figure 14

Reflux infiltration dolomitization pattern in the Fei-3 Member of the Puguang area.

6 Conclusion

The dolomite reservoir of the Fei-3 Member in the Puguang area have three main rock types: residual structure dolomite, microbial dolomite, and crystalline dolomite. Residual structure dolomites are residual granular dolomites with powder and mesocrystalline crystals. Microbial dolomites are mainly crypto-algal dolomites with powder and fine crystals. Crystalline dolomites are dolomites with powdery crystal and medium crystalline structures.

The reservoir space of dolomite includes intergranular pore, dissolved pore/cave, inter-crystalline pore, and dissolved fracture. The reservoirs are generally characterized by low porosity and low permeability, but there are still some low porosity and high permeability reservoirs developed locally. The types of diagenesis experienced by the Fei-3 Member include dolomitization, dissolution, rupture, and material filling.

The dolomite reservoir is mainly distributed in the Fei-31 sub-member, a small amount in the Fei-32 sub-member, but none in the Fei-33 sub-member. On the plane, the dolomite reservoir is distributed in a cluster form, and is mainly affected by granular shoal, microbial mat, and paleogeomorphology. Dolomitization and dissolution are also the main factors controlling the development of the dolomite reservoir.

Various kinds of pores formed by syngenetic dissolution provide channels for later buried dissolution, and organic acids formed by organic matter maturation under deep burial conditions can play an important role in dissolution of dolomite and promote the formation of dissolution pores. In the burial stage, hydrocarbons enter the dolomite, which can effectively prevent the growth of late authigenic minerals, thus promoting the preservation of pores. The structural fracture system formed by late tectonic movement can communicate different pore groups and improve the reservoir quality.

  1. Funding information: This work is financially supported by the the second and third batches of employment and education projects for supply-demand docking by the Ministry of Education (2024010895237; 20230100795), the National College Student Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program Project (71013407016; 71013407197) and the Education and Teaching Reform Research Project of Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology (2024JY35).

  2. Author contributions: Shenjian Wang and Guosheng Xu are responsible for the idea, analysis, and writing of the article. Yingling Hou, Wenjie Zhuang, Guomin Chen, Wei Wang, Xinyi Wang, Jianxia Bi, Changbing Huang, Qing Liu, Qiuchan Zhuang, and Qing Luo are responsible for core observation, experiments, and well logging analysis.

  3. Conflict of interest: There is no conflict of interest in this study.

  4. Data availability statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

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Received: 2023-07-01
Revised: 2024-01-09
Accepted: 2024-01-10
Published Online: 2024-08-22

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0603
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
Sichuan Basin; Puguang area; Fei-3 Member; dolomite reservoir; main control factor
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Theoretical magnetotelluric response of stratiform earth consisting of alternative homogeneous and transitional layers
  3. The research of common drought indexes for the application to the drought monitoring in the region of Jin Sha river
  4. Evolutionary game analysis of government, businesses, and consumers in high-standard farmland low-carbon construction
  5. On the use of low-frequency passive seismic as a direct hydrocarbon indicator: A case study at Banyubang oil field, Indonesia
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  10. Multisource remote sensing image fusion processing in plateau seismic region feature information extraction and application analysis – An example of the Menyuan Ms6.9 earthquake on January 8, 2022
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  19. Deep fault sliding rates for Ka-Ping block of Xinjiang based on repeating earthquakes
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  26. Permian tectonic switch of the southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Constraints from magmatism in the southern Alxa region, NW China
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  28. Three-dimensional finite-memory quasi-Newton inversion of the magnetotelluric based on unstructured grids
  29. Obliquity-paced summer monsoon from the Shilou red clay section on the eastern Chinese Loess Plateau
  30. Classification and logging identification of reservoir space near the upper Ordovician pinch-out line in Tahe Oilfield
  31. Ultra-deep channel sand body target recognition method based on improved deep learning under UAV cluster
  32. New formula to determine flyrock distance on sedimentary rocks with low strength
  33. Assessing the ecological security of tourism in Northeast China
  34. Effective reservoir identification and sweet spot prediction in Chang 8 Member tight oil reservoirs in Huanjiang area, Ordos Basin
  35. Detecting heterogeneity of spatial accessibility to sports facilities for adolescents at fine scale: A case study in Changsha, China
  36. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on soil nutrients by soft rock and sand remodeling
  37. Vibration prediction with a method based on the absorption property of blast-induced seismic waves: A case study
  38. A new look at the geodynamic development of the Ediacaran–early Cambrian forearc basalts of the Tannuola-Khamsara Island Arc (Central Asia, Russia): Conclusions from geological, geochemical, and Nd-isotope data
  39. Spatio-temporal analysis of the driving factors of urban land use expansion in China: A study of the Yangtze River Delta region
  40. Selection of Euler deconvolution solutions using the enhanced horizontal gradient and stable vertical differentiation
  41. Phase change of the Ordovician hydrocarbon in the Tarim Basin: A case study from the Halahatang–Shunbei area
  42. Using interpretative structure model and analytical network process for optimum site selection of airport locations in Delta Egypt
  43. Geochemistry of magnetite from Fe-skarn deposits along the central Loei Fold Belt, Thailand
  44. Functional typology of settlements in the Srem region, Serbia
  45. Hunger Games Search for the elucidation of gravity anomalies with application to geothermal energy investigations and volcanic activity studies
  46. Addressing incomplete tile phenomena in image tiling: Introducing the grid six-intersection model
  47. Evaluation and control model for resilience of water resource building system based on fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method and its application
  48. MIF and AHP methods for delineation of groundwater potential zones using remote sensing and GIS techniques in Tirunelveli, Tenkasi District, India
  49. New database for the estimation of dynamic coefficient of friction of snow
  50. Measuring urban growth dynamics: A study in Hue city, Vietnam
  51. Comparative models of support-vector machine, multilayer perceptron, and decision tree ‎predication approaches for landslide ‎susceptibility analysis
  52. Experimental study on the influence of clay content on the shear strength of silty soil and mechanism analysis
  53. Geosite assessment as a contribution to the sustainable development of Babušnica, Serbia
  54. Using fuzzy analytical hierarchy process for road transportation services management based on remote sensing and GIS technology
  55. Accumulation mechanism of multi-type unconventional oil and gas reservoirs in Northern China: Taking Hari Sag of the Yin’e Basin as an example
  56. TOC prediction of source rocks based on the convolutional neural network and logging curves – A case study of Pinghu Formation in Xihu Sag
  57. A method for fast detection of wind farms from remote sensing images using deep learning and geospatial analysis
  58. Spatial distribution and driving factors of karst rocky desertification in Southwest China based on GIS and geodetector
  59. Physicochemical and mineralogical composition studies of clays from Share and Tshonga areas, Northern Bida Basin, Nigeria: Implications for Geophagia
  60. Geochemical sedimentary records of eutrophication and environmental change in Chaohu Lake, East China
  61. Research progress of freeze–thaw rock using bibliometric analysis
  62. Mixed irrigation affects the composition and diversity of the soil bacterial community
  63. Examining the swelling potential of cohesive soils with high plasticity according to their index properties using GIS
  64. Geological genesis and identification of high-porosity and low-permeability sandstones in the Cretaceous Bashkirchik Formation, northern Tarim Basin
  65. Usability of PPGIS tools exemplified by geodiscussion – a tool for public participation in shaping public space
  66. Efficient development technology of Upper Paleozoic Lower Shihezi tight sandstone gas reservoir in northeastern Ordos Basin
  67. Assessment of soil resources of agricultural landscapes in Turkestan region of the Republic of Kazakhstan based on agrochemical indexes
  68. Evaluating the impact of DEM interpolation algorithms on relief index for soil resource management
  69. Petrogenetic relationship between plutonic and subvolcanic rocks in the Jurassic Shuikoushan complex, South China
  70. A novel workflow for shale lithology identification – A case study in the Gulong Depression, Songliao Basin, China
  71. Characteristics and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs in Fei-3 Member of Feixianguan Formation of Lower Triassic, Puguang area
  72. Impact of high-speed railway network on county-level accessibility and economic linkage in Jiangxi Province, China: A spatio-temporal data analysis
  73. Estimation model of wild fractional vegetation cover based on RGB vegetation index and its application
  74. Lithofacies, petrography, and geochemistry of the Lamphun oceanic plate stratigraphy: As a record of the subduction history of Paleo-Tethys in Chiang Mai-Chiang Rai Suture Zone of Thailand
  75. Structural features and tectonic activity of the Weihe Fault, central China
  76. Application of the wavelet transform and Hilbert–Huang transform in stratigraphic sequence division of Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in Southwest Sichuan Basin
  77. Structural detachment influences the shale gas preservation in the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation, Northern Guizhou Province
  78. Distribution law of Chang 7 Member tight oil in the western Ordos Basin based on geological, logging and numerical simulation techniques
  79. Evaluation of alteration in the geothermal province west of Cappadocia, Türkiye: Mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical, and remote sensing data
  80. Numerical modeling of site response at large strains with simplified nonlinear models: Application to Lotung seismic array
  81. Quantitative characterization of granite failure intensity under dynamic disturbance from energy standpoint
  82. Characteristics of debris flow dynamics and prediction of the hazardous area in Bangou Village, Yanqing District, Beijing, China
  83. Rockfall mapping and susceptibility evaluation based on UAV high-resolution imagery and support vector machine method
  84. Statistical comparison analysis of different real-time kinematic methods for the development of photogrammetric products: CORS-RTK, CORS-RTK + PPK, RTK-DRTK2, and RTK + DRTK2 + GCP
  85. Hydrogeological mapping of fracture networks using earth observation data to improve rainfall–runoff modeling in arid mountains, Saudi Arabia
  86. Petrography and geochemistry of pegmatite and leucogranite of Ntega-Marangara area, Burundi, in relation to rare metal mineralisation
  87. Prediction of formation fracture pressure based on reinforcement learning and XGBoost
  88. Hazard zonation for potential earthquake-induced landslide in the eastern East Kunlun fault zone
  89. Monitoring water infiltration in multiple layers of sandstone coal mining model with cracks using ERT
  90. Study of the patterns of ice lake variation and the factors influencing these changes in the western Nyingchi area
  91. Productive conservation at the landslide prone area under the threat of rapid land cover changes
  92. Sedimentary processes and patterns in deposits corresponding to freshwater lake-facies of hyperpycnal flow – An experimental study based on flume depositional simulations
  93. Study on time-dependent injectability evaluation of mudstone considering the self-healing effect
  94. Detection of objects with diverse geometric shapes in GPR images using deep-learning methods
  95. Behavior of trace metals in sedimentary cores from marine and lacustrine environments in Algeria
  96. Spatiotemporal variation pattern and spatial coupling relationship between NDVI and LST in Mu Us Sandy Land
  97. Formation mechanism and oil-bearing properties of gravity flow sand body of Chang 63 sub-member of Yanchang Formation in Huaqing area, Ordos Basin
  98. Diagenesis of marine-continental transitional shale from the Upper Permian Longtan Formation in southern Sichuan Basin, China
  99. Vertical high-velocity structures and seismic activity in western Shandong Rise, China: Case study inspired by double-difference seismic tomography
  100. Spatial coupling relationship between metamorphic core complex and gold deposits: Constraints from geophysical electromagnetics
  101. Disparities in the geospatial allocation of public facilities from the perspective of living circles
  102. Research on spatial correlation structure of war heritage based on field theory. A case study of Jinzhai County, China
  103. Formation mechanisms of Qiaoba-Zhongdu Danxia landforms in southwestern Sichuan Province, China
  104. Magnetic data interpretation: Implication for structure and hydrocarbon potentiality at Delta Wadi Diit, Southeastern Egypt
  105. Deeply buried clastic rock diagenesis evolution mechanism of Dongdaohaizi sag in the center of Junggar fault basin, Northwest China
  106. Application of LS-RAPID to simulate the motion of two contrasting landslides triggered by earthquakes
  107. The new insight of tectonic setting in Sunda–Banda transition zone using tomography seismic. Case study: 7.1 M deep earthquake 29 August 2023
  108. The critical role of c and φ in ensuring stability: A study on rockfill dams
  109. Evidence of late quaternary activity of the Weining-Shuicheng Fault in Guizhou, China
  110. Extreme hydroclimatic events and response of vegetation in the eastern QTP since 10 ka
  111. Spatial–temporal effect of sea–land gradient on landscape pattern and ecological risk in the coastal zone: A case study of Dalian City
  112. Study on the influence mechanism of land use on carbon storage under multiple scenarios: A case study of Wenzhou
  113. A new method for identifying reservoir fluid properties based on well logging data: A case study from PL block of Bohai Bay Basin, North China
  114. Comparison between thermal models across the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and Eastern Llanos basins in Colombia
  115. Mineralogical and elemental analysis of Kazakh coals from three mines: Preliminary insights from mode of occurrence to environmental impacts
  116. Chlorite-induced porosity evolution in multi-source tight sandstone reservoirs: A case study of the Shaximiao Formation in western Sichuan Basin
  117. Predicting stability factors for rotational failures in earth slopes and embankments using artificial intelligence techniques
  118. Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate
  119. Modification of dolomitization on reservoir spaces in reef–shoal complex: A case study of Permian Changxing Formation, Sichuan Basin, SW China
  120. Geological characteristics of the Daduhe gold belt, western Sichuan, China: Implications for exploration
  121. Rock physics model for deep coal-bed methane reservoir based on equivalent medium theory: A case study of Carboniferous-Permian in Eastern Ordos Basin
  122. Enhancing the total-field magnetic anomaly using the normalized source strength
  123. Shear wave velocity profiling of Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia, utilizing the multi-channel analysis of surface waves method
  124. Effect of coal facies on pore structure heterogeneity of coal measures: Quantitative characterization and comparative study
  125. Inversion method of organic matter content of different types of soils in black soil area based on hyperspectral indices
  126. Detection of seepage zones in artificial levees: A case study at the Körös River, Hungary
  127. Tight sandstone fluid detection technology based on multi-wave seismic data
  128. Characteristics and control techniques of soft rock tunnel lining cracks in high geo-stress environments: Case study of Wushaoling tunnel group
  129. Influence of pore structure characteristics on the Permian Shan-1 reservoir in Longdong, Southwest Ordos Basin, China
  130. Study on sedimentary model of Shanxi Formation – Lower Shihezi Formation in Da 17 well area of Daniudi gas field, Ordos Basin
  131. Multi-scenario territorial spatial simulation and dynamic changes: A case study of Jilin Province in China from 1985 to 2030
  132. Review Articles
  133. Major ascidian species with negative impacts on bivalve aquaculture: Current knowledge and future research aims
  134. Prediction and assessment of meteorological drought in southwest China using long short-term memory model
  135. Communication
  136. Essential questions in earth and geosciences according to large language models
  137. Erratum
  138. Erratum to “Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan”
  139. Special Issue: Natural Resources and Environmental Risks: Towards a Sustainable Future - Part I
  140. Spatial-temporal and trend analysis of traffic accidents in AP Vojvodina (North Serbia)
  141. Exploring environmental awareness, knowledge, and safety: A comparative study among students in Montenegro and North Macedonia
  142. Determinants influencing tourists’ willingness to visit Türkiye – Impact of earthquake hazards on Serbian visitors’ preferences
  143. Application of remote sensing in monitoring land degradation: A case study of Stanari municipality (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  144. Optimizing agricultural land use: A GIS-based assessment of suitability in the Sana River Basin, Bosnia and Herzegovina
  145. Assessing risk-prone areas in the Kratovska Reka catchment (North Macedonia) by integrating advanced geospatial analytics and flash flood potential index
  146. Analysis of the intensity of erosive processes and state of vegetation cover in the zone of influence of the Kolubara Mining Basin
  147. GIS-based spatial modeling of landslide susceptibility using BWM-LSI: A case study – city of Smederevo (Serbia)
  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
  149. Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro
  150. Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)
  151. Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia
  152. Understanding seismic hazard resilience in Montenegro: A qualitative analysis of community preparedness and response capabilities
  153. Forest soil CO2 emission in Quercus robur level II monitoring site
  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
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Heruntergeladen am 11.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/geo-2022-0603/html
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