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Evaluation of alteration in the geothermal province west of Cappadocia, Türkiye: Mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical, and remote sensing data

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Published/Copyright: September 17, 2024
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

This study determines the mineralogical, petrographical, and geochemical properties of the rocks outcropping in geothermal areas west of the Cappadocia geothermal region. These areas include Ziga, Narlıgöl, Belisırma, Ilısu, and Sivrihisar. The study reveals their hydrothermal alteration characteristics. Also, the study aims to determine the zones of hydrothermal alterations using remote sensing. Rock samples from geothermal areas were performed using optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, and inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry techniques for the determination of mineralogical assemblages and major, trace and REE's analyses. Rock samples, determined as ignimbrites and tuff, exhibit intensive alterations. XRD analysis determined the association of alteration minerals. The dominant clay minerals were kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite. The analyses and mineral associations are compatible with argillic, mid-argillic alteration, and silicification zones. Alteration zones were identified by classifying the ASTER satellite images of kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite using the CROSTA technique. The alteration zones observed in this study are close to existing geothermal areas. In addition, different regions with these alterations have been identified within the study area and are expected to be a valuable reference for future geothermal exploration.

Keywords: cappadocia geothermal province; hydrothermal alterations; XRD; clay minerals; remote sensing

1 Introduction

Türkiye is located on the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt. This orogenic belt has excellent geothermal potential due to abundant magmatic and volcanic activities. Globally, Türkiye has the seventh largest number of geothermal resources; within Europe, Türkiye ranks third [1,2,3]. Geothermal systems are located in the main grabens in Western Anatolia, the North Anatolian Fault Zone, and the volcanic regions of Central and Eastern Anatolia [4,5,6,7,8,9]. The volcanic activity that developed between the Late Miocene and Quaternary in the Cappadocia volcanic region (CVP), located in Central Anatolia, has contributed to the formation of many important geothermal areas in this region and has attracted the attention of many researchers [2,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17].

Ziga, Narlıgöl, Belisırma, Ilısu, and Sivrihisar, located in the west of the CVP, are important geothermal resource areas. The region may have a significant geothermal potential due to its proximity to the Melendiz and Hasandağı stratovolcanoes. It shows surface indicators, including high heat flow, hydrothermal alteration zones, and hot surface water. In previous studies of these regions, hydrochemical properties have been emphasized, and hydrogeological problems have been mentioned [20,23,24,25,26]. In addition, critical geothermal areas within the CVP have been evaluated by geophysical methods [27,28].

Thermal fluids in geothermal systems reach the surface of the earth through faults, fractures, and cracks in the form of thermal springs, mud pools, geysers, and gas emissions. These thermal waters interact with surface and underground rocks, dissolving primary minerals in the rocks and forming hydrothermal secondary minerals [29]. The occurrence and abundance of hydrothermal alteration caused by hot water generally depend on the previous physical and chemical conditions of the environment. Similar temperature and pH conditions can alter parent rocks with different compositions to form similar mineral assemblages [30,31]. Hydrothermal alterations and their distribution is controlled by primary mineral composition, the temperature of the geothermal reservoir, the chemical composition of the fluids, the porosity and permeability of the rocks, and the duration of the fluid–rock interaction [32]. Therefore, hydrothermal alteration provides geothermal indicators consisting of marked changes in mineral and chemical distribution. These properties are very important for the exploration and evaluation of geothermal resources. For this reason, petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical methods are used to identify altered rocks and determine hydrothermal alteration zones [33,34,35,36].

Argillic and phyllic alterations have been associated with hydrothermal alteration, and clay and phyllic alterations have been reported in the CVP region. However, detailed analyses have not been performed, and no data have been presented regarding the distribution of alteration zones in the geothermal field. In this study, the characteristics of hydrothermal alteration in the Ziga, Narlıgöl, Belisırma, Ilısu, and Sivrihisar geothermal fields within the Cappadocia geothermal region (CGR) were established using multiple methods. Integrating these methodologies will significantly contribute to understanding hydrothermal processes and mineral formations in geothermal systems. In particular, mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical analyses can provide important information for understanding the complexity of hydrothermal activity and mineral formation processes in geothermal resources.

In this context, systematic samples were taken from geothermal areas, thin sections were made, and their mineralogical and petrographic properties were determined. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was used to identify alteration minerals, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to visualize minerals from a microchemical perspective. Additionally, the main oxide and trace element compositions of the samples were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), and rare earth element analyses were determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Finally, the alteration zones composed of kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite, the hydrothermal alteration minerals present in all mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical analyses, were determined by remote sensing.

2 Geological settings

The study area is located within the CGR in Central Anatolia. Volcanics dominate the CGR, which is bounded by the Kızılırmak Fault in the north, the Ecemiş Fault in the east, and the Tuzgölü Fault in the west [26,37]. Additionally, secondary faults, such as the Keçiboyduran-Melendiz, Hasandağ, Göllüdağ, Derinkuyu, and Yeşilhisar, have developed within these main fault systems (Figure 1a). All these faults are due to deformations directly related to volcanic activities in Central Anatolia. Volcanic activities, that persisted from the Miocene to the Quaternary, have created important geothermal fields in Central Anatolia.

Figure 1 Location of the study area with respect to the tectonic units of Türkiye (simplified from [21]) and geological map of the study area (modified from [20,40]).
Figure 1

Location of the study area with respect to the tectonic units of Türkiye (simplified from [21]) and geological map of the study area (modified from [20,40]).

The CVP is one of the most important Tertiary–Quaternary volcanic provinces in Türkiye, extending in the NE–SW direction for 250–300 km with a width of around 100–150 km [7,9,38]. Many polygenetic and monogenetic volcanoes erupted in CVP during the Neo-Quaternary period. The CVP began to form with the convergence of the Arabian and Eurasian plates during the Middle Miocene. It continued to develop during the collision and post-collision regimes of the Upper Miocene-Quaternary period. Thus, many volcanic rocks of different types and origins formed within the CVP [19,20,26].

The basement rocks of the study area are composed of Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, including quartzite, schist, gneiss, and marble (Figure 1b). These Paleozoic basement rocks are overlain by Cretaceous granites and granodiorites [16]. These intrusive rocks are overlain by Miocene Karakaya formation, Ürgüp formation, and Cemilköy ignimbrites. These Miocene units are unconformably overlain by Pliocene Selime Tuffs, Gelveri Ignimbrites, and Yağıllı Formation. Selime tuffs are easily recognized by their “fairy chimney” structures around Selime and Yaprakhisar with the preservation of the hard ignimbrite (Kızılkaya ignimbrite) layer. All these units are covered by a Quaternary andesite-basalt, the Hasandağı ash flow, hillside rubble, basaltic slag, travertine, and alluvium [39]. In addition, apart from the primary faults in the study area, there are many intersecting minor faults in the Ziga, Narlıgöl, Ilısu, Belisırma, and Sivrihisar regions [16].

3 Materials and methods

3.1 Sampling

In this study, 52 samples were taken from rock groups near hot springs in the geothermal areas Ziga, Narlıgöl, Sivrihisar, Belisırma, and Ilısu and the surrounding alteration zones within the CGR. In addition, travertines located at geothermal hot water sources were also sampled. Twenty samples were taken from the Hasandagi tuffs (Ziga and Belisırma), 12 from the Gelveri ignimbrite (Ilısu and Sivrihisar), 11 from the Selime tuffs (Narlıgöl), and 9 from travertines. Samples were grouped as unaltered, less altered, and highly altered by macro- and microscopic observations.

3.2 Mineralogy and petrography

Thin sections of 25 selected samples were prepared to determine their mineralogical properties. The prepared thin sections were examined for mineral associations and textural relationships with a Leica DM750P bottom-illuminated polarizing microscope in the Geological Engineering Department Laboratories of Aksaray University, Aksaray, Türkiye. The XRD analyses were performed with a Bruker X’pert3 Powder diffractometer, and clay mineral analyses were performed with a Bruker Advance D8 at the Department of Mineral Analysis and Technology of the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA) of Türkiye. XRD analyses were performed with Ni-filtered Cu X-ray tube devices between 2 and 40 2Ɵ, while samples enriched with clay group minerals that could not be identified in whole-rock analyses were analyzed between 2 and 70 2Ɵ using normal, ethylene glycol, and firing (350 and 550°C) methods. Enrichment process is applied for undefined clay minerals and qualitative detailed XRD clay analysis is performed. In this method, after the standard XRD analysis, the enriched samples were analyzed in Cu X-ray tube devices with Ni filters between 2 and 70 2Ɵ, dried (350 and 550°C) in an oven with ethylene glycol. The raw data were analyzed using the Match program and compared with the index values of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) [41]. Micro-morphological and micro-chemical studies were carried out on the alteration using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX) analyses. The SEM-EDX analyses were performed at Aksaray University Scientific and Technological Application and Research Centre (ASÜBTAM). The crystal and morphological properties of the samples were determined using an FEI Quanta FEG 250 scanning electron microscope with a magnification capacity of 14× to 1,000,000× and three vacuum modes: high, low, and ESEM. Secondary (ETD), directional backscattered detector, low-temperature detector, gaseous analytical detector, gaseous secondary electron detector, and X-ray electron detector. The instrument is also equipped with EDAX X-ray analysis spectrometers for chemical analysis and qualitative elemental determination.

3.3 Geochemical analysis

Determination of elemental composition of rock samples was performed by XRF spectroscopy. The major oxide and trace element chemical composition of 30 samples was determined using the WD-XRF method. The analyses were conducted at the Geochemical Analysis Laboratory (JAL) of ASÜBTAM using a Panalytical Axios Max WD-XRF device. The WD-XRF instrument is microprocessor-controlled for flexibility and has a high-performance SSD-max Rh anode and an ultra-thin beryllium window (75 μm) X-ray tube. The tube can operate at 4 kW maximum power and 160 mA maximum current. The samples for analysis were first crushed and powdered to approximately 20-μm size in ball grinders. The ground and powdered samples were mixed with a wax binder material and pressed into pellets using 12 bars of pressure. The prepared pellets were measured for major and trace elements using the WD-XRF technique. Powder samples prepared for WD-XRF analysis are used for loss on ignition (LOI). In order to determine the LOI of the samples, the samples were placed in porcelain crucibles in an oven at 950°C, and their losses were calculated by measuring their final weight. Rare earth element analyses of 11 samples selected from the study area were performed in the ALS laboratory using an Agilent ICP-MS.

3.4 Determination of hydrothermal zones by remote sensing

ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) images are widely used for lithological mapping and mineral alteration zone identification [42,43,44,45,46,47]. The ASTER sensor has three visible infrared (15 m resolution), six shortwave infrared (SWIR) (30 m resolution), and five thermal infrared (TIR) (90 m resolution) bands [46,48,49]. This study used ASTER L1B level images to identify mineral alteration zones in the study area indicated in Figure 1. The SWIR bands of ASTER images were used to determine mineral alteration zones, and data dated before 2007 and covering the study area were selected.

ASTER L1B level images are radiometrically and geometrically corrected pixel data with radiance values. However, it is necessary to eliminate atmospheric scattering and absorption effects to obtain accurate surface reflectance from these radiance values. In this context, atmospheric corrections are essential to this and similar studies [50]. There are different atmospheric correction algorithms; the FLAASH algorithm, which includes the MODTRAN-4 radiative transfer code and is used in the spectral range of 0.4–2.5 μm, has been used frequently. In this way, atmospheric effects, such as surface and atmospheric temperatures, aerosols, clouds, water vapor, and albedo, have been accurately reproduced and corrected [51]. After the data were pre-processed, it was masked with vegetation, settlements, wetlands, and other artificial object classes. After the data were analyzed, the CROSTA technique was applied using ENVI software, and hydrothermal alteration zones were identified.

The high correlation between different bands in the multispectral data means that bands with different wavelengths often present similar information. Principal component analysis (PCA) is a method used to reduce the correlation between bands by performing statistical analyses on multispectral images, reducing the similar and, therefore, redundant data between bands and compressing the information in the original bands, thereby removing the redundant data [47,49]. Most spectral band variations are due to topographic shadowing and the albedo effect on the ground surface. PCA enriches the reflectance properties of geological materials by eliminating the irradiance effect that dominates in all bands. It can be applied to multivariate data sets, such as multispectral images, to produce the spectral responses of specific minerals, such as hydrothermal alteration minerals [42,52]. The CROSTA technique, also known as feature-oriented PCA, is based on establishing a relationship between the spectral response of the target materials and the numerical values derived from the eigenvector matrix used to calculate the principal component images [53]. The principal component containing the spectral information of the target mineral is determined, and the resulting pixel values are expressed as dark or bright.

4 Results

4.1 Mineralogy and petrography

The altered ignimbrite and tuff rocks were easily identified by their aphanitic and fragile texture, reddish/yellowish color due to iron oxides, and the destruction of the original rock texture. The unaltered rocks have a phaneritic texture, massive structure, and bedrock characteristics. The less-altered rock group has both unaltered rock properties and altered rock properties. In macroscopic examinations, ignimbirites show a more homogeneous and welded structure, while tuffs are observed to be more heterogeneous and loose. In order to determine the mineralogical and petrographic properties of the samples obtained, thin sections were made from 25 of the samples. In the thin sections, alterations in the form of sericitization, argilification, silicification, and carbonation were observed in the majority of the minerals and matrixes of the samples. Most of the mafic minerals in the samples are residual. In microscopic examinations, intergranular spaces between ignimbirites are observed to be tighter, while intergranular spaces are more pronounced in tuffs. The thin sections of the unaltered rock samples had a distinct texture with clear mineral boundaries. The minerals were present as residual minerals in the less altered samples, and there was intense alteration in altered rock samples such that a mineral determination could not be made.

The unaltered and less altered samples were mostly hypocrystalline and porphyritic in texture, and their main mineralogical compositions were orthoclase, plagioclase, amphibole, pyroxene, biotite, quartz, and amorphous material (volcanic glass) (Figure 2a–d). Plagioclase was observed as subhedral–euhedral, with a zoned texture and polysynthetic twinning. Biotite and hornblende are pseudomorphs and were mostly opacitized in the form of residual minerals and commonly contained opaque mineral inclusions (Figure 2e, f and h). Occasional pyroxenes were generally observed as subhedral and large phenocrysts. The altered samples were mostly vitrophyric in texture and argilification; silicification- and iron oxidation-type alterations were observed (Figure 2i–l). All samples in the study area were subjected to advanced alteration due to their proximity to a hot water source. These petrographic results were also confirmed by the XRD analyses.

Figure 2 (a)–(d) Optical microscopic view of unaltered rocks, (e)–(h) optical microscopic view of less altered rocks, and (i)–(l) optical microscopic view of altered rocks (Qz: quartz, Pl: plagioclase, Px: pyroxene, bt: biotite, amp: amphibole).
Figure 2

(a)–(d) Optical microscopic view of unaltered rocks, (e)–(h) optical microscopic view of less altered rocks, and (i)–(l) optical microscopic view of altered rocks (Qz: quartz, Pl: plagioclase, Px: pyroxene, bt: biotite, amp: amphibole).

In addition to these observations, Pandarinath [54] has suggested that the total amount of volatiles is an accurate estimate of and is directly proportional to the moisture content. The increase in H2O in a sample is due to hydration, which causes increased clay formation, and the LOI is directly proportional to the intensity of alteration. The higher the LOI, the higher the alteration intensity. LOI values for unaltered rocks are <2%, whereas values >2% correspond to less altered and above 4% altered rocks [55,56]. The LOI values of the study area samples were determined from the macroscopic, microscopic, and geochemical data from the unaltered, less altered, and altered samples.

4.2 XRD and SEM analysis

The mineral assemblage formed by hydrothermal alteration gives essential information about the temperature and chemical composition of the fluids that formed it. For this reason, 17 samples were analyzed using XRD to determine the changes in the mineralogical composition of the rock due to alteration in the chemical composition of geothermal waters and pH, which changes temporally and spatiality. Quartz, plagioclase, cristobalite, tridymite, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, illite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite–smectite (I–S), jarosite, calcite, aragonite, gypsum, serpentine and pyrite minerals were identified in of the samples taken from the study area using XRD (Table 1). The minerals identified by XRD analysis are given in Table 1 in order from the most abundant to less present.

Table 1

Minerals identified by XRD from samples taken from geothermal fields in the study area

Samp. No. Area Minerals identified by XRD
BAA-1 Belisırma Plagioclase, quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, illite
BAA-3 Belisırma Plagioclase, quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, kaolinite
SAA-3 Sivrihisar Quartz, cristobalite, plagioclase, kaolinite, illite, tridymite, pyroxene
SAA-2 Sivrihisar Plagioclase, quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, kaolinite, serpentine
IAA-1 Ilısu Plagioclase, quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, illite, montmorillonite, Kaolinite, amphibole, mica
IA-3 Ilısu Plagioclase, quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, kaolinite, mica, illite
ZAA-14 Ziga Plagioclase, quartz, amphibole, illite, mica, pyroxene
ZA-9 Ziga Plagioclase, quartz, cristobalite, amphibole, mica, illite, kaolinite
ZA-2 Ziga Calcite, aragonite, plagioclase
ZA-5 Ziga Calcite, aragonite, plagioclase, quartz
ZA-11 Ziga Calcite, aragonite, plagioclase
ZA-17 Ziga Quartz, plagioclase, montmorillonite, mica, illite, orthoclase, kaolinite, cristobalite, tridymite, serpentine, I–S
NAA-6 Narlıgöl Cristobalite, quartz, plagioclase, kaolinite, orthoclase, illite mica,
NA-10 Narlıgöl Cristobalite, quartz, plagioclase, jarosite, tridymite, illite, kaolinite
NA-5 Narlıgöl Cristobalite, montmorillonite, jarosite, plagioclase, quartz
NA-1 Narlıgöl Calcite, aragonite, plagioclase
NA-9 Narlıgöl Plagioclase, quartz, jarosite, gypsum, pyrite

Clay fraction analysis revealed that kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite are dominant in the altered rocks. Clay minerals (illite, kaolinite, and montmorillonite) and sulfates (jarosite) are generally hydrothermal alteration main products in the study area. In the XRD pattern of clay minerals in the samples, illites show the 001 peak at ∼10 Å. Furthermore, illites show minimal or no shifts at lower angle positions (Figure 3). These minimal shifts indicate illite-rich mixed-layer I–S. The kaolinite minerals have characteristic peaks of 7.15 and 3.57 Å, while the montmorillonite mineral has a peak of ∼4.48 Å. The asymmetry of montmorillonite in the low-angle direction is related to the I-S content of the mineral (Figure 3).

Figure 3 XRD analyses diffractograms of some samples taken from alteration zones and identified minerals (after ethylene glycolation).
Figure 3

XRD analyses diffractograms of some samples taken from alteration zones and identified minerals (after ethylene glycolation).

Micro-morphological and micro-chemical studies were performed on the minerals in the alteration zones using SEM-EDAX. The SEM-EDAX images are given in Figure 4. Kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite, calcite, and jarosite were observed. Montmorillonite was recognized by its oak leaf and cornflex structures, typical of montmorillonite, and all grains were in the form of curved, thin layers and showed a regular distribution (Figure 4a and b). Kaolinite is recognized by its typical morphology of interleaved sheets and agglomerates (Figure 4c). Illite was observed in its unique leaf-like form (Figure 4d). Jarosite crystals were identified by their characteristic rhombohedral crystals (Figure 3e). Calcite was observed as irregular aggregates (Figure 4f).

Figure 4 (a) and (b) Montmorillonite, (c) kaolinite, (d) illite, (e) jarosite, and (f) irregularly shaped polycrystalline calcite aggregates (from travertine).
Figure 4

(a) and (b) Montmorillonite, (c) kaolinite, (d) illite, (e) jarosite, and (f) irregularly shaped polycrystalline calcite aggregates (from travertine).

4.3 Geochemical analyses

The composition of major and trace element analyses is given in Table 2, and rare earth element analyses are shown in Table 3.

Table 2

Composition of major (wt%) and trace (ppm) elements

Belisırma Ilısu Narlıgöl Sivrihisar Ziga
Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg
Na2O 1.58 2.84 2.17 0.93 0.96 0.95 1.00 1.33 1.14 0.60 0.80 0.72 0.54 3.37 2.11
MgO 0.34 0.82 0.66 1.83 2.64 2.24 0.01 1.04 0.49 0.36 0.58 0.47 0.84 2.13 1.43
Al2O3 10.77 12.77 12.09 11.54 15.79 13.67 8.06 14.17 12.18 6.90 18.26 12.45 13.12 16.89 14.91
SiO2 74.82 77.54 75.81 56.02 67.12 61.57 48.65 73.32 63.07 65.09 84.48 75.05 56.60 74.89 65.82
P2O5 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.31 0.12 0.05 0.20 0.13 0.02 0.11 0.07
K2O 3.91 4.29 4.13 2.27 2.85 2.56 3.54 4.49 4.16 3.17 4.49 3.74 1.53 4.71 3.27
CaO 0.83 1.20 1.03 2.42 3.22 2.82 0.85 1.18 1.06 0.43 0.85 0.61 0.86 3.97 2.25
TiO2 0.16 0.24 0.20 0.57 0.70 0.64 0.23 0.34 0.27 0.31 0.52 0.42 0.22 1.05 0.54
MnO 0.04 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.13 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.07
Fe2O3 1.43 1.75 1.61 5.04 8.13 6.59 2.08 21.47 8.15 0.38 2.12 1.07 1.48 6.74 3.57
SO3 0.00 0.00 nd 0.03 0.14 0.09 0.06 5.80 2.02 0.06 0.86 0.34 0.00 0.19 0.09
LOI 1.67 1.99 1.82 7.02 9.41 8.22 2.37 9.53 6.75 1.96 7.45 4.74 1.77 10.20 5.05
TOTAL 99.48 99.73 99.65 99.30 99.83 99.57 99.08 100.08 99.48 99.40 99.78 99.54 96.33 99.99 99.12
Cl 277.70 838.30 531.30 591.70 942.10 766.90 16.80 982.10 420.34 40.50 1068.50 554.98 33.40 7282.20 1350.08
Sc 1.90 12.80 5.73 5.00 9.00 7.00 3.30 21.10 8.76 4.10 22.90 13.38 1.90 21.10 12.38
V 14.30 106.50 47.67 29.30 69.90 49.60 16.90 125.00 70.23 23.20 229.90 113.40 21.90 155.60 84.82
Co 0.50 25.30 9.80 60.10 60.10 60.10 1.40 85.70 27.61 6.50 65.40 30.18 3.00 27.90 14.92
Ni 3.20 7.70 5.63 3.20 22.10 12.65 6.70 14.80 11.53 7.90 145.20 48.23 7.90 64.00 20.01
Cu 11.30 21.10 16.87 7.60 22.90 15.25 9.00 51.80 23.09 9.50 59.00 33.78 9.20 29.60 21.27
Zn 15.80 38.70 29.83 16.40 65.80 41.10 24.10 72.00 40.60 33.00 81.20 56.55 14.40 78.60 36.31
Ga 11.20 20.10 14.47 12.80 17.40 15.10 5.20 18.30 15.10 15.20 20.90 18.28 4.20 25.00 13.15
Rb 132.30 174.00 150.23 123.00 149.00 136.00 23.80 183.40 133.13 9.90 162.90 95.88 13.10 330.70 113.59
Sr 51.60 207.90 123.80 69.00 295.70 182.35 120.50 3241.80 574.13 87.30 415.00 272.60 163.60 3689.00 1164.43
Y 21.90 33.40 29.00 19.60 38.10 28.85 24.30 39.40 33.14 20.00 37.30 26.05 24.10 73.40 37.86
Zr 107.00 249.90 171.77 98.80 153.90 126.35 69.30 184.10 133.99 133.20 161.80 141.33 35.80 208.20 152.95
Nb 13.80 15.90 14.77 8.40 14.20 11.30 8.50 20.10 12.31 5.40 20.60 10.95 0.40 14.20 10.10
Table 3

Composition of rare earth elements (ppm)

Belisırma Ilısu Narlıgöl Sivrihisar Ziga
Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg Min Max Avg
Ba 647.00 682.00 664.50 284.00 338.00 311.00 154.00 477.00 368.33 674.00 1030.00 852.00 197.50 682.00 486.88
Ce 48.50 51.80 50.15 36.50 39.50 38.00 1.80 63.00 42.10 33.60 52.30 42.95 0.50 77.70 34.30
Cr 4.00 7.00 5.50 36.00 144.00 90.00 4.00 10.00 6.33 7.00 24.00 15.50 4.00 141.00 41.00
Cs 7.30 108.50 57.90 22.00 44.40 33.20 6.27 7.34 6.91 7.10 10.75 8.93 3.23 29.10 10.99
Dy 1.45 2.17 1.81 2.14 2.29 2.22 0.06 2.76 1.80 1.06 2.12 1.59 0.23 3.83 2.15
Er 1.04 1.40 1.22 1.28 1.46 1.37 0.08 1.81 1.20 0.75 1.61 1.18 0.04 2.35 1.04
Eu 0.42 0.51 0.47 0.72 0.84 0.78 0.50 0.58 0.54 0.14 0.48 0.31 0.02 1.46 0.74
Ga 12.20 14.00 13.10 16.60 19.40 18.00 0.60 17.00 11.53 14.80 20.00 17.40 0.10 20.50 9.63
Gd 1.66 2.07 1.87 2.34 2.43 2.39 0.10 2.59 1.68 1.00 2.09 1.55 0.20 4.58 2.45
Hf 3.35 3.83 3.59 3.13 3.67 3.40 4.18 4.29 4.24 3.50 5.75 4.63 0.29 4.84 3.05
Ho 0.32 0.46 0.39 0.43 0.45 0.44 0.02 0.58 0.39 0.23 0.47 0.35 0.02 0.83 0.36
La 31.40 35.90 33.65 23.10 25.20 24.15 1.20 39.10 25.80 23.40 33.50 28.45 0.30 50.00 21.88
Lu 0.21 0.26 0.24 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.01 0.34 0.22 0.17 0.28 0.23 0.01 0.36 0.17
Nb 11.15 11.40 11.28 8.50 8.95 8.73 0.48 19.90 12.81 10.95 13.85 12.40 0.08 17.30 7.69
Nd 14.70 14.90 14.80 14.90 16.70 15.80 0.90 20.00 13.37 9.20 16.30 12.75 0.20 32.20 13.10
Pr 4.76 4.79 4.78 4.10 4.54 4.32 0.24 6.07 4.12 3.06 5.10 4.08 0.04 8.86 3.74
Rb 163.00 181.00 172.00 92.40 102.50 97.45 7.00 160.00 107.33 124.50 154.00 139.25 2.40 114.50 51.48
Sc 6.70 8.50 7.60 11.80 20.70 16.25 1.00 9.70 6.23 7.40 12.20 9.80 1.30 18.20 7.63
Sm 2.13 2.48 2.31 2.92 2.93 2.93 0.14 3.37 2.22 1.33 2.82 2.08 0.03 5.52 2.24
Sn 2.10 2.10 2.10 1.00 2.60 1.80 2.30 2.50 2.40 0.80 1.80 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.60
Sr 115.50 168.50 142.00 282.00 328.00 305.00 93.30 324.00 170.90 69.70 160.00 114.85 282.00 2430.00 1295.50
Ta 1.00 1.20 1.10 0.70 2.20 1.45 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.00 1.10 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.10
Tb 0.25 0.36 0.31 0.35 0.37 0.36 0.02 0.44 0.29 0.17 0.34 0.26 0.04 0.68 0.37
Th 21.50 30.40 25.95 11.35 11.85 11.60 0.77 29.30 19.29 24.60 26.30 25.45 0.14 16.00 7.92
Ti 0.12 0.16 0.14 0.26 0.42 0.34 0.03 0.14 0.10 0.20 0.32 0.26 0.03 0.53 0.21
Tm 0.15 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.20 0.18 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.11 0.22 0.17 0.04 0.32 0.19
U 5.71 6.45 6.08 2.47 2.50 2.49 0.15 6.09 4.06 6.00 6.29 6.15 0.06 4.13 1.61
V 25.00 25.00 25.00 55.00 156.00 105.50 5.00 24.00 16.67 9.00 68.00 38.50 5.00 88.00 33.25
W 25.70 61.20 43.45 13.30 15.10 14.20 6.40 41.50 27.60 20.10 63.10 41.60 5.90 189.50 53.93
Y 10.00 13.80 11.90 12.30 12.90 12.60 0.90 17.90 12.07 7.40 14.70 11.05 0.50 24.00 10.55
Yb 1.36 1.68 1.52 1.28 1.51 1.40 0.09 2.15 1.44 1.01 1.83 1.42 0.05 2.35 1.07
Zr 118.00 141.00 129.50 123.00 142.00 132.50 5.00 132.00 88.33 130.00 228.00 179.00 2.00 197.00 92.50

The geochemical data were evaluated in order to determine the chemical changes and classification of the samples belonging to the alteration zones. The main oxides (such as SiO2, CaO, K2O, and Na2O) are mobile in hydrothermal alteration processes, and elements, such as Zr, Ti, Y, and Nb, are immobile in alteration processes [57,58,59]. Therefore, the results for these rocks were evaluated using the Zr/TiO2–Nb/Y classification diagram developed by [60]. Accordingly, most of the ignimbrite and tuff samples are rhyolite and rhyodacite composition. Some Ziga and Narligol less altered tuff samples and Ilısu less altered ignimbrite samples are andesitic and trachyandesitic composition (Figure 5a). In addition, the graph of FeOt/MgO versus SiO2 after [61] shows that most of the samples are in the calc-alkaline magma series (Figure 5b).

Figure 5 (a) Samples in Zr/TiO2–Nb/Y classification diagram [60] and (b) distribution of samples plotted as FeOt/MgO versus SiO2 [61].
Figure 5

(a) Samples in Zr/TiO2–Nb/Y classification diagram [60] and (b) distribution of samples plotted as FeOt/MgO versus SiO2 [61].

While some elements are differentially removed from the environment during alteration, others are enriched. In order to determine the changes in element concentrations, Harker diagrams were used (Figure 6). According to the XRF results, while the SiO2 content in unaltered rocks was 84.48–70.99%, it ranged between 68.70 and 62.22% in less altered rocks and 56.6–48.65% in altered rocks. Thus, the silica is washed out by the action of acidic hydrothermal fluids during alteration, and some of the silica that absorbs into the fluid is re-precipitated in the cracks. From unaltered to less altered to altered rock, the amount of SiO2 decreases, accompanied by a relative increase in Al2O3, an increase in the LOI, and a decrease in Na2O and K2O. Al2O3 is higher in altered rocks due to argilification.

Figure 6 Harker diagrams showing the distribution of major oxides and trace elements.
Figure 6

Harker diagrams showing the distribution of major oxides and trace elements.

The amount of alkali elements (Na and K) decreased gradually from unaltered to less altered and altered rock, depending on the intensity of the alteration. This decrease in Na and K was more pronounced in argillic and mid-argillic alterations, whereas it was absent in silicified samples. Depletions in CaO, Na2O, and K2O occurred due to the degradation of feldspar because of the decreasing pH of the fluid and the increasing temperature. In addition, the increase in Fe2O3 content from unaltered to altered samples supports the idea that Fe2O3 was transported to the environment by hydrothermal fluids.

The trace and rare earth element analyses were evaluated using spider diagrams normalized to the primitive mantle and chondrites (Figure 7a). In the spider diagram of the samples normalized to the primitive mantle, enrichment of significant large-ion lithophile elements, such as the incompatible Ba, Rb, and Sr, was observed. In contrast, differentiation of high field strength elements, such as Zr, Hf, Ti, and Nb, was observed. The trace elements were less depleted in unaltered rocks than in altered rocks. Negative Nb and Ti-anomalies in the diagrams normalized to the primitive mantle indicate the presence of a subduction component in the development of the primary magma [62].

Figure 7 Spider diagram of samples normalized to (a) primitive mantle and (b) chondrites.
Figure 7

Spider diagram of samples normalized to (a) primitive mantle and (b) chondrites.

Rare earth element analyses of hydrothermal minerals are crucial for evaluating the degree and type of hydrothermal alteration in geothermal fields [63,64,65,66,67]. The chondrite-normalized spider diagram of the samples shows that light rare earth elements are enriched compared to heavy rare earth elements (Figure 7b). The trace and rare earth element compositions of the analyzed samples are similar. Due to feldspar alteration, the samples indicating argillic and medium argillic alteration are depleted in Sr and Y. However, they show enrichment in the silicification zone. In addition, the negative Eu anomaly in the diagram indicates plagioclase fractionalization.

4.4 Remote sensing

The bands used in the CROSTA technique for kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite were determined with PCA. The spectral reflectance information for these minerals was obtained from USGS and is shown in Figure 8 [68]. According to these reflectance values, four ASTER bands were selected in which the reflectance of minerals increased and decreased (Table 4).

Figure 8 Reflectance of alteration minerals [68].
Figure 8

Reflectance of alteration minerals [68].

Table 4

Selected bands of ASTER for PCA

Mineral Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
Kaolinite X X X X
Montmorillonite X X X X
Illite X X X X

ASTER bands 1, 4, 6, and 7 were selected for kaolinite, and the PCA bands and eigenvector values were calculated using PCA (Table 5). Kaolinite has low reflectivity in bands 1 and 6 and high reflectivity in bands 4 and 7. The PCA4 band was used after the eigenvector values of the principal components were considered. In the PCA4 band, the eigenvector value of the bands with high reflectivity is high and positive. In contrast, the eigenvector value of the bands with low reflectivity values is low and negative.

Table 5

Eigenvector statistics of the kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite were calculated using the PCA method for the ASTER data

Band 1 Band 4 Band 6 Band 7
Kaolinite PCA1 −0.43124 −0.54789 −0.46742 −0.39274
PCA2 −0.76412 0.41549 0.21596 0.09751
PCA3 0.09451 0.54794 −0.34641 −0.24178
PCA4 −0.14541 0.12657 −0.63457 0.49147
Band 2 Band 5 Band 6 Band 9
Montmorillonite PCA1 −0.58412 −0.50047 −0.41296 −0.39749
PCA2 −0.79004 0.29479 0.33990 0.36478
PCA3 −0.01794 0.38478 0.31745 −0.70874
PCA4 −0.01174 0.59478 −0.71973 0.10074
Band 1 Band 3 Band 5 Band 6
Illite PCA1 −0.31845 −0.60478 −0.44124 −0.49371
PCA2 −0.46741 −0.58734 0.44036 0.53794
PCA3 −0.70079 0.59417 −0.10094 0.03470
PCA4 0.24916 −0.01792 −0.77941 0.59917

ASTER bands 2, 5, 6, and 9 were selected for montmorillonite, and the PCA bands and eigenvector values were calculated using PCA (Table 5). Montmorillonite has high reflectivity in bands 2 and 6 and low reflectivity in bands 5 and 9. The PCA4 band was used considering the eigenvector values of the principal components. In the PCA4 band, low-reflectivity bands have high eigenvector values and positive signs, while high-reflectivity bands have low eigenvector values and negative signs (Table 5).

ASTER bands 1, 3, 5, and 6 were selected for the illite, and the PCA bands and eigenvector values were calculated using PCA (Table 5). Bands 1 and 5 have high reflectivity, while bands 3 and 6 have low reflectivity. The PCA4 band was used after considering the eigenvector values of the principal components. In the PCA4 band, the eigenvector value of the bands with low reflectivity is high and positive. In contrast, the eigenvector value of the bands with high reflectivity values is low and has a negative sign. As a result, the PCA4 band was selected for all alteration minerals, and alteration zone maps were produced (Figure 9). Bright pixels on the generated alteration zone map indicate high alteration abundance.

Figure 9 Alteration zones (bright pixels) produced using PCA (a) kaolinite, (b) montmorillonite, and (c) illite.
Figure 9

Alteration zones (bright pixels) produced using PCA (a) kaolinite, (b) montmorillonite, and (c) illite.

Each alteration zone map was masked by residential areas, vegetation, water bodies, wetlands, and man-made objects. Alteration zones cover approximately 0.8% of the study area (Figure 10). Due to the intensive agricultural activity in the area (about 80%), very few rock outcrops can be detected by remote sensing, and most of these outcrops have a very steep slope. Therefore, the percentage of alteration zone area detected by remote sensing is low. The detected alterations are generally around the geothermal areas, indicating the presence of geothermal resources in the surrounding area.

Figure 10 Remote sensing image of the alteration zones determined in this study (a) surrounding Ziga and Belisirma geothermal fields, (b) surrounding Narlıgöl geothermal field, and (c) region between Narköy and Sivrihisar geothermal fields).
Figure 10

Remote sensing image of the alteration zones determined in this study (a) surrounding Ziga and Belisirma geothermal fields, (b) surrounding Narlıgöl geothermal field, and (c) region between Narköy and Sivrihisar geothermal fields).

5 Discussion

In this study, the alteration characteristics of the geothermal province in the west of Cappadocia, which was determined as the study area, were investigated using different methodologies such as mineralogy, petrography, geochemistry, and remote sensing. The samples taken from the study area were subjected to different types of alteration due to the proximity to a potential hot water source. Petrographic analyses performed in this study, the hypocrystalline porphyritic texture observed in unaltered and less altered samples showed the mineralogical composition of the rocks that have not yet been affected by hydrothermal activity. In addition, the identified primary mineral assemblage represents minerals that contribute to the hydrothermal alteration processes in geothermal fields. The observation of mafic minerals as residues provided important clues about the continuity and intensity of geothermal activity that may also be useful in evaluating the effect of thermal fluids on mafic minerals and the resistance of these minerals to geothermal fluids. In addition to this petrographic information, the mineralogical properties and mineral alteration types in the identified geothermal areas were determined by XRD. Quartz, plagioclase, cristobalite, tridymite, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, illite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, I–S, jarosite, calcite, aragonite, serpentine, gypsum, and pyrite were identified. The most commonly identified clay minerals in the samples were kaolinite, montmorillonite, and illite, which are directly related to argillic alteration in geothermal fields [69]. Argillic alteration is controlled by the chemistry and pH of the hydrothermal fluids, the type and liquid/vapor compositions of the igneous rocks through which the geothermal fluid passes, and the influence of generally acidic fluids [70,71].

Kaolinite is formed by argillic alteration and occurs under low temperature and pressure conditions due to the contact of hot water with rocks [72,73]. In the study area, kaolinite was detected in all geothermal fields. Kaolinite usually forms at temperatures as low as 80–190°C. However, according to [74], the temperature was between 100 and 175°C in the areas where kaolinite and quartz were found together. Kaolinite is frequently observed in near-surface areas in geothermal reservoirs, especially in areas where argillic alteration is evident. The observation of jarosite and cristobalite together with kaolinite in the samples from the Narlıgöl geothermal fields indicates that the alteration occurred in a highly acidic environment under low-temperature conditions (<100°C) [30,74,75]. In the SEM-EDX observations of the analyzed samples, kaolinite crystals were observed as euhedral and subhedral sheets (Figure 4c).

Illite, a group of minerals that forms during argillic alteration, is a clay mineral that occurs at medium to high temperatures and pressures [72,73]. The interaction of hot water with rocks in geothermal systems often triggers the formation of illite [76]. Therefore, illite may indicate argillic alteration in geothermal fields. Illite is formed by the dissolution and transformation of feldspars and other aluminum minerals during alteration in geothermal areas where the minerals interact with hot water with a pH between 4 and 5 [77,78]. In this study, illite was observed in all geothermal fields. In addition, illite and smectite were found together in the Ziga samples. In the Ziga, Narlıgöl, Ilısu, and Sivrihisar samples, the illite accompanied the kaolinite at higher pH, high silica activity conditions, and higher temperatures.

Low pH and high sulfate activity create suitable conditions for jarosite minerals, which are hydrothermal alteration products [79]. Sulfate minerals, especially jarosite and alunite, are generally found within the argillic alteration zone, and these minerals are formed mainly by hydrothermal activities [80]. In the Narlıgöl samples, jarosite was observed in the XRD and SEM analyses. The higher sulfate in the Narlıgöl samples compared to other samples is due to the presence of jarosite. In addition, jarosite is formed mainly by the alteration of volcanic rocks and has been observed in areas farther from major faults but still associated with cracks in rocks [73].

Minerals often found under high temperature and pressure conditions, such as quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite, may reflect the silicification stages of hydrothermal alteration processes. The interaction of hydrothermally sourced hot water with rocks may increase silica content and, as a result, the formation of quartz. At the same time, polymorphic modifications of quartz, such as cristobalite and tridymite, may occur due to high temperature and pressure conditions. When the XRD results were examined, quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite were observed in all geothermal areas.

Because feldspar crystals are highly degraded by argillic alteration but destroyed in advanced argillic and silicified zones, distinct differences can be seen between different alteration zones. Hence, changes in the pH and temperature of the fluid affect the alteration processes. Significant depletion in Na2O, MgO, CaO, and K2O reflects the effects of hydrothermal processes on mineralogical evolution. Similarities in trace and rare earth element analyses were generally consistent between samples bearing geochemical traces of hydrothermal activity.

In addition to these mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical analyses, hydrothermal alteration zones were determined by remote sensing. ASTER satellite data were classified with the CROSTA technique, and kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite clay minerals were determined. The results obtained in this work are compatible with the mineralogical, petrographic, and geochemical results.

The classification results show that kaolinite and illite minerals were dominant throughout the study area. Illite, kaolinite, and montmorillonite alteration zones were observed in the Ziga, Narlıgöl, Ilısu, and Sivrihisar geothermal fields; only kaolinite and illite alteration zones were observed in the Belisırma geothermal field. Kaolinite and illite alterations were observed in the region between Narköy and Sivrihisar geothermal fields (Figure 10c). In the previous study conducted in the same region [20], XRF and XRD analyses of the samples also determined illite and kaolinite alterations. These results indicate the reliability of the alteration zones identified by remote sensing.

All geothermal areas in this study area had argillic, mid-argillic alteration, and silicification zones. The identified hydrothermal mineral assemblage was almost the same in all areas and had undergone the same alteration. However, the concentrations in the samples varied depending on the severity of the degradation of the pyroclastic rocks. The fluids that caused the alteration had a temperature of about 100°C and acidic to weakly acidic pH, corresponding to the shallow parts of the hydrothermal system [30,31].

6 Conclusion

In this study, the hydrothermal alteration characteristics of five geothermal fields (Ziga, Narlıgöl, Belisırma, Ilısu, and Sivrihisar) in the CVP were determined using multiple methodologies. In the thin sections of unaltered, less altered, and altered rock samples, sericitization, argillization, silicification, and calcification were observed in most of the minerals and matrixes. Quartz, plagioclase, cristobalite, tridymite, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, illite, kaolinite, montmorillonite, I–S, jarosite, calcite, aragonite, gypsum, and pyrite mineral assemblages were identified using XRD. Kaolinite, montmorillonite, illite jarosite, and calcite were imaged by the SEM. According to the mineral assemblage determined in all geothermal fields, the alteration zones were classified as argillic, mid-argillic, and silicification. The results of the geochemical analysis of the rocks were evaluated in the Zr/TiO2–Nb/Y classification diagram developed by Winchester and Floyd [60]. Accordingly, the majority of ignimbrite and tuff samples are of rhyolite and rhyodacite composition. However, some Ziga and Narligol less altered tuff samples and Ilisu less altered ignimbrite sample are andesitic and trachyandesitic in composition. Accordingly, the majority of ignimbrite and tuff samples are in the calc-alkaline series area from the SiO2 versus FeOt/MgO plot [60]. The alteration zones of kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite, the dominant clay minerals, were determined using ASTER satellite images and applying the CROSTA technique. Areas in different regions with similar alterations were identified.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Aksaray University Applied Geology Laboratory and Aksaray University Scientific and Technological Application and Research (ASÜBTAM) Laboratory for the analyses performed. The author would also like to thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on this study.

  1. Funding information: This study was funded and supported by Aksaray University Scientific Research Projects Agency (BAP) within the research grant number 2023-020.

  2. Author contribution: The author confirms the sole responsibility for the conception of the study, presented results and manuscript preparation.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The raw data supporting the conclusion of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

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Received: 2024-02-28
Revised: 2024-05-21
Accepted: 2024-07-01
Published Online: 2024-09-17

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0675
Keywords for this article
cappadocia geothermal province; hydrothermal alterations; XRD; clay minerals; remote sensing
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Theoretical magnetotelluric response of stratiform earth consisting of alternative homogeneous and transitional layers
  3. The research of common drought indexes for the application to the drought monitoring in the region of Jin Sha river
  4. Evolutionary game analysis of government, businesses, and consumers in high-standard farmland low-carbon construction
  5. On the use of low-frequency passive seismic as a direct hydrocarbon indicator: A case study at Banyubang oil field, Indonesia
  6. Water transportation planning in connection with extreme weather conditions; case study – Port of Novi Sad, Serbia
  7. Zircon U–Pb ages of the Paleozoic volcaniclastic strata in the Junggar Basin, NW China
  8. Monitoring of mangrove forests vegetation based on optical versus microwave data: A case study western coast of Saudi Arabia
  9. Microfacies analysis of marine shale: A case study of the shales of the Wufeng–Longmaxi formation in the western Chongqing, Sichuan Basin, China
  10. Multisource remote sensing image fusion processing in plateau seismic region feature information extraction and application analysis – An example of the Menyuan Ms6.9 earthquake on January 8, 2022
  11. Identification of magnetic mineralogy and paleo-flow direction of the Miocene-quaternary volcanic products in the north of Lake Van, Eastern Turkey
  12. Impact of fully rotating steel casing bored pile on adjacent tunnels
  13. Adolescents’ consumption intentions toward leisure tourism in high-risk leisure environments in riverine areas
  14. Petrogenesis of Jurassic granitic rocks in South China Block: Implications for events related to subduction of Paleo-Pacific plate
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  25. Evaluation of Viaducts’ contribution to road network accessibility in the Yunnan–Guizhou area based on the node deletion method
  26. Permian tectonic switch of the southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Constraints from magmatism in the southern Alxa region, NW China
  27. Element geochemical differences in lower Cambrian black shales with hydrothermal sedimentation in the Yangtze block, South China
  28. Three-dimensional finite-memory quasi-Newton inversion of the magnetotelluric based on unstructured grids
  29. Obliquity-paced summer monsoon from the Shilou red clay section on the eastern Chinese Loess Plateau
  30. Classification and logging identification of reservoir space near the upper Ordovician pinch-out line in Tahe Oilfield
  31. Ultra-deep channel sand body target recognition method based on improved deep learning under UAV cluster
  32. New formula to determine flyrock distance on sedimentary rocks with low strength
  33. Assessing the ecological security of tourism in Northeast China
  34. Effective reservoir identification and sweet spot prediction in Chang 8 Member tight oil reservoirs in Huanjiang area, Ordos Basin
  35. Detecting heterogeneity of spatial accessibility to sports facilities for adolescents at fine scale: A case study in Changsha, China
  36. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on soil nutrients by soft rock and sand remodeling
  37. Vibration prediction with a method based on the absorption property of blast-induced seismic waves: A case study
  38. A new look at the geodynamic development of the Ediacaran–early Cambrian forearc basalts of the Tannuola-Khamsara Island Arc (Central Asia, Russia): Conclusions from geological, geochemical, and Nd-isotope data
  39. Spatio-temporal analysis of the driving factors of urban land use expansion in China: A study of the Yangtze River Delta region
  40. Selection of Euler deconvolution solutions using the enhanced horizontal gradient and stable vertical differentiation
  41. Phase change of the Ordovician hydrocarbon in the Tarim Basin: A case study from the Halahatang–Shunbei area
  42. Using interpretative structure model and analytical network process for optimum site selection of airport locations in Delta Egypt
  43. Geochemistry of magnetite from Fe-skarn deposits along the central Loei Fold Belt, Thailand
  44. Functional typology of settlements in the Srem region, Serbia
  45. Hunger Games Search for the elucidation of gravity anomalies with application to geothermal energy investigations and volcanic activity studies
  46. Addressing incomplete tile phenomena in image tiling: Introducing the grid six-intersection model
  47. Evaluation and control model for resilience of water resource building system based on fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method and its application
  48. MIF and AHP methods for delineation of groundwater potential zones using remote sensing and GIS techniques in Tirunelveli, Tenkasi District, India
  49. New database for the estimation of dynamic coefficient of friction of snow
  50. Measuring urban growth dynamics: A study in Hue city, Vietnam
  51. Comparative models of support-vector machine, multilayer perceptron, and decision tree ‎predication approaches for landslide ‎susceptibility analysis
  52. Experimental study on the influence of clay content on the shear strength of silty soil and mechanism analysis
  53. Geosite assessment as a contribution to the sustainable development of Babušnica, Serbia
  54. Using fuzzy analytical hierarchy process for road transportation services management based on remote sensing and GIS technology
  55. Accumulation mechanism of multi-type unconventional oil and gas reservoirs in Northern China: Taking Hari Sag of the Yin’e Basin as an example
  56. TOC prediction of source rocks based on the convolutional neural network and logging curves – A case study of Pinghu Formation in Xihu Sag
  57. A method for fast detection of wind farms from remote sensing images using deep learning and geospatial analysis
  58. Spatial distribution and driving factors of karst rocky desertification in Southwest China based on GIS and geodetector
  59. Physicochemical and mineralogical composition studies of clays from Share and Tshonga areas, Northern Bida Basin, Nigeria: Implications for Geophagia
  60. Geochemical sedimentary records of eutrophication and environmental change in Chaohu Lake, East China
  61. Research progress of freeze–thaw rock using bibliometric analysis
  62. Mixed irrigation affects the composition and diversity of the soil bacterial community
  63. Examining the swelling potential of cohesive soils with high plasticity according to their index properties using GIS
  64. Geological genesis and identification of high-porosity and low-permeability sandstones in the Cretaceous Bashkirchik Formation, northern Tarim Basin
  65. Usability of PPGIS tools exemplified by geodiscussion – a tool for public participation in shaping public space
  66. Efficient development technology of Upper Paleozoic Lower Shihezi tight sandstone gas reservoir in northeastern Ordos Basin
  67. Assessment of soil resources of agricultural landscapes in Turkestan region of the Republic of Kazakhstan based on agrochemical indexes
  68. Evaluating the impact of DEM interpolation algorithms on relief index for soil resource management
  69. Petrogenetic relationship between plutonic and subvolcanic rocks in the Jurassic Shuikoushan complex, South China
  70. A novel workflow for shale lithology identification – A case study in the Gulong Depression, Songliao Basin, China
  71. Characteristics and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs in Fei-3 Member of Feixianguan Formation of Lower Triassic, Puguang area
  72. Impact of high-speed railway network on county-level accessibility and economic linkage in Jiangxi Province, China: A spatio-temporal data analysis
  73. Estimation model of wild fractional vegetation cover based on RGB vegetation index and its application
  74. Lithofacies, petrography, and geochemistry of the Lamphun oceanic plate stratigraphy: As a record of the subduction history of Paleo-Tethys in Chiang Mai-Chiang Rai Suture Zone of Thailand
  75. Structural features and tectonic activity of the Weihe Fault, central China
  76. Application of the wavelet transform and Hilbert–Huang transform in stratigraphic sequence division of Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in Southwest Sichuan Basin
  77. Structural detachment influences the shale gas preservation in the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation, Northern Guizhou Province
  78. Distribution law of Chang 7 Member tight oil in the western Ordos Basin based on geological, logging and numerical simulation techniques
  79. Evaluation of alteration in the geothermal province west of Cappadocia, Türkiye: Mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical, and remote sensing data
  80. Numerical modeling of site response at large strains with simplified nonlinear models: Application to Lotung seismic array
  81. Quantitative characterization of granite failure intensity under dynamic disturbance from energy standpoint
  82. Characteristics of debris flow dynamics and prediction of the hazardous area in Bangou Village, Yanqing District, Beijing, China
  83. Rockfall mapping and susceptibility evaluation based on UAV high-resolution imagery and support vector machine method
  84. Statistical comparison analysis of different real-time kinematic methods for the development of photogrammetric products: CORS-RTK, CORS-RTK + PPK, RTK-DRTK2, and RTK + DRTK2 + GCP
  85. Hydrogeological mapping of fracture networks using earth observation data to improve rainfall–runoff modeling in arid mountains, Saudi Arabia
  86. Petrography and geochemistry of pegmatite and leucogranite of Ntega-Marangara area, Burundi, in relation to rare metal mineralisation
  87. Prediction of formation fracture pressure based on reinforcement learning and XGBoost
  88. Hazard zonation for potential earthquake-induced landslide in the eastern East Kunlun fault zone
  89. Monitoring water infiltration in multiple layers of sandstone coal mining model with cracks using ERT
  90. Study of the patterns of ice lake variation and the factors influencing these changes in the western Nyingchi area
  91. Productive conservation at the landslide prone area under the threat of rapid land cover changes
  92. Sedimentary processes and patterns in deposits corresponding to freshwater lake-facies of hyperpycnal flow – An experimental study based on flume depositional simulations
  93. Study on time-dependent injectability evaluation of mudstone considering the self-healing effect
  94. Detection of objects with diverse geometric shapes in GPR images using deep-learning methods
  95. Behavior of trace metals in sedimentary cores from marine and lacustrine environments in Algeria
  96. Spatiotemporal variation pattern and spatial coupling relationship between NDVI and LST in Mu Us Sandy Land
  97. Formation mechanism and oil-bearing properties of gravity flow sand body of Chang 63 sub-member of Yanchang Formation in Huaqing area, Ordos Basin
  98. Diagenesis of marine-continental transitional shale from the Upper Permian Longtan Formation in southern Sichuan Basin, China
  99. Vertical high-velocity structures and seismic activity in western Shandong Rise, China: Case study inspired by double-difference seismic tomography
  100. Spatial coupling relationship between metamorphic core complex and gold deposits: Constraints from geophysical electromagnetics
  101. Disparities in the geospatial allocation of public facilities from the perspective of living circles
  102. Research on spatial correlation structure of war heritage based on field theory. A case study of Jinzhai County, China
  103. Formation mechanisms of Qiaoba-Zhongdu Danxia landforms in southwestern Sichuan Province, China
  104. Magnetic data interpretation: Implication for structure and hydrocarbon potentiality at Delta Wadi Diit, Southeastern Egypt
  105. Deeply buried clastic rock diagenesis evolution mechanism of Dongdaohaizi sag in the center of Junggar fault basin, Northwest China
  106. Application of LS-RAPID to simulate the motion of two contrasting landslides triggered by earthquakes
  107. The new insight of tectonic setting in Sunda–Banda transition zone using tomography seismic. Case study: 7.1 M deep earthquake 29 August 2023
  108. The critical role of c and φ in ensuring stability: A study on rockfill dams
  109. Evidence of late quaternary activity of the Weining-Shuicheng Fault in Guizhou, China
  110. Extreme hydroclimatic events and response of vegetation in the eastern QTP since 10 ka
  111. Spatial–temporal effect of sea–land gradient on landscape pattern and ecological risk in the coastal zone: A case study of Dalian City
  112. Study on the influence mechanism of land use on carbon storage under multiple scenarios: A case study of Wenzhou
  113. A new method for identifying reservoir fluid properties based on well logging data: A case study from PL block of Bohai Bay Basin, North China
  114. Comparison between thermal models across the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and Eastern Llanos basins in Colombia
  115. Mineralogical and elemental analysis of Kazakh coals from three mines: Preliminary insights from mode of occurrence to environmental impacts
  116. Chlorite-induced porosity evolution in multi-source tight sandstone reservoirs: A case study of the Shaximiao Formation in western Sichuan Basin
  117. Predicting stability factors for rotational failures in earth slopes and embankments using artificial intelligence techniques
  118. Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate
  119. Modification of dolomitization on reservoir spaces in reef–shoal complex: A case study of Permian Changxing Formation, Sichuan Basin, SW China
  120. Geological characteristics of the Daduhe gold belt, western Sichuan, China: Implications for exploration
  121. Rock physics model for deep coal-bed methane reservoir based on equivalent medium theory: A case study of Carboniferous-Permian in Eastern Ordos Basin
  122. Enhancing the total-field magnetic anomaly using the normalized source strength
  123. Shear wave velocity profiling of Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia, utilizing the multi-channel analysis of surface waves method
  124. Effect of coal facies on pore structure heterogeneity of coal measures: Quantitative characterization and comparative study
  125. Inversion method of organic matter content of different types of soils in black soil area based on hyperspectral indices
  126. Detection of seepage zones in artificial levees: A case study at the Körös River, Hungary
  127. Tight sandstone fluid detection technology based on multi-wave seismic data
  128. Characteristics and control techniques of soft rock tunnel lining cracks in high geo-stress environments: Case study of Wushaoling tunnel group
  129. Influence of pore structure characteristics on the Permian Shan-1 reservoir in Longdong, Southwest Ordos Basin, China
  130. Study on sedimentary model of Shanxi Formation – Lower Shihezi Formation in Da 17 well area of Daniudi gas field, Ordos Basin
  131. Multi-scenario territorial spatial simulation and dynamic changes: A case study of Jilin Province in China from 1985 to 2030
  132. Review Articles
  133. Major ascidian species with negative impacts on bivalve aquaculture: Current knowledge and future research aims
  134. Prediction and assessment of meteorological drought in southwest China using long short-term memory model
  135. Communication
  136. Essential questions in earth and geosciences according to large language models
  137. Erratum
  138. Erratum to “Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan”
  139. Special Issue: Natural Resources and Environmental Risks: Towards a Sustainable Future - Part I
  140. Spatial-temporal and trend analysis of traffic accidents in AP Vojvodina (North Serbia)
  141. Exploring environmental awareness, knowledge, and safety: A comparative study among students in Montenegro and North Macedonia
  142. Determinants influencing tourists’ willingness to visit Türkiye – Impact of earthquake hazards on Serbian visitors’ preferences
  143. Application of remote sensing in monitoring land degradation: A case study of Stanari municipality (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  144. Optimizing agricultural land use: A GIS-based assessment of suitability in the Sana River Basin, Bosnia and Herzegovina
  145. Assessing risk-prone areas in the Kratovska Reka catchment (North Macedonia) by integrating advanced geospatial analytics and flash flood potential index
  146. Analysis of the intensity of erosive processes and state of vegetation cover in the zone of influence of the Kolubara Mining Basin
  147. GIS-based spatial modeling of landslide susceptibility using BWM-LSI: A case study – city of Smederevo (Serbia)
  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
  149. Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro
  150. Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)
  151. Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia
  152. Understanding seismic hazard resilience in Montenegro: A qualitative analysis of community preparedness and response capabilities
  153. Forest soil CO2 emission in Quercus robur level II monitoring site
  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
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