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Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro

  • Eldin Brđanin EMAIL logo , Miško Milanović , Slavica Malinović-Milićević , Nemanja Tomić , Filip Vujović and Golub Ćulafić
Published/Copyright: September 19, 2024
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

The objective of the study is to investigate the current state of the canyons in the northern part of Montenegro, their potential for sustainable development, which could be achieved through canyoning as an attractive tourist attraction, and to assess the area’s geotourism potential. The canyons encompassed in this research are the Nevidio Canyon, the Tara Canyon, the Grlja Canyon, and the canyon of the river Ibar. The research was carried out using the modified Geosite Assessment Model, which includes tourists’ opinions on the significance of indicators in the assessment process. The obtained results show that all four canyons possess significant scientific, educational, and aesthetic values for the development of canyoning tourism. Since surveyed tourists pointed out not only the advantages but disadvantages of these geosites, these findings should be further used for the valorization and geoconservation of the geosite and provide a more favorable deal for the arrival of as many tourists as possible. In the future, investigated geosites should be improved with tourist content and activities, such as interpretive boards for tourists, expert guides, organized visits, tourist infrastructure, and promotion. Successful activities in these critical areas could contribute to sustainable geotourism being one of the key economically beneficial activities of the local population that will develop local communities through the arrival of a larger number of domestic and foreign tourists.

Keywords: geoheritage; geotourism; canyoning; M-GAM; northern Montenegro

1 Introduction

According to Ruban [1,2], geotourism is becoming increasingly popular worldwide as a form of tourism. Although there is no unique definition of geotourism, its definitions include conservation and preservation of nature and sustainable development. Initially, it was defined as exclusively “geological tourism” with the aim of providing tourists with knowledge about the geology and geomorphology of a site [3]. Later, it was refined as a type of tourism that is primarily focused on geology and landscape in a natural or human-modified environment [4,5,6,7,8]. Unlike these geologically oriented definitions, National Geographic has provided a broader “geographical” definition considering geotourism as an approach of sustainable tourism that “enhances the geographical character of a place – its environment, culture, aesthetics, heritage, and the wellbeing of its residents” [9] and does not emphasize the values of the site’s geology over other values. Combining these two approaches, Dowling [10] defined geotourism as “tourism which focuses on an area’s geology and landscape as the basis of fostering sustainable tourism development.” The objective of geotourism is to assist in sustainable tourism, shelter the environment, and minimize the adverse impact of mass tourism on destinations [11] through (a) promoting lesser-known natural and cultural sites, geotourism dispersing tourist traffic more evenly, reducing pressure on popular destinations and spreading economic benefits to a wider area; (b) promoting low-impact activities such as hiking, bird watching, and educational tours that do not degrade natural habitats or cultural sites; (c) education about the natural environment, cultural heritage, and sustainable practices that help tourists understand the significance of the places they visit and encourage responsible behavior; (d) highlighting the value of geosites to tourists, local communities, and policymakers, geotourism encourages efforts to protect and manage these resources sustainably; and (e) implementing carrying capacity limits, zoning regulations, and visitor management strategies to prevent overcrowding and minimize environmental degradation. Geotourism development is based on the unique offering of geodiversity, which is the geographical variety of a particular area reflected in its geologic structure, morphological elements, and processes, but also encompasses a range of hydrological and climate processes [12,13]. In this study, geotourism is considered a type of nature-based tourism that focuses on geosites, conserves and protects geological features, promotes their sustainable use, considers ecological and cultural issues, and benefits the local economy. Besides these elements, it also includes interpretation and education of both tourists and tourism staff at geosites.

Authors and professionals in the fields of geology, geomorphology, and geography have discussed the term “geosite” extensively. The commonly accepted definition of geosites involves “a site location area or territory in which it is possible to identify geological or geomorphological interest for conservation” [14]. More specifically, these are geological or geomorphological objects that have been valued scientifically, culturally, historically, aesthetically, socially, and economically [15] and have, or should have, special protection status.

Geosites are often located in mountainous areas along with resources for outdoor activities such as climbing and canyoning. Canyoning is an adventure tourism activity that involves climbing steep slopes of hard-to-reach river valleys, canyons, or gorges. It implies overcoming various natural obstacles, such as rocky cliffs and waterfalls, by climbing, abseiling, jumping, caving, swimming, and sometimes diving [16]. Canyoning is becoming more and more popular because traditional ways of vacation are not enough for modern tourists who increasingly want to have an active vacation, experience new sensations and satisfy their curiosity. However, it is a risk-taking activity that involves the use of specific equipment and a certain degree of physical fitness of the participants. Usually, it is performed in smaller groups and involves guidance.

Montenegro possesses significant natural and cultural values, some of which are recognized not only at the national but also at the international level. The territory of the country has highly complex natural foundations, especially in geological, hydrographical, and geomorphological terms. Despite its small size, this region has a significant number of exceptional geoheritage sites, such as Middle Triassic igneous rocks (tuffs, tifites, volcanic breccia) location Bijela Crkva northeast of Rožaje, Karst windows location Canyon Piva, Karst windows Karanfili location Mt. Prokletije, Canyon Piva, Canyon Sušica, Canyon Draga, Canyon Lim, Canyon Đalovića gorge, Cirque Wavy to Mt. Durmitor, Cirque Bljuštur Mt. Bioč, Oštrikovački cirque Mt. Volujak, Cirque Ordeni doli Mt. Volujak, Cirque basin Trnovačko lake Mt. Maglić, Cirque Carev to Mt. Maglić, Cirque Medjukomlje Mt. Komovi, Cirque Mojan Mt. Prokletije, Valov Grbaja Gusinje – Mt. Prokletije, Valov Ropojan Gusinje – Mt. Prokletije which is very important for the development of tourism, particularly geotourism, which is one of the leading economic branches of this country [17]. Geoheritage locations in Montenegro are partly included as natural rarities in the tourist offer. The Ministry of Tourism has placed signposts along important roads pointing to various objects of natural or cultural–historical importance. However, tourism valorization was carried out in a planned and systematic way only for certain geosites in the country. Therefore, tourism development, with a particular emphasis on geotourism, is the main focus of this region’s development.

The primary task of this research is to analyze geoheritage objects for their use in active tourism, with an emphasis on canyoning in the northern part of Montenegro, as well as the comparison of four selected geosites by applying the modified Geosite Assessment Model (M-GAM). The analyzed geosites are located in the northern part of Montenegro. This part of the country is known as the part with the highest potential for tourism development, but it is also the least developed. For the purposes of the tourist assessment of geosites, with the aim of valorizing canyoning in the northern part of Montenegro, this study focuses on four geosites that have the greatest tourist potential: the Nevidio Canyon near the town of Šavnik; the Tara Canyon between Žabljak, Pljevlja, and Mojkovac; the Grlja Canyon near the town of Gusinje; and the Ibar Canyon downstream from the town of Rožaje. All selected geosites are located in different parts of the researched area. The results of the M-GAM assessment should provide a detailed insight into the investigated geosites, indicating the main barriers that have prevented the development of tourism. Additionally, the goal is to use the evaluations and suggestions of tourists who participated in the survey to point out the main opportunities for improving geotourism and attracting a larger number of tourists to selected geosites in the coming period.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The analyzed canyons represent excellent examples of research in the development of canyoning tourism on the territory of Montenegro. The regional division of Montenegro consists of three regions: southern, central, and northern Montenegro. In terms of natural resources, northern Montenegro is the wealthiest region. Three of the five national parks of Montenegro: NP “Durmitor,” NP “Biogradska gora,” and NP “Prokletije” are situated in the northern part of this country. This region is distinguished by its elemental geographical characteristic of the dynamic relief of mountain ranges and the direction of the Dinarides, between which there are mountain surfaces and deep canyons [18]. At the end of the southeastern part of this region, the border mountains “Prokletije” deviate from the Dinaric direction of extension and have a southwest–northeast direction [19,20].

The hydrographic area of Montenegro is characterized by approximately equal catchment basins (Black Sea drainage basin, to which about 7,260 km2 or about 52.5% of the territory belongs, and the Adriatic Sea drainage basin to which 6,267 km2 or 47.5% of the territory belongs). Due to the orographic characteristics of the territory, a large number of watercourses flow through deep canyons [21]. Within the scope of this research, four canyons from different locations in Montenegro were chosen, and they are recognized as tourist attractions in their respective municipalities. All selected canyons belong to the Black Sea basin.

In the preserved nature of the high mountains in this region, mountain lakes are of particular importance [19,22,23]. Canyoning activities are an advanced and new form of geotourism that is in line with world trends and enables a range of geotourism activities and experiences for tourists [24].

2.2 Geological composition of the area of Montenegro

Several macro geotectonic units have been divided in Montenegro: Dinarides, Prokletije, and coastal Adriatic region [25]. Each of these geotectonic units passed through different evolution phases; thus, their petrological and structural elements witnessed thundering evolution in this part of Europe [17]. Montenegro, as part of the Dinarides, in geological terms, represents the boundary area between the old Rhodope mass in the northeast and the old Adriatic mass in the south and southwest. In the area of Montenegro in the geological past, there were often changes in land and sea, powerful folds and faults, the result of which is a great diversity and complexity of facial structure, where all geological formations are represented, from the Paleozoic to the Quaternary with a great wealth of fossils. The oldest marine layers in Montenegro are represented in the area between the Ibar, Lim, and Tara Rivers and in the part of the coast, and they are made up of clastic rocks: sandstones, flysch, metasandstones, and conglomerates, with limestone lenses [18,20]. In the core of the anticline in the vicinity of Rožaje, there are rocks of the Devonian age; on the surfaces in the valley of the Ibar, Lim, and Tara Rivers, as well as partly in the valley of Ćehotina, there are deposits of the Late Paleozoic, which belong to the Carboniferous and Permian [26]. Upper Permian sediments, in which gray limestones are present, were discovered in the area of the Bjelasica mountain, around Kolašin, Boan, and Nikšić. In Montenegro, there are smaller zones of Paleogene flysch and Quaternary sediments, while all the rest of the area is fenced off from Mesozoic deposits (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous).

In the research territory of northeastern Montenegro, werfen formation is represented in the Lim Valley, on Bjelasica, Visitor, in the valley of the Ibar River, the Ćehotina river, at the foot of the Ljubišnja mountain, the Tara River valley, in all extensions of the canyon valley, it occupies a larger area around Mojkovac and Kolašin, in the valley of the Piva river, in the Mratinjski stream, around Šćepan polje, Nikšić, in parts of Crmnica, around Budva, southwestern foothills of mount Rumija [27]. The middle Triassic also occupies a large area in Montenegro; it is found at all the sites explored in this research in the form of pure limestones, but also in the form of dolomites and clastic rocks. The upper Triassic in the northeastern part of Montenegro is represented in the form of limestone, while in the southern parts, it is represented more in the dolomites.

Jurassic sediments are represented mainly by layered limestones, and they are quite widespread in Montenegro. The largest areas are occupied in the area of deep karst in the areas of Golija, Duga, Nikšićko polje, Bjelopavlička, and Zetska ravnica. In the area of northeastern Montenegro, the upper Jurassic is most often developed in the limestone facies, on the Piva mountain, on Durmitor, Sinjajevina, in the valley of the Tara River, in the upper part of the Morača River, the thickness of the Jurassic limestone reaches over 400 m.

Cretaceous is represented in Montenegro by limestones, dolomites, and flysch deposits. At the end of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Paleogene, deposits of flysch were deposited, known in the literature as “Durmitor flysch,” which consists of coarse-grained heterogeneous limestones, breccia, conglomerates, then sandy-marl sediments. On Mesozoic sediments in all three periods (Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous) in the area of Montenegro, large deposits of red and white bauxite were formed [28,29,30,31].

Paleogene sediments have been discovered in the area of the Montenegrin coast, predominantly clastic rocks that have a northwest–southeast direction, which are formed by conglomerates, limestones, sandstones, breccia, and marls. In contrast, the Neogene evolved in the facies of lake sediments, which have been discovered in a number of basins. Such sediments are of great importance because they are always accompanied by coal deposits and are predominantly of Miocene age. They are located in the vicinity of Rožaje, the valley of the Ibar River, in the area of Dolovo and Vuča. The second basin is in Police, also around Pljevlja there are several basins in which Neogene lake deposits with layers of coal have been discovered. Quaternary formations were developed on the territory of the whole of Montenegro and are of very different lithological composition. These are predominantly clays, sands, fluvioglacial deposits, moraines, lake sediments, and alluvial and deluvial deposits [32].

Igneous rocks have been discovered in all parts of Montenegro. In the northeastern part of Montenegro, the largest area of igneous rocks is covered in the area of the Ljubišnja mountain, in Mratinje, the Piva mountain, in the valley of the Tara River, on the Durmitor mountain, the Sinjajevina mountain, the Bjelasica mountain, and the Visitor mountain, around the town of Rožaje [18,33].

For this research, four canyons in the northern part of Montenegro were selected and analyzed (Figure 1):

Figure 1 Geosites studied canyons in northern Montenegro.
Figure 1

Geosites studied canyons in northern Montenegro.

1. The Nevidio Canyon – GS1 (near the town of Šavnik),

2. The Tara Canyon – GS2 (Durmitor National Park),

3. The Grlja Canyon – GS3 (Prokletije National Park),

4. The Ibar Canyon – GS4 (near the town of Rožaje).

Nevidio Canyon (GS1) is located in the municipality of Šavnik, 6 km north of the town of Šavnik; you can take the main road that connects Šavnik and Žabljak. It is part of Mala Komarnica, a river that originates at the foot of the southern part of Durmitor. It is located at 935 m above sea level. The actual length of the canyon is 1,700 m, while the height difference is 125 m. In some places, the width is only 25 cm. For centuries, the canyon was inaccessible to the surrounding population [18], while the first passage through the canyon was done in the year 1965 by the members of the Mountaineering Society “Javorak” from Nikšić (Figure 2).

Figure 2 The Nevidio Canyon. Note. Retrieved May 2, 2024 from https://www.polarstar.me/me/kanjon-nevidio.
Figure 2

The Nevidio Canyon. Note. Retrieved May 2, 2024 from https://www.polarstar.me/me/kanjon-nevidio.

The Tara Canyon (GS2) begins near the village of Bistrica (Mojkovac municipality) in Montenegro and ends near “Šćepan Polje,” where the rivers Tara and Piva form the river Drina (Figure 3). It is 80 km long and up to 1,300 m deep. In 1952, the Tara River Canyon became part of the Durmitor National Park, while in 1977, it was included in the “Man and the Biosphere” program (UNESCO). Since 1980, as part of Durmitor National Park, it has been on the list of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO). The Tara Canyon represents a geomorphological, hydrological, and hydrographic uniqueness not only in Montenegro but also in the world. Some parts of the Tara Canyon have a special significance, especially in terms of tourism, such as an area called “Crna poda.” The largest rapid on the river Tara, located downstream from the mouth of “Sušica” to “Brštanovica,” is also of great tourism importance, as well as a terrace next to the river where rafters usually rest before descending the rapids [34].

Figure 3 The Tara Canyon. Note. Putokaz.me, Retrieved January 30, 2024 from http://www.putokaz.me/planinarske-ture/1307-kanjon-tare-najdublji-kanjon-evrope.
Figure 3

The Tara Canyon. Note. Putokaz.me, Retrieved January 30, 2024 from http://www.putokaz.me/planinarske-ture/1307-kanjon-tare-najdublji-kanjon-evrope.

The Grlja Canyon (GS3) is located at the foot of Prokletije mountain in the municipality of Gusinje. The canyon is 500 m long, about 50 m deep, and between 2 and 7 m wide. The height difference from the entrances to the exits of the canyon is 65 m. The canyon has waterfalls, natural pools (pots), water currents, narrow passages, dark areas, clear cold water, and narrowness in vertical cliffs. It was discovered in 1982, while in 1997, it was first crossed by the “Kopaonik” rescue team of the Belgrade mountaineering club (Figure 4).

Figure 4 The Canyon Grlja. Note. Alpine sport club “Slobodni penjači” Cetinje, Retrieved January 30, 2024 from https://slobodnipenjaci.com/kanjon-grlja/.
Figure 4

The Canyon Grlja. Note. Alpine sport club “Slobodni penjači” Cetinje, Retrieved January 30, 2024 from https://slobodnipenjaci.com/kanjon-grlja/.

The Ibar Canyon (GS4) is located at the exit of the Ibar River from the town of Rožaje. The river Ibar rises on the northern slope of the Hajla mountain from six sources and flows into the Zapadna Morava River as its largest right tributary. The river covers a total length of 276 km (35 km on the territory of Montenegro) [35]. The area of the watershed is 433 km2, and the source is located at 1,365 m above sea level. Downstream from Rožaje, the Ibar River enters the canyon of high sides up to 540 m, while the width of the river bed is from 8 to 15 m [36,37]. In the area of ​​the Ibar River, there are diabase-horns (J2 + 3), Neogene deposits that include clay, marl, sand, and coal, as well as glacial and glacial-fluvial deposits [37] (Figure 5).

Figure 5 The Ibar Canyon. Note. Retrieved May 2, 2024 from https://www.caffemontenegro.me/index.php/vijesti/1442-grad-pod-hajlom.
Figure 5

The Ibar Canyon. Note. Retrieved May 2, 2024 from https://www.caffemontenegro.me/index.php/vijesti/1442-grad-pod-hajlom.

2.3 Methodology

In this research, the M-GAM model, introduced by Tomić and Božić in 2014 [38], was used for the area of northern Montenegro. In the model, the importance factor (Im) is included to modify the existing geosite assessment model (GAM) suggested by Vujičić et al. [39]. The M-GAM model is based on previous assessment methods created by several authors [40,41,42,43,44]. One of the shortcomings of these earlier models is that each sub-indicator had equal significance in the tourist assessment process. Consequently, each sub-indicator had an equal influence on the final result of the research. By introducing the Im, sub-indicators in the model receive a different level of importance, which ultimately leads to more objective results. The assessment approach with the inclusion of the Im was successfully implemented into several new models for tourism evaluation, such as CREM [45], SAM [46], SCAM [47], and UGAM [48].

The Im allows visitors to opine on the significance of each sub-indicator in the tourist evaluation model and to determine the importance of sub-indicators when choosing or deciding between different geosites they plan to visit [49]. The Im for Montenegro was obtained for the first time through an online survey where tourists from the territory of Montenegro participated, analyzing all 27 sub-indicators separately with a score from 0.00 to 1.00. The survey was conducted in the period October 2023 to March 2024 and included 365 respondents. Surveyed tourists evaluated the degree of value of each geosite through the sub-indicators, while the mean values of the Im for each sub-indicator are displayed for every sub-indicator in Table 1.

Table 1

Presentation of the results obtained by the M-GAM model and the obtained Im values for Montenegro

Main indicators/sub-indicators Geosites Total value
GS1 GS2 GS3 GS4 Im GS1 GS2 GS3 GS4
Main values (MV)
Scientific/educational value (VSE)
Rarity (SIMV1) 0.25 1.00 0.25 0.50 0.76 0.19 0.76 0.19 0.38
Representativeness (SIMV2) 0.75 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.56 0.75 0.56 0.56
Knowledge on geoscientific issues (SIMV3) 0.75 1.00 0.75 0.25 0.73 0.54 0.73 0.54 0.18
Level of interpretation (SIMV4) 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.74 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.74
Scenic/aesthetic (VSA)
Viewpoints (SIMV5) 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.25 0.83 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.20
Surface (SIMV6) 0.25 1.00 0.25 0.25 0.65 0.16 0.65 0.16 0.16
Surrounding landscape and nature (SIMV7) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.45
Environmental fitting of sites (SIMV8) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.58
Protection (VPr)
Current condition (SIMV9) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.25 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.22
Protection level (SIMV10) 0.25 1.00 0.25 0.00 0.86 0.21 0.86 0.21 0.00
Vulnerability (SIMV11) 1.00 0.75 0.25 0.25 0.77 0.77 0.57 0.19 0.19
Suitable number of visitors (SIMV12) 1.00 1.00 0.25 0.25 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.19 0.19
Additional values (AV)
Functional values (VFn)
Accessibility (SIAV1) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.59
Additional natural values (SIAV2) 0.75 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.76 0.57 0.76 0.76 0.38
Additional anthropogenic values (SIAV3) 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.25 0.74 0.37 0.37 0.55 0.18
Vicinity of emissive centers (SIAV4) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.47
Vicinity of important road network (SIAV5) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76 0.76
Additional functional values (SIAV6) 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.71 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.53
Touristic values (VTr)
Promotion (SIAV7) 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.25 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.37 0.18
Organized visits (SIAV8) 1.00 1.00 0.25 0.00 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.16 0.00
Vicinity of visitors centers (SIAV9) 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.00 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.51 0.00
Interpretative panels (SIAV10) 1.00 0.75 0.25 0.00 0.81 0.81 0.60 0.20 0.00
Number of visitors (SIAV11) 0.25 0.75 0.25 0.25 0.61 0.15 0.45 0.15 0.15
Tourism infrastructure (SIAV12) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.84 0.00
Tour guide service (SIAV13) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Hostelry service (SIAV14) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.54
Restaurant service (SIAV15) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.75 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.69 0.51

This methodology has been utilized successfully in various research that assessed different geosites in Serbia [11,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67], the USA [68,69], Slovenia [70], Iran [71], Hungary [72], Indonesia [73], and India [74,75]. This research is the first to apply the presented method on the territory of Montenegro.

The M-GAM method contains two crucial indicators: main values (MV) and additional values (AV). The first indicator, MV, consists of three main indicators, while AV consists of two main indicators. The main indicators consist of sub-indicators, 12 in MV and 15 in AV (Table 1). The indicators are defined in the following formulas:

(1) M – GAM = MV + AV ,

(2) MV = VSE + VSA + VPr ,

(3) AV = VFn + VTr ,

where VSE indicates Scientific and Educational Values, VSA indicates Scenic and Aesthetic Values, VPr indicates Protection Level, VFn indicates Functional Values, and VTr indicates Tourism Values. The detailed explanation of the M-GAM model is presented in the article by Tomić and Božić [38].

Each visitor appoints the importance of the individual sub-indicator on a scale from 0.00 to 1.00. After the respondent determines the importance, the significance of that indicator is determined by the mean value (Im). The Im allows tourists to evaluate each indicator in the model through a survey, ranking the importance of each indicator separately. The final value of Im is multiplied by the ratings given by the examined experts (in the range from 0.00 to 1.00) [38,71], and this gives us the final value for each subindicator.

The importance factor is calculated as follows:

(4) Im = ∑ k = 1 K Iv k K ,

where Iv k presents the estimate/numerical ratings given by surveyed tourists through surveys, while K presents the examined number of tourists. Finally, the MV and AV are calculated as follows:

(5) MV = ∑ i = 1 n Im i × MV i ,

(6) AV = ∑ j = 1 n Im j × AV j .

From these equations, it can be understood that the Im factor is multiplied by the scores shown in Table 1 after the results obtained by the respondents from the survey for all sub-indicators individually. The value of the M-GAM sub-indicator will always be in the same or smaller range than the GAM values [38].

3 Results and discussion

Using the M-GAM method, four geosites in Montenegro were analyzed and evaluated with the aim of determining the current state, advantages, shortcomings, and importance of canyons for the development of geotourism and canyoning tourism (Table 1).

In addition to the four analyzed canyons in the northern part of Montenegro, this article presents the result of the calculated Im for Montenegrin geotourists who evaluated 27 sub-indicators through a survey. In this way, the mean values of the Im for Montenegro were obtained, which were compared with the results of research conducted with geotourists from Serbia, Slovenia, and Iran. The data were collected through an online google survey of the territory of Montenegro. In the survey for calculating the (Im) for Montenegro, there were 365 survey respondents, 55.90% were women, with 204 of them, while 44.10% were men, with 161 of them. The highest percentage of respondents, 142 (38.90%), are from Podgorica, followed by Rožaje 140 (38.35%) when it comes to their place of residence, while in third place is Bijelo Polje with 18 respondents (4.93%). In the remaining number, we have respondents from all cities in Montenegro, but with a small percentage. The level of education is divided into the following categories: primary school 15 (4.10%), secondary school 83 (22.73%), completed university 155 (42.46%), completed master’s studies 87 (23.83%), and doctoral studies 25 (6.84%). There are a total of 239 employees (65.47%); in second place are students, 62 of them (16.98%); in third place are unemployed, 38 of them (10.40%), followed by students, 23 of them (6.30%), and 3 retired people (0.82%).

3.1 Comparison of the Im in Montenegro with values in Serbia, Slovenia, and Iran

Table 2 compares the Im of subindicators, which are higher than 0.80 for tourists in Montenegro, with the same Im of subindicators for Serbian, Slovenian, and Iranian tourists.

Table 2

Comparison of sub-indicators that have an Im > 0.80 in Montenegro, with values in Serbia, Slovenia, and Iran

Sub-indicators Montenegro (Im) Serbia (Im) Slovenia (Im) Iran (Im)
Viewpoints 0.83 0.79 0.78 0.93
Surrounding landscape and nature 0.90 0.95 0.65 0.91
Current condition 0.89 0.83 0.87 0.90
Protection level 0.86 0.76 0.81 0.71
Interpretative panels 0.81 0.81 0.69 0.54
Tourism infrastructure 0.84 0.73 0.50 0.85
Tour guide service 0.80 0.87 0.70 0.46

Table 2 reveals the highest-rated sub-indicators of geotourists for Montenegro compared to the values given by geotourists from Serbia, Slovenia, and Iran. The sub-indicator “viewpoints” was evaluated at 0.83 Im, while for Iran, it was 0.93 Im, for Serbia 0.79 Im, and for Slovenia, 0.78 Im. It can be understood that for the geotourists of Montenegro and Iran, viewpoints are of great importance for the visit and visual perception of a geosite. The sub-indicator “surrounding landscape and nature” was evaluated for Montenegro at 0.90, Serbia at 0.95, Slovenia at 0.65, and Iran at 0.91 Im. It can be seen that the surrounding nature and landscape of a geosite are extremely important for people from Serbia, Iran, and Montenegro, while this sub-indicator is rated much lower for tourists from Slovenia. The sub-indicators related to the level of protection of geosites “current condition” and “protection level” in all countries have high values, from which it can be concluded that the degree of the existing state of preservation of the geosites is better evaluated than the current state of protection of the geosites by local and state institutions. These geotourists give importance to the preservation of geosites for future tourism development. When it comes to tourism values for the geotourists of Montenegro and Serbia, these values are considered important, while the geotourists of Slovenia and Iran gave significantly lower ratings, except for the tourist infrastructure where the geotourists of Iran gave a value of 0.85.

3.2 Main values

Table 3 shows that the three canyons (GS1, GS3, and GS4) have almost the same scientific and educational values (1.66–1.86), except for the Tara Canyon (GS2), which stands out with a slightly higher value of 2.61 since it is the deepest canyon in Europe and the second deepest in the world. A considerable number of articles about the Tara Canyon can be found in various international journals. When it comes to landscape and aesthetic values, only the Ibar Canyon has a low rating (1.39) due to the fact that the canyon has no viewpoints and is small in size. The other three canyons have high ratings for the evaluation of aesthetic values, which enables them to have a suitable geotourism potential for canyoning. For tourists who prefer this type of tourism entertainment, the aesthetic value of the canyon for visiting and canyoning is extremely important. When it comes to the level of protection, the Ibar Canyon has the lowest rating (0.60). What characterizes this canyon is a high degree of vulnerability in the future. Tara Canyon was rated the highest (3.08) due to its oasis and untouched nature. In addition, this canyon is a habitat for many endemic species of plants and animals, which is why UNESCO has included it as an exceptional geomorphological and ecological entity. The other two canyons (GS1 and GS3) are under local protection. In the future, efforts should be made to protect the canyons’ geotourism’s future development at the national level in these geosites, since they have exceptional aesthetic values. Evaluating the current state of the geosites, it can be said that they represent great potential for the development of canyoning (Table 3).

Table 3

Overall results of canyon evaluation using the M-GAM model

Canyons MV Σ AV Σ Field
VSE + VSA + VPr VFn + VTr
GS1 – Canyon Nevidio 1.66 + 2.25 + 2.63 6.54 3.65 + 6.09 9.74 Z22
GS2 – Canyon Tara 2.61 + 2.74 + 3.08 8.43 3.84 + 6.18 10.02 Z33
GS3 – Canyon Grlja 1.66 + 2.25 + 1.48 5.39 4.02 + 4.45 8.47 Z22
GS4 – Canyon Ibar 1.86 + 1.39 + 0.60 3.85 2.91 + 2.18 5.09 Z12

3.3 Additional values

Additional values for all canyons have high ratings. The Tara Canyon has the highest rating (4.02) with a great variety of additional natural values. There are a large number of significant centers near this geographic location. Proximity to roads and accessibility distinguish this canyon from others. The other evaluated canyons have extremely high ratings as well. The difference is in natural and anthropogenic values. All of the valued canyons have exceptional accessibility, which is very important for tourist visits and canyoning at these sites. It is also important to show the distance of public transport from the location of the canyon. The Nevidio Canyon is located 4 km from the bus station in Šavnik, while the bus station in Žabljak is only 19 km away, and the rail transport located in Nikšić is about 26 km away. Tara Canyon is located 7 km from the bus station in Žabljak, and only 25 km from Pljevlja, where there is also a bus station and taxi service. The railway station is located at a distance of 49 km in the town of Mojkovac. The canyon of the river Grlje is accessible for vehicles with the proximity of public transport; the nearest station is located in Gusinje, 6 km away, while the second station is 12 km away and is located in the town of Plav. The train station Kolašin, the distance is 85 km the geosite. The Ibar Canyon is also highly rated for its proximity to important roads, with the nearest bus station at a distance of 4.7 km located in Rožaje, and the nearest train station in the town of Bijelo Polje at a distance of 64 km. In order to avoid ecological pollution of nature, these sites can be reached by walking from the bus stations from all the cities near which the canyons are located, and the bus stations are 4 to 7 km away. This type of tourist offer should be promoted, with signposts from the bus stations to the geosites themselves, with visible info boards or accompanied by a guide to the canyon.

The analyzed tourist values separate all four canyons according to the ratings in the research. The Tara Canyon has the best rating (6.18). In the evaluation of this canyon, maximum marks were not given for sub-indicators such as interpretive boards and the total number of tourists who visit geosites at an annual level. It should be improved in the future with a greater number of boards for tourists with clear characteristics and graphic presentations, along with quality material, which will increase the number of visits to the geosite. The geosite of the Nevidio Canyon was evaluated with an overall rating of 6.09 for tourist values. The sub-indicator annual tourist visit to this geosite is low, and therefore, tourism promotion of the canyon needs to be improved with the additional engagement of local and state tourism organizations. Furthermore, it would be useful if as many expert guides as possible were trained to go through the Nevidio Canyon, which is extremely demanding and attractive for canyoning. The Grlja Canyon was evaluated with an overall rating of 4.45, which means that this geosite has favorable tourist values and will be a special tourist offer for the municipalities of Plav and Gusinje in the future when it comes to canyoning. Accommodation and food facilities already exist in the vicinity of this geosite. There is also a guide service. It can be said that additional engagement is needed in terms of promotion from the local level in order to reach the national or international level since the geosite fits perfectly into the landscape of “Prokletije” with its exceptional surrounding landscape and nature. Also, this locality needs to organize visits better, and new interpretive boards should be created with a description of the geosite and photos of the canyon. Although canyoning tourism takes place at the site of Grlja Canyon, the problem is organizing visits to the canyon during the day because guides are from other parts of Montenegro (e.g., Alpine sport club “Slobodni penjači” Cetinje, which is 156 km away from the site). In the future, to raise the offer to a higher level, it is necessary to train local guides. The Ibar Canyon was evaluated with a total score of 2.18. This canyon has good scientific, educational, aesthetic, and functional values. Unfortunately, it scores extremely low in terms of protection level. In addition, tourism values with promotion sub-indicators do not exist for this canyon. There are also no organized visits, and no interpretive boards have been placed on the canyon, no tourist infrastructure, and no guide service.

3.4 M-GAM matrix

The final results of all four evaluated canyons are shown in Figure 6 and are located in certain positions in the M-GAM matrix. The displayed matrix shows that the canyons are located in distinct fields (Z12, Z22, Z33). The Tara Canyon (GS2) has the highest values MV and AV; therefore, it is located in field Z33 in the M-GAM. Two canyons that have small differences in the MV and AV are the Nevidio Canyon and the Grlja Canyon. Field Z22 on the M-GAM matrix is where they are located. The Ibar Canyon has the lowest values with slightly higher additional values and is therefore located in field Z12 (Figure 6).

Figure 6 The position of the canyons that were examined in the M-GAM matrix.
Figure 6

The position of the canyons that were examined in the M-GAM matrix.

One of the disadvantages of recognizing the tourist offer is the lack of tools for interpreting geosites. Knowledge about geosites improves the experience of visitors and arouses the interest of tourists, which leads to the development of empathy toward the visited site [71].

According to studies by Hose [76] and Moreira [77], the existence of interpretive panels alone is not sufficient for visitors’ understanding of geological heritage, and it has a low impact on visitor satisfaction due to the fact that most interpretive panels are ignored by visitors during their visit. However, these panels can serve as assisting tools for guides during a guided tour. In these cases, their role in visitor education is more significant and efficient.

In modern days, the attention of an average tourist is more focused on interpretive panels with good graphical presentations of certain features and processes and with little text. Also, other forms of interpretation such as guided tours with high-quality guides with storytelling skills have proven much more efficient than interpretive panels.

The Ibra Canyon has extremely diverse presentation possibilities, because it has accessible access to the canyon, it is possible to install interpretive boards, with a good visual representation of the geosite with little text and good graphic design, so that tourists initially have basic information about the canyon. Also, next to the Ibar canyon, it is possible to build a center for visitors, where there will be a video presentation of the canyon with all geological and geomorphological processes, with trained lecturers who will impart knowledge to visitors. This visitor center can be built along the road because there are extensions to the canyon itself with the construction of a parking lot for tourists. Unfortunately, there are no boards on this site about geological and geomorphological phenomena, although the canyon has good examples that can be easily explained to tourists. Furthermore, the geosite is located next to the main road that connects Montenegro with Serbia, which is extremely important to tourists, keeping accessibility to the location in mind. Connecting canyoning with geotourism involves utilizing canyons’ natural beauty, educational potential, cultural significance, and economic advantages while promoting sustainable practices and responsible tourism principles. Through this integration, canyoning activities are capable of positively contributing to geotourism objectives of conservation, education, and community involvement in tourism development. Creating canyoning georoutes, geotrails, visitor centers and integrating them into geoparks can greatly enhance the geotourism experience and sustainability efforts. Canyoning georoutes and geotrails can highlight accessible and suitable geological formations for canyoning activities, while informative signage can educate about the area’s geological history, elucidating the formation of canyons and the ecological significance of surrounding landscapes. Visitor centers located near canyoning sites can enhance visitors’ understanding and appreciation of geosites through interactive exhibits, multimedia presentations, and guided tours. Equipment rental, guided tour bookings, safety briefings, and emergency assistance are all essential services that centers can provide, ensuring that visitors can enjoy canyoning activities in a safe and responsible manner.

3.5 Limitations of the research study

Although geotourism is primarily nature-based, with the main focus on tourists visiting the geosite, in a more general sense, it also implies the development of community-based tourism. Since geotourism can contribute to rural tourism development and the sustainable development of local communities, it is beneficial to include the local community’s opinions in the research, as suggested by Petrović et al. [11], who propose the upgraded methodology. Therefore, not involving local people and authorities may be considered as one of the limitations of this study. In order to achieve a more complex research framework, the next step is to upgrade this research by involving members of the local community. In the following research, the plan is to include the views of the local population as well as experts in the field of geosciences.

3.6 Limitations and expectations of canyoning tourism

Current canyoning tourism is based on passing the intended canyon while overcoming obstacles accompanied by a guide. Geotourists, as participants in canyoning, are interested in the geological aspects of the destination they are visiting, in this case a tour of the canyon. The motivation of a geotourist can vary, but some of the key motives include the following.

Education and learning as the main motive in geotourism: Many geotourists are motivated by the desire to learn more about the geological formations, processes, and history of the Earth. They are looking for destinations that can offer them educational tours and interpretive centers, so that during the canyon tour, interpretive boards can be set up for all special geological and geomorphological forms with descriptions of the location during the canyon tour. Where, with the help of trained guides, they will have education through the entire canyoning activity. The motive of adventure and exploration: geotourists are often looking for adventure and excitement through canyoning activities, where they will explore inaccessible and unique natural formations and thus go through a form of education in the field. Geotourists enjoy spectacular landscapes, dramatic rocks, and picturesque canyons as a significant aspect of the tourist offer of canyons in Montenegro.

Canyoning is an adventure sport that involves descending down canyons using various techniques such as hiking, climbing, jumping, and swimming. While canyoning is attractive to many tourists, there are certain limitations and expectations to consider.

Safety during canyon activities, where canyoning can be dangerous, especially for those who are not experienced or physically fit. Tourists expect high standards of safety, including trained guides, proper equipment, and clear instructions. Physical fitness is also required; canyoning requires a certain level of physical fitness. Tourists should be aware of the physical demands of the activity and have realistic expectations about their ability to participate. The environmental impact of canyoning and the preservation of the natural environment are crucial for the sustainability of canyoning tourism. Tourists expect activities to be conducted in a way that minimizes environmental impact and protects natural resources. Logistical support, during the preparation of the activity, during the canyoning activity, and after the canyoning: Tourists expect well-organized tours with adequate logistical support, including transportation, accommodation, and food. Accessibility and infrastructure of the canyon: The accessibility of the canyon and the quality of the infrastructure, such as trails and safety facilities, are important factors. Tourists expect destinations to be well-equipped and easily accessible.

Understanding the motives, limitations, and expectations of geotourists, especially in the context of canyoning tourism, is crucial for the successful management and development of tourist destinations. Providing safe, educational, and environmentally sustainable experiences can significantly contribute to the satisfaction of geotourists and the conservation of natural resources.

3.7 Montenegro canyoning guide certification

When the mountaineering and skiing association “Javorak” members conquered Nevidio Canyon in 1965, it marked the beginning of canyoning in Montenegro. After that, there is a break of about 20 years, and the main reason is the impossibility of procuring neoprene suits, which are relatively expensive for local circumstances. People who are engaged in canyoning in Montenegro today came mainly from mountaineering societies and clubs, because part of canyoning is closely related to alpinism, so it is natural that mountaineers start to engage in canyoning. It should be emphasized that in the last 10 years, more has been done for the development of canyoning than in all previous years combined.

To obtain a “canyoning guide” license, the organizer of the training is the Mountaineering Association of Montenegro – canyoning commission. The skills and knowledge that canyon guides get after completing the training are: the ability to independently lead canyoning tours of all levels, the ability to work independently in companies that are members of the Mountaineering Association of Montenegro in which education in the field of canyoning is intended for members and a wider circle of interested individuals.

In order to successfully complete the second-level training (Module 2) and pass the exam, 100% attendance at all theoretical lectures and practical exercises is required. Otherwise, the candidate must attend the entire training again. After completing Module 2, a theoretical exam is taken. Daily evaluations are divided into the following areas: (a) risk assessment when performing participant exercises, (b) preparation and prevention, (c) group work (teamwork) and communication, (d) situation overview, (e) rope technique, and (f) wild water [78].

After successfully completing the training (module 2) and the theory test, the candidate is not entitled to use the title of Canyoning guide with a PSCG license. The candidate continues to maintain the current level of competence, until he/she completes independent practical tours, seminar papers, and exams (practical). The candidate must take the guide exam no later than 3 years after successfully completing the training (module 2) and the theory exam. The candidate must complete independent practical tours no later than 1 year after completing module 2. Practical tours include 10 different tours in 3 different locations, which candidates carry out independently [78].

The guiding exam is the final exam in the training for a licensed Canyoning guide, the content of which can cover a wide range of knowledge from both modules. The guide exam should be completed no later than 2 years after the end of module 2. If the exam is not completed within the stipulated time, the participant must retake the final exam of module 2. The guide exam is a guided tour, where the candidate leads under the supervision of an examiner-trainer of the Canyonong Association or invited canyoning guides. The examining board may require a practical demonstration or an oral explanation of all practical and theoretical content, which is carried through the training for the 1st and 2nd degrees. Upon successful completion of the training, the candidate receives a diploma, as well as a plastic card. From that moment on, the candidate assumes all the rights and obligations of the Mountaineering Association of Montenegro canyoning guide. Anyone holding the title of Canyoning Guide is required to attend additional training within 3 years in order to renew their license. Anyone who has successfully completed training and exams for a licensed canyoning guide can apply for further training as a canyoning guide instructor. The candidate must be actively leading canyoning tours with a license for at least 5 years. The basic content of the program is the same as in the first level training, but added content such as rhetoric, organization and management of tours, complex rope techniques, etc. Almost the entire program takes place through practical work and includes the application of knowledge in real situations and conditions in different canyons. The program aims to apply all the knowledge acquired at the first level, in real conditions and situations, and to deepen the knowledge about leading tours and complex techniques. This prepares the participants to react correctly in different situations and to be ready for responsible and successful canyoning management, which is the main goal of the program. The canyoning guide is trained to carry out tours of all difficulty levels. The activity of the canyoning guide refers to tours of all levels of difficulty and independent work in clubs and has a pronounced educational character of adult education.

The primary goal of this operation is the transfer of knowledge, skills, and experience in canyoning and ensuring safety on tours. It is also extremely important to transmit knowledge about nature, promote, and develop deeper relationships with nature and the environment, and preserve nature during canyoning. This achieves the three main goals of the Canyoning Commission: safety, environmental protection, and regulation of canyoning as a sport and recreational activity in Montenegro. Duration of training for a licensed canyoning guide consists of 10 h of theory, 240 h of practical work, and 11 h for exams, which is a total of 261 h [78].

4 Conclusion

The primary aim of this research was to evaluate the current state of canyons, as well as their level of appreciation and preservation, to promote geotourism in the northern part of Montenegro; the aim was to determine the current state and potential for the development of canyoning. According to our research, the analyzed canyons have excellent ratings for further investments and tourist valorization for canyoning tourism. The Ibar Canyon, as the least-rated canyon with a main value of 3.85, has good ratings in the form of interpretability and representativeness but extremely low values in the degree of protection, which should be improved in the future. This geosite has to be protected by local and state institutions. The Ibar Canyon received a total score of 5.09 for AV. This canyon has good ratings when it comes to accessibility and proximity to hotel and restaurant facilities and has a high predisposition to be valorized with additional tourist infrastructure. The other three evaluated geosites have extremely high ratings when it comes to the MV (scientific, educational, landscape, aesthetic, and level of protection). This is especially important when it comes to tourists who want to go canyoning since tourists single out the aesthetic values of geosites as a special motive for their visit. The distinguishing feature of this research is the evaluations obtained for additional tourist values at three geosites (the Nevidio Canyon, the Tara Canyon, and the Grlja Canyon). In the future, it would be desirable to work on greater promotion through local tourist organizations, the setting of additional interpretive boards in these sites, and the education of guide services for each canyon to promote this type of tourism among the local population. Future geotourism development should focus intensively on education and interpretation of both visitors and staff working at geosites. The role of tour guides is especially important as they are the ones in direct contact with visitors, and visitor experience is strongly connected to the skills of tour guides and their approach to different visitor groups. Therefore, the education and training of guides and the establishment of a high-quality tour-guide service is essential for a positive visitor experience in any geotourism activity, especially in the case of canyoning where their role is even more significant since they need to have not only geological knowledge of the area but also other skills (physical, psychological, etc.) necessary to successfully guide a group of tourists through often physically demanding terrain. Apart from the role of tour guides, interpretive panels are also important elements of education especially in the cases of self-guided tours. In this case, the visitor experience and education can be enhanced through graphically presented information located on interpretive boards. Even though these are less efficient than guided tours, they are often the only available interpretive elements at many geosites, especially canyons and gorges due to limitations caused by the specific terrain. Both interpretive panels and highly trained tour guide service present key elements in the future development of canyoning activities in Montenegro.

Also, for the preservation of rivers in the future, as stated by the authors [79,80,81], it is necessary to establish a proper understanding and conceptualization of the system that leads to adaptive management, limiting the development of unnecessary infrastructure near rivers, control of changes in land use and stop illogical and irrational exploitation of resources; establishment of permanent monitoring of the hydrological behavior of river basins.

The state institutions of Montenegro should assist local tourist organizations in prioritizing these activities for the future development of tourism, given that attracting more tourists for canyoning activities is crucial.

  1. Funding information: This research received no external funding that has supported the work.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., N.T., F.V., and G.Ć.; methodology, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., N.T., F.V., and G.Ć.; software, E.B. and N.T.; validation, M.M., N.T., E.B., and S.M.M; formal analysis, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., N.T., and F.V; investigation, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., and N.T.; writing – original draft preparation, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., N.T., F.V., and G.Ć.; writing – review and editing, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., N.T., F.V., and G.Ć.; visualization, E.B., N.T., and F.V.; supervision, E.B., M.M., S.M.M., N.T., F.V., and G.Ć. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2024-05-29
Revised: 2024-07-28
Accepted: 2024-08-23
Published Online: 2024-09-19

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0698
Keywords for this article
geoheritage; geotourism; canyoning; M-GAM; northern Montenegro
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