Productive conservation at the landslide prone area under the threat of rapid land cover changes

Junun Sartohadi; Ayu Dyah Rahma; Surya Sabda Nugraha

doi:10.1515/geo-2022-0700

Article Open Access

Productive conservation at the landslide prone area under the threat of rapid land cover changes

Junun Sartohadi , Ayu Dyah Rahma and Surya Sabda Nugraha

Published/Copyright: October 9, 2024

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From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

Landslides often occur in the study area as a continuation of the erosion process on very thick soil from a series of volcanic ash deposition during the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Rapid land cover changes from agricultural land into settlement increase runoff significantly causing accelerated soil erosion. Soil conservation approaches using parameters to reduce surface runoff and soil loss are less acceptable in agricultural society. Soil conservation methods aimed at reducing runoff and soil loss are not widely embraced in agricultural communities, efforts in soil conservation must be economically beneficial. Vegetative-based erosion control is the most suitable option for the agricultural communities. However, there needs to be improvements in terms of plant arrangement that is adapted to the spatial arrangement of slopes and is focused on zones along rills and gullies. Selection of tree species planted for erosion control that have the value of increasing economic income is the key to the success of planned soil and water conservation efforts.

Keywords: community; landslide; productive conservation; soil erosion; landcover changes

1 Introduction

The volcanic transitional landscape has great natural resource potential in Indonesia. The geographical location of the Bompon sub-watershed is in the transitional volcanic area. That location causes the thick soil and high rainfall to fertilise plants [1]. Moreover, the upper slopes enrich the Bompon sub-watershed resources. The geographical condition with thick soil, steep slopes, and high rainfall intensity creates erosion and landslide potential. There are more than 40 erosion points in the Bompon sub-watershed, known for splash, sheet, rill, and gully erosion [2].

Erosion and landslides are natural forms of land degradation [3,4]. Erosion causes soil, nutrients, and carbon loss in the surface layer, which impacts land productivity [5]. Due to uncontrolled utilisation, agricultural land is the most significant contributor to erosion [6,7]. The erosion in the volcanic transition zone can trigger landslides and initiate new landslides. Almost the entire Bompon sub-watershed has 8–45% slopes prone to landslides. The angle and stability of slopes are factors that can make certain areas more vulnerable to landslides [8,9]. On the contrary, the former landslide is a potential agricultural area, because the landslide process makes the soil mixed, nutrients are available, and the soil becomes easy to cultivate [10,11].

Thick soil has excellent potential for various land uses. Various plant cultivation can support land production. However, due to the rough relief and thick soil layer, volcanic soil is always associated with erosion and landslides threat [12]. Rapid land cover changes in this area also accelerated the erosion and landslide processes. Legally, land use in Bompon sub-Watershed remains the same, while the land cover has undergone significant changes. Concrete road, increased building, and monoculture gardens as land cover conversion create changing land surface characteristics. Population growth and limited availability of land are the main problems in settlement development. As a result, there is a possibility of establishing settlements in unsuitable areas, including those prone to landslides. Human activities such as extensive development and agricultural practices contribute to the increased occurrence of landslides in areas characterised by Bompon sub-watershed [13].

Increasing land productivity is influenced by management efforts. Some sustainable land managements have implemented several techniques to reduce the soil loss rate due to erosion. For example, reduce tillage frequency improves soil aggregate which can reduce carbon emissions. Research from previous studies [14–17] focus on improving soil quality to minimise erosion. However, the society rarely apply the research results because the results do not directly improve their economy. Complex problems in the Bompon sub-watershed create research gaps because usually conservation always involves minimising soil loss first, while the community always focuses on increasing economic income. Thus, the management and sustainable resource utilisation could support the life welfare. It is in accordance with the research objective of studying increased crop production under rapid land cover changes in conservation-based land management.

2 Case study

Bompon sub-watershed is a small catchment within an area of 300 ha in Central Java, Java Island, Indonesia. The sub-watershed is administratively located in Salaman and Kajoran District, Magelang Regency. Bompon sub-watershed is on the foot slope of Sumbing Volcano on the south side. The coordinates are 110°03′42′′–110°04′08′′ E and 7°33′13′′–7°33′6′′ S. The elevation on the sub-watershed ranges from 377 up to 539 m above sea level [18].

The study area is in a transition zone from quarterly and tertiary volcanoes that make the soil form a unique characteristic (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Case study in Bompon sub-watershed, Central Java, Indonesia. Source: Imagery photos processed with Agisoft Metashape Professional version 1.7.0 and Layout with ArcGIS 10.8.2.

The topsoil is formed from weathering of Sumbing volcano ash. The soil thickness can reach 2 m in depth. The soil texture is dominated by clay with thick soil solum >1 m. There are also alteration materials formed due to hydrothermal weathering processes [19]. This condition occurred due to volcanic breccia material caused by magmatic intrusion in the Kulon Progo volcanic range in the Neogene–Quaternary age. The thick soil caused the erodible area and landslides prone because of the non-compact material. The foot slope of Sumbing Volcano has massive erosion and landslide processes [20].

The landscape in volcanic transitions has a unique geological relationship with the soil. There is intense tephra weathering and hydrothermal alteration. These phenomena cause variations in volcanic rocks and clay-rich soils to potentially form slip planes in the lithological discontinuity layer [21,22]. The soil is derived from andesite volcanic parent material hydrothermally altered and covered in volcanic ash [22,23]. Most soil has more than 30% clay content in the Bompon sub-watershed [24]. The soil movement factor controls the clay layer [8].

The climate condition in the Bompon sub-watershed is tropical near the equator. The sub-watershed has two seasons the rainy season usually happens from November until April. The rainfall peak is around November until January.

Annual rainfall in the Bompon sub-watershed reaches 3,000–4,000 mm per year (Table 1). The geographical condition makes the Bompon sub-watershed have the potential to drought during the dry season. The sub-watershed position is below the remnants of an old cleft volcano, a barrier to the water supply in the Bompon sub-watershed. Meanwhile, more rainwater becomes surface runoff because the surface material contains more clay [25].

Table 1

Annual rainfall in Bompon sub-watershed

Year	Rainfall (mm)
Year	Station 1	Station 2	Station 3
2017	4,111	4,111	4,088
2018	3,665	3,665	4,015
2019	3,882	3,882	3,158
2020	4,221	4,221	4,257
2021	4,561	4,323	4,506
2022	4,264	4,432	4,311
Average	4117.33	4105.67	4055.83

3 Materials and methods

This research used field survey data. The survey used geo-information techniques to analyse global and local environmental conditions. The methods begin with aerial photo data collection and create the landform units map using the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data. The aerial photography data collection and landform unit map were conducted in 2015 and 2020. Further analysis observes vegetation cover, erosion, landslides, and rapid local changes.

Aerial photograph data in 2015 were collected using DJI Phantom drone while in 2020 were collected using a V-ToL drone. Data from aerial photography were used as DEM analysis data and the basis for land cover interpretation. Aerial photography was taken with Differential Global Positioning System measurements as the critical point for correcting coordinates and increasing the DEM accuracy [26]. Aerial photos were processed using Agisoft Metashape Professional version 1.7.0 software to produce orthophotos. Aerial photography was taken during the barren period, ensuring that the land was devoid of any cultivated plants. This condition was very effective for making detailed DEM data following the methodology traditionally used in aerophotogrammetry analysis and monitoring landslides [26,27].

DEM data with the Digital Surface Model (DSM) type on Agisoft software were converted from the aerial photograph results [28]. DSM data are reduced to Digital Terrain Model (DTM) by reducing the height of plants and buildings developed by Hengl et al. [29] and have been applied in the Bompon sub-watershed. DTM-derived maps were created using the GIS Automated Classification method [30]. The DTM derivative data are slope form or slope morphology. Moreover, a landform unit map was made based on identifying the morphology, materials, and processes. Landform unit maps were made using DEM data derivatives, including topography and slope morphology.

Rapid change analysis compares built-up areas, including the number and size of buildings, from 2015 to 2020. On the other hand, vegetation cover was used for the detailed information based on the field survey. It significantly influences the intensity of geomorphological processes (material transport and deposition).

Furthermore, in-depth interviews with the community were conducted with several questions related to land cover changes around them. Interviews were asked about the conditions of environmental change felt by the community. The interviews also explored public awareness regarding land degradation. The interviews data are utilised for further description and analysis on discussion.

4 Results

4.1 Physical characteristics

In the Bompon sub-watershed, rainfall is driven by wind and topography conditions. Wind speed and wind direction have affected the rain and soil. Rainfall direction determines rain kinetic energy contacts the soil that triggers erosion. In addition, erosion is affected by the geophysical condition, rainfall intensity, and rainfall duration. Areas with slope oriented in the opposite direction of rainfall are susceptible to soil particle detachment, consequently, are more prone to erosion and landslides [31].

The slope units in the Bompon sub-watershed are divided into three parts. First, the residual zones are the highest elevations with flat slopes. Second, the erosion zones are the steepest slope. Third, the sedimentation or deposition zones are the lowest elevations with gentle slopes [11]. Research by Nugraha et al. [1] explained that slope arrangement significantly impacts ongoing geomorphological processes. The active erosion results in irregular soil morphological changes, thus providing variations in the surface soil characteristics [32]. The soil characteristics distribution varies due to soil mixing in different types of erosion [33].

Erosion and landslides cause soil transport, sediment accumulation, soil materials mixing, and material enrichment in the deposition zone. The material accumulation from geomorphological processes affects the soil quality [34]. Good soil quality could be prepared for land management to increase land production. The community could increase food production with sustainable management.

Thick soil prone to erosion and landslides is also affected by rapid changes in land cover. The new house buildings indicate an increasing population growth in the Bompon sub-watershed. In addition, the concrete road construction gives better access to the community. However, massive urban development reduces the sub-watershed ability to infiltrate rainwater into the ground.

4.2 Rapid land cover changes

Most land cover at the Bompon sub-watershed in 2015 and 2020 is mixed plantations and agricultural areas. The agricultural area consists of paddy fields for rice and non-irrigated land for cassava, corn, spices, and beans. There were no significant changes in mixed plantations and agricultural land. Meanwhile, buildings that are the majority of houses are increasing significantly between 2015 and 2020 (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Buildings distribution in 2015 and 2020. Source: Imagery photos processed with Agisoft Metashape Professional version 1.7.0 and layout with ArcGIS 10.8.2.

The visible land changes based on the data analysis show massive changes in the number of buildings. Red colour shows increasing building in 2020. Considering the research area scope is not in urban areas, the changes with the building addition are very intensive. The comparison shows that as many as 240 buildings were added in 5 years. Building area has increased by 3.05 ha (34.02%). Local community houses dominate the buildings. The detailed changes are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Graphic comparison between the land cover changes in each village.

Margoyoso Village experienced the most significant land cover change in the last 5 years, as shown in Figure 3, with an area of around 1.57 ha. Meanwhile, in Wonogiri Village there was a change in land cover covering an area of approximately 1.42 ha. Land cover conversion to building areas increases the runoff [35]. These areas could trigger erosion and landslides, especially during the rainy season.

4.3 Land cover change based on morphological zone

The most visible change in land cover in the Bompon sub-watershed is the increase in houses and roads. Buildings are spread over each morphological zone in the Bompon sub-watershed (Figure 4).

Figure 4

Building distribution based on (a) landform and (b) slope unit in 2015 and 2020. Source: Processed with ArcGIS 10.8.2.

In detail, building distributions are compared in each toposequence as shown in Table 2. Erosion zones dominated buildings distribution in the Bompon sub-watershed in 2015 and 2020. Adding buildings in the erosion zone can increase the intensity of geomorphological processes. It also triggers erosion and landslides.

Table 2

Building area comparison in 2015 and 2020

Village	2015				2020
	Area (ha)			Total	Area (ha)			Total
	Residual	Erosion	Deposition	Total	Residual	Erosion	Deposition	Total
Kwaderan	0.239	0.267	0	0.506	0.276	0.289	0	0.565
Margoyoso	0.242	2.447	0.360	3.049	0.510	3.605	0.504	4.619
Wonogiri	0.483	4.771	0.157	5.411	0.514	6.098	0.221	6.833
Bompon sub-watershed	0.964	7.485	0.517	8.965	1.299	9.993	0.724	12.016

5 Discussion

5.1 Impact of building development

Development of buildings can be one of the triggering factors for landslide (Figure 5). Cutting the hill slopes for road construction or building areas are frequently triggering landslides. This can lead to an increased weight on the soil layer above slicken side [36]. The landslide at the surrounding houses occurred because there was no strict policy regarding building regulations in the hilly areas. The citizen freely use their land according to their needs.

Figure 5

Landslides in the building area, some areas are already revegetated.

In addition, these conditions also coupled with low public awareness regarding the high threat of landslides around their surrounding areas. For example, there is slope cutting to build a new house in Margoyoso village (Figure 6). The slope cutting increases the landslide potential because the land becomes unstable.

Figure 6

Slope cutting to build the house.

5.2 Impact of urban development on geomorphological processes

Rapid changes occurred from 2015 to 2020 as the local community experienced massive population growth. The increasing population growth requires additional buildings for houses. In addition, the community needs other buildings for public facilities. Also, they need other social facilities such as schools, health centres, and multipurpose buildings for meetings.

The increasing population will automatically increase economic needs. Community economic needs can be met with increased agricultural productivity. Agricultural production is usually sold outside the area, thus requiring good access to distribution. Therefore, the need for community mobility is increasing, which causes the access road to be widened and made of concrete material. Proper road access is an essential element for the community’s survival.

Meanwhile, many Bompon sub-watershed residents choose to work outside the area. Income obtained outside the area is returned to the Bompon sub-watershed (remittance). These results are usually used to repair houses and invest in buying land. This phenomenon happened because sub-watershed conditions were less favourable for the community. The undulating morphology and mountainous terrain make the Bombon sub-watershed far from the city centre and difficult to access. Job opportunities are limited to the self-management of agricultural land.

The increase in intensity is caused by differences in surface materials. In the building area with concrete material, sediment yield reaches 0.97 tons/ha/year [37]. The research data show that the buildings’ sediment yield is still greater than in mixed plantations areas.

Building development also causes the surrounding soil to compact, thereby increasing surface runoff. Furthermore, building construction can increase erosion intensity. At a glance, the building initiated splash erosion due to water dripping from the roofs of houses. Moreover, the flow concentration intensity increased due to household waste disposal (Figure 7). Land cover changes to roads were obvious from 2015 to 2020. Many roads in 2015 were still gravel, while in 2020, many roads were paved or concreted (Figure 8). The original condition of roads still provides space for water to infiltrate.

Figure 7

Erosion around building area.

Figure 8

Comparison between stoned road and concreted road.

The impermeable layer also increases the surface runoff intensity due to road construction. These conditions initiate erosions or landslides, for example, the landslide on the roadside (Figure 9).

Figure 9

Landslide on the roadside.

Bompon sub-watershed requires development control to prevent threats from geomorphological processes. The land cover changes in the Bompon sub-watershed massively increased water production. This water production is due to rainfall being unable to infiltrate properly. High-intensity rainfall causes surface runoff.

5.3 Impact of agricultural zone on geomorphological processes

Bare land and non-irrigated agricultural land cover create an erosion threat. Vegetation planting varieties strongly influence erosion [37]. The planting types in the Bompon sub-watershed are affected by the existing pattern. Bare and non-irrigated agricultural land for cassava has a higher erosion rate than mixed plantations with high vegetation density. Erosion on non-irrigated agricultural land reaches 953.53 tons/ha/year [18].

Meanwhile, erosion on mixed plantations land is only around 0.836 tons/ha/year [37]. This significant difference happens because the mixed plantations have a multilayer cover. The layers protect the soil from direct contact with rain. More vegetation roots could bind the soil and minimise erosion and landslides.

On the other hand, the local community use their land for building their houses. In addition, the land for crop production increases productivity. If the product could be managed sustainably, it would improve resilience and the community’s economy. Land cover conversion should be balanced with integrated land management to minimise erosion and landslide threats. Both severe threats should be maintained to minimise sub-watershed disturbance [37].

Land conversion in Bompon sub-watershed is from mixed plantations to monoculture plantations such as durian plantations (Figure 10). Monoculture gardens have a drawback compared to polyculture gardens based on canopy density. Erosion potential on monoculture lands is relatively more significant. Monoculture plantations have a low canopy density [38]. Land conversion can be done by applying the land conservation principle of maintaining the canopy density level. The land conversion application uses the land conservation principle by maintaining the crown density level. The canopy can reduce the rain kinetic energy and will reduce the erosion potential [39]. Canopy density can be fulfilled by planting secondary plants such as durian plants. The selected secondary plants should not interfere with the durian plants’ growth. Plants that can be chosen are the spices that include ginger, cubeb, curcuma, cardamom, or chilli. These secondary plants were chosen because it has economic value for the community. Garden conversion on unsuitable land gradually needs special techniques to make sustainable land.

Figure 10

Monoculture on durian plantations increases erosion.

5.4 Conservation area implementation

Runoff control from buildings begins with installing runoff control structures to prevent excessive runoff. The runoff control is designed to reduce surface runoff caused by rainwater falling directly on the roof. The house roof area affects the water volume that flows directly to the land’s surface. The water flow generated by the house roof is collected first into the gutters. Then the water flows into the reservoir before flowing slowly to the ground (Figure 11). The house roof area, the rain intensity, and the rain duration determine the design of the gutter’s length and the reservoir’s size. The main conservation principle is to reduce wetting slopes. These slopes potentially experience excessive erosion and landslides. Wetting from the rain in slope areas will increase runoff, initiating erosion and landslide processes [40].

Figure 11

Runoff control on the building.

The community can use the stored water for domestic and agricultural needs during the dry season. The average roof area of houses in the Bompon sub-watershed is 137.48 m². If all roofs applied a gutter system as conservation, each house could store water to 533,367 L per year. Based on the interview results, the average water need is 552,000 L per year at 600,000 Rupiah per year. The water reservoir existences are able to meet all the necessary water needs. Thus the community can save 600,000 Rupiah each year.

Rill and gully management could minimise erosions. The management is applied through vegetative planting and technical methods. The technical method in the Bompon sub-watershed is the silt pit. Silt pits are dead-end holes made with a specific size and parallel to the contours of the processing area. The silt pit traps and infiltrates water and accommodates sediment [41]. Islami [42] showed silt pit was 99% effective in runoff control and 94.15% in sediment control. Proper silt pit arrangement is a key factor in the successful silt pit method.

Planting productive plants are effective in reducing erosion and improving the local economy. Planting in the mixed plantations system should pay attention to planting layouts. Slope sequence-based cropping is expected to control erosion and sedimentation processes. It would reduce the land degradation potential. These are expected to maximise plant growth and productivity.

The cultivated plants should have economic and conservation values. Some of the productive plants are coconut, sugar palm, and bamboo. These plants can absorb water better. In addition, mango, rambutan, durian, and lanzones can also be planted to increase land productivity [11]. Mixed plantations as one of the land uses can be managed to increase the plants’ number with simple land conservation. The main plant chosen was coconut because it met the production value criteria and absorbed much water.

Management of non-irrigated agriculture land should be adequately considered. The planting technique would be maximised when paying attention to the slope orientation. Slope orientation is related to solar radiation, rainfall, wind, and other microclimatic parameters to make plants grow optimally [43]. The spacing between plants must be adapted by adjusting the maximum canopy width to reflect the roots’ reach. These are the plants’ requirements to fulfil their life needs [44]. Setting the spacing is expected to maximise plant growth and increase plant productivity [45].

The addition of soil ameliorant makes conservation more optimal. Soil ameliorant helps to improve soil quality and thus improve plant growth and health. Nugraha et al. [1] show that adding soil ameliorant can reduce runoff by 51% and erosion by 50%.

Planting is preferably applied with sequential cropping in the regulated planting time. This sequential cropping is to form a layered vegetation system. The multilayer vegetation can reduce the potential for runoff and erosion [46]. In addition, this cropping system could also increase productivity in the field because production results come from several plant types. Appropriate land management techniques should be applied to optimise agricultural production in areas prone to erosion and landslides.

6 Conclusions

The rapid increase in buildings and roads has influenced significant changes in land cover. The most dominant land conversion observed was from mixed plantations to residential houses. Buildings have notably expanded in ridge areas and erosion zones. Additionally, land conversion has been observed from mixed plantations to monoculture plantations. The substantial and rapid changes in the Bompon sub-watershed can be attributed to social and economic factors.

Agricultural land productivity is decreasing because of rapid changes in implications. That happens because of increased runoff, erosions, and landslides. Community development and agriculture need to integrate with a comprehensive conservation strategy.

Arranging buildings and collecting rainwater are some applied conservations. It would control runoff in buildings area. The community used stored water from rainwater harvesting to save 600,000 Rupiah per year. Thus, erosion could be minimised by the applied conservation in the Bompon sub-watershed.

Conservation based on vegetative production is planting high-valued crops, woods, and fruit trees. Planting arrangements should adjust morphological characteristics. These are necessary to control runoff, erosions, and landslides. Increased land production under local socio-cultural and sustainability increase the community’s economic income.

Several activities related to public awareness can be implemented as non-structural measures. First, continuous socialisation every 35 days through ten household groups (dasawisma) about the risk of landslides aims to educate society and enhance their perception of landslide risks. Second, participation in landslide disaster mitigation training is crucial. Third, the adaptation of landslide-resistant buildings is essential. Fourth, the landslide hazard and risk map created by researchers to provide the disaster mitigation information.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Transbulent Research Group for the support of this research. Moreover, the authors also would like to thank Rina Purwaningsih, S.Si., M.Sc. for their assistance and discussion during this research. The authors also would like to thank the reviewers for their comments on our paper and thank the editor for the advice.

Author contributions: Junun Sartohadi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Visualization, Validation, Supervisions, Writing – review & editing. Ayu Dyah Rahma: Data Analyse, Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Surya Sabda Nugraha: Methodology, Field Survey, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data availability statement: The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-03-17

Revised: 2024-08-26

Accepted: 2024-08-30

Published Online: 2024-10-09

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0700

Keywords for this article

community; landslide; productive conservation; soil erosion; landcover changes

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