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Deeply buried clastic rock diagenesis evolution mechanism of Dongdaohaizi sag in the center of Junggar fault basin, Northwest China

  • Shasha Guo , Xuecai Zhang , Jue Wang , Siwen Wang , Kemin Liu and Jinkai Wang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: November 4, 2024
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

To reveal the diagenetic sequence of reservoir rocks in the central part of the deep depression basin, the Wuerhe Formation in Junggar Basin was taken as an example to conduct the detailed studies on its sedimentary facies, diagenetic sequence, and the micropore structure evolution rules based on the comprehensive data from a super deep exploration well C-6 (approximately 7,000 m in depth). First, an arid environment fan delta sedimentary model of the Wuerhe Formation was established, and its sedimentary evolution law was clarified as a gradual transition from a fan delta front to a fan delta plain during the water-regression process until the lake dried up. Then, the diagenesis types and evolution sequence of the Wuerhe Formation, and the influence degrees of the compaction, cementation, and dissolution on the rock formation process were clarified. Finally, the diagenesis and pore evolution model was established, and the greatest impact factors of the late reservoir densification were clarified. Based on this research, the diagenesis and pore evolution processes of the deep rocks in the studied deep central sag were ultimately revealed to provide useful guidance for the deeply buried oil and gas reservoir exploration.

Keywords: Junggar Basin; evolution mechanism; diagenesis; deep sag; Wuerhe Formation

1 Introduction

Generally, the central area of a large depression basin is far from the source area and is composed mainly of fine-grained sedimentary rocks that formed in a deep-water environment [1,2]. Due to the abundance of organic matter in such rocks, these areas are usually considered the main locations for hydrocarbon generation but lack high-quality oil and gas reservoirs [3,4]. In contrast, the sediments that fill the deep sags of large, faulted basins do not come from the basin edges but rather from nearby secondary uplifts. Even if these sediments are located in the center of a basin and are buried deeply, the rock types here can still include very coarse-grained sandstones and conglomerates. However, whether these rocks can maintain good porosity and permeability and become favorable areas for hydrocarbon accumulation and storage depends on the sedimentary processes and diagenesis they experience later on [5,6]. Due to the independence and small scale of different secondary uplifts in large, faulted basins, the sedimentary facies types in the early filling stage are very complex, making it difficult to establish a unified sedimentary model that can characterize the entire basin [7,8,9]. Scholars generally agree on the genesis of conglomerate and coarse sandstone in depressions; such rock types can be attributed to near-source alluvial fans and fan deltas [10,11]. However, there is often heated debate about the genesis of thick mudstones in these areas. Two main viewpoints exist: the deep-water theory suggests that widespread mudstone is related to the rise of a lake surface, and the drought theory proposes that mudstone is formed by the sedimentation of river fans that eventually disappear under arid environmental conditions [12,13,14,15]. The mudstone type is closely related to the sedimentary environment and can indicate the scale of sedimentary bodies and the sandstone quality; these factors ultimately determine whether an area has the potential for oil and gas generation and accumulation [16,17,18]. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the sedimentary environment and facies types in deep depression areas and establish a unified sedimentary model to accurately assess the potential for hydrocarbon resource exploitation in these areas [19,20].

A lot of research on the diagenesis of sandstone in deep sag areas shows that in the center of a deep fault basin, due to the relatively large thickness of sedimentary rocks above it, compaction is intense. As a result of this compaction, the preservation of primary porosity in these sandstones is low, and they are typically characterized as low-permeability or tight sandstones. If no subsequent diagenesis occurs to affect their structures and mineral composition, the porosity and permeability of these sandstones will remain low, and they may not form good hydrocarbon reservoirs [21,22,23]. Similar to sedimentary facies, diagenesis is another vital factor affecting the reservoir quality. Research has confirmed that under strong compaction conditions, some plastic particles, such as mica and mudstone fragments, can become deformed and block the connecting throats within rock [24,25,26]. In contrast, rigid particles such as quartz and feldspar are difficult to compress but can be broken under strong compaction, leading to the accumulation of small fragments in the pores and ultimately reducing the porosity size [27,28,29]. Relevant research has shown that pore expansion can occur during strong compaction. This is because fluids flowing under pressure can react with the rock skeleton, dissolving existing minerals and creating pores or channels in the rock. This process is an effective way for oil and gas reservoirs to form in deep sandstones [30,31]. However, cementation and dissolution interact during the fluid flow process, and some dissolved substances can also precipitate and form cements, leading to a porosity decrease [32,33,34]. Under strong compaction and weak dissolution, sandstone pores in deep areas can still be effectively preserved, and one important condition favorable for this process is the formation of overpressure [35]. During a flood period in areas such as alluvial fans and fan deltas, a significant amount of sediment can accumulate rapidly, potentially leading to the formation of overpressure. This overpressure can inhibit any further compaction increase and slow the cementation degree; these changes are conducive to retaining pores [36]. Although central depression areas are located far from the source area and have difficulty forming rapidly accumulating strata, the organic matter contents of mudstones for hydrocarbon generation in such areas are very high and can rapidly transform to hydrocarbons under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions [37,38]. The expansion of hydrocarbons can increase the pressure within the surrounding formation, leading to the formation of overpressure. Under these conditions, the high pressure within the formation facilitates the migration of oil and gas to high-porosity and high-permeability adjacent reservoirs. Many secondary pore zones and oil and gas reservoirs have been found in the deep Junggar Basin, proving that this view is correct; i.e., in areas with large burial depths, overpressure is crucial for preserving and regenerating pores [39,40,41,42]. Therefore, it is very beneficial to search for valuable oil and gas reservoirs to determine the diagenesis process and pore evolution law of the deep, buried rocks in the center of the basin.

The Junggar Basin is a large basin formed by the superposition of multiple tectonic unit belts of different levels. This basin has the characteristics of a typical faulted basin, including six first-order tectonic units and 44 secondary tectonic units [43,44,45,46]. In the early stages of exploration, the deep depressions in the center of the Junggar Basin were overlooked. However, recently, several oil and gas fields have been discovered around the central region, and the oil source has been confirmed to be the deep Permian source rocks. This finding indicates that the material conditions necessary for forming oil reservoirs are present [47,48]. In October 2020, a significant well, C-6, was drilled in the center of the basin to a drilling depth of 6,950 m, thus allowing much information about ultradeep sedimentary rock to be obtained. Data analyses of this well have confirmed that porous rocks remain at depths reaching 7,000 m with the potential to form oil and gas reservoirs. From this perspective, initially, abandoned areas are not necessarily worthless but may actually contain significant potential. In this article, the rare ultradeep drilling data from the C-6 well, a typical drilled well, were used to examine the petrogenesis and diagenesis processes of the deep depression area in the Junggar Basin. This work clarifies the characteristics and evolution laws of reservoir pores and defines the control factors impacting the reservoir quality. This research approach and method have high applicability and can offer guidance for the exploration of oil and gas resources in the central depression areas of similar basins.

2 Methods and data

2.1 Research method and process

The purpose of this article is to understand the diagenetic evolution mechanism of the deep rocks in the central depression of the Junggar Basin and obtain the factors controlling the reservoir porosity, permeability, and other physical parameters. Therefore, according to geological, logging, and other data, this study first analyzes the structure, sequence, and sedimentary background of the Wuerhe Formation and determines the sedimentary facies model. Then, the physical properties of the reservoir rocks are studied. The pore, throat type, origin, and pore structure characteristic parameters of various reservoirs are studied. The pore evolution mechanism is analyzed, and the physical properties of the clastic rock reservoirs are summarized. Finally, we study the diagenetic evolution of the reservoir rocks, analyze the diagenesis process, divide the diagenetic sequences, and analyze the diagenetic evolution history. On this basis, this study analyzes the impact of diagenesis on the physical properties of the clastic rock reservoirs, summarizes the impacts of different diagenesis processes and stages on the reservoirs’ physical properties with the diagenetic evolution history, determines the factors controlling the high-quality reservoirs in the studied basin, and predicts the distribution rules of the identified reservoirs (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Research process.
Figure 1

Research process.

2.2 Source of experimental data

To obtain research results with dependable conclusions, several rock analysis experimental methods are used. These experiments include casting thin-section observations, a rock particle size analysis, scanning electron microscope (SEM) rock observations, physical property testing, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) testing. By developing these experiments, considerable true and reliable data are obtained, allowing the research to be conducted smoothly. The rock samples used in the experiment are from well C-6; this well has the deepest drilling depth among all wells drilled in the center of the depression. It is the only well that encountered the Wuerhe Formation in the center of the basin (with a drilling depth of 6,950 m). The sampling depth ranged from 6,400 to 6,950 m, and a total of 9 rock samples were obtained, including 3 silty mudstone, 4 argillaceous siltstone, and 2 siltstone samples Table 1.

Table 1

Summary of experimental data

Well Sample number Depth (m) Type of experiment
Scanning electron microscope Casting thin section Grain size analysis Nuclear magnetic resonance Physical property analysis
CH-6 MC-12 5,452 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
CH-6 MC-17 5,470 Yes Yes Yes No No
CH-6 MC-18 5,490 Yes Yes No Yes No
CH-6 MC-22 6,224 Yes Yes Yes No Yes
CH-6 MC-23 6,528 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
CH-6 MC-24 6,530 Yes Yes No No No
CH-6 MC-26 6,613 Yes Yes No Yes No

3 Background of the study area

The Junggar Basin is in the eastern Kazakhstan Junggar plate, adjacent to the Siberian plate in the north, the Tarim plate in the south, the northern Tianshan orogen, and the Bogda tectonic, West Junggar orogenic, and Kelamei orogenic belts in the south, west, and north, respectively [49,50]. The basin is rich in oil and gas resources and is a vital closed basin in western China (Figure 2). The Permian Wuerhe Formation’s strata in the Dongdaohaizi sag tend southwestward, and the sedimentary thickness decreases from southwest to northeast, with a maximum burial depth of approximately 7,500 m.

Figure 2 Regional structure location map.
Figure 2

Regional structure location map.

3.1 Evolution of sedimentary environment and characteristics

The Wuerhe Formation is located at the bottom of the sag sedimentary stratum, representing the initial stage of the fault depression formation. The slope is steep, and the vertical drop is large. The mudstone color in this period can directly reflect the sedimentary environment at the time of deposition. The mudstone of the Lower Wuerhe Formation is dark gray and gray, reflecting a strong reducing environment and indicating that the water was deep at this time and that the sediments were deposited along the shore of a shallow to semideep lake. In the next period, most sags were located in lacustrine sedimentary environments. During the deposition of the second-lowest segment, the fan body further expanded, and a set of fan delta front and plain sediments were deposited [51,52].

From the upper Wuerhe Formation, the mudstone becomes lighter until it becomes brownish red and red mudstone, reflecting a strong oxidation environment and indicating that the depositional environment was a continental sedimentary environment at that time. In a dry climate stage, the water body shrunk, the fan scale shrunk, and the sedimentary scale decreased. In the early stage of the upper Wuerhe Formation, the water body was the deepest and widest, and the fan delta front extended to the Cheng-3 and Cheng-6 wells. Influenced by the climate conditions, the water supply weakened, and the fan body of the second-uppermost segment shrunk. Most depressions were located in continental fan plains, dominated by flood deposits and rich in conglomerate and mudstone. The fan bodies of the upper three segments were pushed forward, and the water body shrunk to the depression’s center (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Evolution law of the sedimentary facies of the Wuerhe Formation in the Dongdaohaizi sag.
Figure 3

Evolution law of the sedimentary facies of the Wuerhe Formation in the Dongdaohaizi sag.

3.2 Lithofacies characteristics

The mudstone content near the provenance-proximate slope belt in the Dongdaohaizi sag is less than 50%, and sandy conglomerates and sandstones dominate the reservoir. In this region, channel cross-bedding is formed through distributary channel sedimentation with positive rhythm characteristics. The scouring structure is obvious, indicating that the reservoir is located close to the provenance and represents rapid sedimentation products. Mudstone dominates the depression’s central part, and siltstone dominates the reservoir sand body, consisting primarily of block bedding and also showing low-angle cross bedding. These sediments were deposited during the flood season, and the thickness of each individual layer is small. This shows that the water body in this sedimentary period was deep, and it was challenging for coarse sediment to reach the depression’s center (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Rock type statistics.
Figure 4

Rock type statistics.

The near-provenance area consists primarily of lithic sandstone, whereas the area far from the provenance comprises lithic arkose. The entire depression’s rock cementation degree is very tight, and the pore content is low. The particles close to the source area are affected by the sedimentary environment and are large, with high roundness, including primarily round or subround gravels (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Sandstone types at different locations (1: quartz sandstone; 2: feldspar-quartz sandstone; 3: lithic-quartz sandstone; 4: feldspar sandstone; 5: feldspar-lithic sandstone; 6: lithic-feldspar sandstone; 7: lithic sandstone). (a) lithological triangle diagram; (b, c) photo of casting thin sheet.
Figure 5

Sandstone types at different locations (1: quartz sandstone; 2: feldspar-quartz sandstone; 3: lithic-quartz sandstone; 4: feldspar sandstone; 5: feldspar-lithic sandstone; 6: lithic-feldspar sandstone; 7: lithic sandstone). (a) lithological triangle diagram; (b, c) photo of casting thin sheet.

The gravel content in the depression’s center is small, and the roundness degree of the small particles is low, with primarily angular and subangular particles. The sorting degree in the depression’s center is better than that in the slope zone but is still primarily poor to medium, which is not optimal. The contact mode of the slope zone’s particles is the point contact mode, and the depression’s central part consists primarily of concave–convex line contacts. The support type in the depression’s center is granular, while that in the slope zone is disorderly. The maturity changes little from the slope zone to the depression’s center.

4 Diagenetic evolution characteristics of the reservoir

After sedimentation, the sediments of the Wuerhe Formation in the Dongdaohaizi sag experienced strong compaction, significantly affecting the pores, and many primary pores disappeared. The influences of the cementation and dissolution processes on the porosity were much smaller in the later stage than in the early stage, but the retention of the current porosity depends largely on the dissolution process; therefore, large pores still appear at a depth of 6,000 m, and this is conducive to oil and gas storage.

4.1 Compaction

The burial depth of the Wuerhe Formation in the Dongdaohaizi sag is 2,300–7,000 m, and the compaction effect of the reservoir differs throughout this depth range. The contents of rigid particles, such as quartz and feldspar, in the rock are low, while the contents of plastic rock debris are high; the compression resistance is thus weak. The particles primarily exhibit line contacts, and the main cementation type is pore contact glue. Even some minerals are completely surrounded by muddy debris, forming a pseudo-porphyritic structure (Figure 6a). Only some of the rock samples contain rigid minerals or locally crushed particles. However, the fractures formed by the crushed particles are usually filled by the calcareous minerals and have not become effective pores, nor do they have the ability to store hydrocarbons (Figure 6b). Affected by the burial depth and rock particle composition, the particles in the central depression region were highly compacted, inlaid, and contacted, the remaining pores were few, and the rocks were dense, making it challenging for secondary pore development zones to form. Only significant dissolution pores have been formed in local areas, while the vast majority of areas remain in their original state (Figure 6c). Affected by early cementation and the compaction of large particles, weak compaction zones formed locally. The retained primary intergranular pores and their subsequent dissolution formed a secondary pore development zone with an uneven distribution (Figure 6d). In summary, the compaction in the study area presents three primary characteristics. (1) The overall compaction is strong, and the compaction intensity increases with depth. (2) A weak compaction zone easily exists between large clastic particles, and the later dissolution is strong. (3) The retention of intergranular pores is low and exists only in some rock samples.

Figure 6 Different compaction types in the sandstone of the Wuerhe Formation. (a) Deformed plastic particles (C-6, 6224.1 m), (b) crushed rigid particles (C-6, 6224.1 m), (c) embedded cementation (C-6, 6528.3 m), and (d) undercompacted space (C-6, 6224.2 m).
Figure 6

Different compaction types in the sandstone of the Wuerhe Formation. (a) Deformed plastic particles (C-6, 6224.1 m), (b) crushed rigid particles (C-6, 6224.1 m), (c) embedded cementation (C-6, 6528.3 m), and (d) undercompacted space (C-6, 6224.2 m).

4.2 Cementation

4.2.1 Cementation of common minerals

The cementation experienced by the Wuerhe Formation in the study area included clay, calcareous, laumontite, and siliceous cementation. The carbonate cement content of this formation is high, primarily comprising iron-free calcite with a large content variation, ranging from a small amount to 15%, and distributed in a uniform porphyritic manner. The siliceous cements in the reservoir sandstones include two forms, secondarily enlarged quartz and authigenic quartz. The secondarily enlarged quartz observed in the rock slices is typical, and a small amount of authigenic quartz grains filled between the grains can be observed under the SEM (Figure 7a). The clay minerals in the reservoir of the Wutonggou Formation in the study area include smectite mixed-bed, illite, kaolinite, and chlorite minerals (Figure 7b–d).

Figure 7 Different cementation types in the sandstone in the Wuerhe Formation. (a) Siliceous cementation (C-6, 5470.2 m), (b) chlorite cementation (C-6, 6528.3 m), (c) I--M mixed layer (C-6, 6619.5 m), and (d) undercompacted space (C-6, 6224.2 m).
Figure 7

Different cementation types in the sandstone in the Wuerhe Formation. (a) Siliceous cementation (C-6, 5470.2 m), (b) chlorite cementation (C-6, 6528.3 m), (c) I--M mixed layer (C-6, 6619.5 m), and (d) undercompacted space (C-6, 6224.2 m).

Among all types of clay mineral cementation, the relative contents of the I-M mixed layer are large, the kaolinite content is moderate, and the illite content is the smallest Figure 8. Due to the relatively stable sedimentary environment in the study area, there is not much difference in the content of clay minerals in different sandstone samples.

Figure 8 Content statistics of different clay cements.
Figure 8

Content statistics of different clay cements.

4.2.2 Cementation of uncommon minerals

A special mineral, zeolite, was identified in the cementation mineral but is rare in ordinary sandstone. Zeolite cements in the Wuerhe Formation are primarily laumontite; laumontite is a commonly cementation material identified under rock slices and via SEM. Zeolite cements also have a dual effect on pores. Early zeolite cementation reduces pores, thus preventing damage by compaction and providing a material basis for later dissolution and pore growth (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Laumontite crystal under a SEM. (a) C-6, 6529.2 m, and (b) C-6, 6734.5 m.
Figure 9

Laumontite crystal under a SEM. (a) C-6, 6529.2 m, and (b) C-6, 6734.5 m.

Due to the change in interstitial materials in the reservoir, the anorthite contents in rock cuttings vary, albitization occurs, and the laumontite content increases. The reservoir cement has strong heterogeneity, and the laumontite content increases toward the depression’s center [53,54]. The element logging data show that the aluminum content decreases significantly, the sodium content increases significantly, and the potassium content increases slightly below 6,500 m from the bottom of the Wuerhe Formation, indicating that the albite in the mineral components of the reservoir increases while the shale content decreases. The plagioclase in the reservoir undergoes albitization and forms laumontite, thereby worsening the rock pores and increasing the density (Figure 10).

Figure 10 Comparison of the albite content in rocks at different depths.
Figure 10

Comparison of the albite content in rocks at different depths.

5 Dissolution

The dissolution of sandstone in the study area is strong, and dissolution primarily occurs in the shallow area near the depression’s edge. Microcracks are easily produced in this region, the fluid is active, and the dissolution is strong. The area consists primarily of intergranular dissolution holes formed by intergranular fillings, such as calcite and laumontite. Furthermore, the dissolution of some rock debris, feldspar, and other particles occurs. The regional tectonic activity near the depression’s center was weak, and the rock dissolution was undeveloped here. Dissolution occurred only locally and mostly involved the dissolution of intergranular cementing minerals (Figure 11a and b). Metasomatism occurred based on particle dissolution. Later, calcite metasomatism became more common, with the metasomatism of clastic particles and interstitial fillings. Metasomatism can occur under different lithology and calcite contents (Figure 11c and d).

Figure 11 Dissolution and metasomatism of minerals. (a) Particle dissolution of minerals, C-6, 6528.3 m, (b) particle dissolution of minerals, C-6, 6528.3 m, (c) metasomatism of minerals, C-6, 6900.2 m, and (d) metasomatism of minerals, C-6, 6900.5 m.
Figure 11

Dissolution and metasomatism of minerals. (a) Particle dissolution of minerals, C-6, 6528.3 m, (b) particle dissolution of minerals, C-6, 6528.3 m, (c) metasomatism of minerals, C-6, 6900.2 m, and (d) metasomatism of minerals, C-6, 6900.5 m.

5.1 Pore evolution law of sandstone

Due to the effects of the clastic type and compaction, the primary intergranular pores in the rock disappeared, and the amount of residual pores correlated well with the depth (Figure 12a and b). Dissolution pores are crucial, including intergranular and intragranular dissolution, and are affected by the sedimentary environment [55,56,57]. The dissolution of the upper Wuerhe Formation occurred primarily in the intergranular fillings supported by large particles, most of which were intergranular dissolution pores (Figure 12c). The feldspar content in the lower Wuerhe Formation increased, whereas the rock debris decreased, further weakening the effect of the occurrence of dissolution in grains. The interstitial material dissolution observed in the thin sections was higher than that observed in the grains (Figure 12d). In addition to dissolution pores, some microfractures occurred in the sandstone; these might have been related to strong compaction and tectonism. The fractures in the upper Wuerhe Formation are developed, and most of them are structural microfractures developed along the interface between the bedding and local intervals, along with a few high-angle fractures (Figure 12e). The fractures in the lower Wuerhe Formation are undeveloped, and a few microfractures and bedding fractures were observed. The fractures identified by imaging logging were primarily drilling-induced fractures (Figure 12f).

Figure 12 Pore types and characteristics of sandstone. Strong mechanical compaction, (a) C-6, 5470.2 m, (b) C-6, 6528.5 m. Different types of dissolution, (c) C-6, 6224.3 m, (d) C-6, 6528.5 m. Different types of micro-fracture, (e) C-6, 5490.2 m, (f) C-6, 6224.3 m.
Figure 12

Pore types and characteristics of sandstone. Strong mechanical compaction, (a) C-6, 5470.2 m, (b) C-6, 6528.5 m. Different types of dissolution, (c) C-6, 6224.3 m, (d) C-6, 6528.5 m. Different types of micro-fracture, (e) C-6, 5490.2 m, (f) C-6, 6224.3 m.

According to core observation, casting thin section, and SEM analyses, the reservoir space of the upper Wuerhe Formation was found to include fractures (structural fractures and grain margin fractures), dissolution pores (cement dissolution pores and volcanic rock debris dissolution pores), residual intergranular pores, and micropores. Fractures are vital reservoir spaces of the glutenite reservoirs of the upper Wuerhe Formation. The pores and fractures of the lower Wuerhe Formation (primarily corrosion pores) are undeveloped (Figure 13).

Figure 13 Percentages of different pore types.
Figure 13

Percentages of different pore types.

The analysis and test data show that the maximum porosity of the upper Wuerhe Formation is 17%, with an average porosity of approximately 10%. The porosity of the lower formation is small, with an average porosity of 8%, and gradually decreases with increasing depth. Most reservoirs have low porosity and low permeability levels. The connectivity between the pores in the study area is very poor; most of the pores are isolated and small, with no connectivity. The throat type of the reservoir is dominated by variable section shrinkage, followed by flaky or curved flaky throats, and some pores are guided by microfractures. Compared to the pore evolution laws identified in other sags of the Junggar Basin, study areas T and P primarily developed glutenite and pebbly sandstone reservoirs, and there is a possibility of the presence of good reservoirs in the middle-deep layers. The physical properties of the reservoirs in the Wuerhe Formation change with depth, but the change amplitudes are small, and fractures are developed in local intervals. The pore evolution of the Wuerhe Formation reservoir of Well Cheng-6 follows the normal compaction curve (fitted from the stratigraphic parameters of normal compaction in the Mahu Depression within the Junggar Basin), and high-permeability “sweet spots” appear only locally, in contrast from the western uplift area (Figure 14a). It can also be concluded from the NMR experimental data analyzing that as the depth increases, the fluctuation amplitude of the NMR curve gradually decreases, and its right peak decreases significantly until it disappears. This indicates that the permeability of the rock has decreased, and at the same time, the proportion of movable fluid in the pores has gradually decreased, which is the consequence of compaction (Figure 14b).

Figure 14 Vertical evolution law of sandstone pores. (a) Relationship between porosity and depth and (b) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance T2 spectrum.
Figure 14

Vertical evolution law of sandstone pores. (a) Relationship between porosity and depth and (b) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance T2 spectrum.

5.2 Division of diagenetic facies

Taking mineral components as variables, the reservoir in the study area was analyzed using R-type factor analysis; this analysis method combines the R-type analysis of the correlation analysis of influencing factors with the Q-type analysis of the correlation analysis of strata to calculate the load matrix of two factors and form a cluster comprising both the influencing factors and strata. Based on the results, the correlations between the strata and influencing factors were studied [58]. According to the calculation results of the contribution rate, the R–Q factor analysis was conducted by selecting quartz, feldspar, rock debris, carbonate rock cement, clay minerals, and laumontite factors. After eight iterations, convergence was achieved, the eigenvalues of the matrix composed of the correlation coefficients among the variables were taken, and the cumulative square error was calculated [59]. Table 2 shows the contribution rates of the R–Q analysis eigenvalues. The data analysis shows that the eigenvalues of the selected parameters were proportional to the amount of information the parameters carried.

Table 2

Contribution rates of the R–Q factor analysis eigenvalues in diagenesis

Factor Characteristic value Contribution rate (%) Cumulative contribution rate (%)
Quartz 24.32 82.27 82.27
Feldspar 3.44 11.64 93.91
debris 1.12 3.79 97.70
Carbonate rock cement 0.64 2.17 99.86
Laumontite 0.04 0.14 100.00
Clay minerals 0 0.00 100.00

According to the factor analysis results, the diagenetic facies of sandstones in the study area were divided into mechanical compaction, unstable clastic dissolution, carbonate cementation, and laumontite cementation diagenetic facies. Due to sedimentation, the sandstone diagenesis types near the provenance and far from the provenance differ. With the advanced provenance and the increased burial depth, the facies show a specific change rule (Figure 15a). The mechanical compaction facies are the primary factor reducing the rock porosity, and the other three types are the primary dominant diagenetic facies types. The sandstone near the source area is gravelly. These large gravels provide favorable conditions for retaining pores, and this is conducive to later fluid injection. Therefore, the dissolution of unstable debris is crucial in the diagenetic evolution of rocks. Most pores are filled with large debris particles with small shale contents (Figure 15b). The cementation of carbonate rock minerals and clay minerals primarily occurs in the fan delta front subfacies. The pores in this area are moderately developed, and the shale content is high. However, due to the dissolution of cement, numerous pores were generated (Figure 15c). The dissolution of laumontite in the depression’s central area is advantageous. The feldspar minerals in these pores partially or wholly dissolved under specific conditions, and the generated zeolite minerals became unstable and prone to dissolution. Therefore, a development zone of secondary pores appeared in the lithofacies-controlled area. The area developed with rich argillaceous sandstone or pebbly sandstone, under high rock compression conditions challenging for pore retention (Figure 15d).

Figure 15 Division and evolution of the diagenetic facies of the Wuerhe Formation. (a) Division of diagenetic evolution; (b–d) pore structure pattern.
Figure 15

Division and evolution of the diagenetic facies of the Wuerhe Formation. (a) Division of diagenetic evolution; (b–d) pore structure pattern.

6 Conclusions

  1. Tectonic activity was weak in the study area during the deposition of the Permian Wuerhe Formation, and fan delta sedimentation occurred. The provenance corresponded to the northeast protrusion. The sedimentary thickness continuously thinned from southwest to northeast, with a maximum burial depth of approximately 7,500 m. The reservoir lithology was sandy conglomerate, sandstone, and siltstone, and the rock debris content was high.

  2. The diagenesis of the Wuerhe Formation included compaction, cementation, and dissolution processes. The compaction intensity was high, resulting in the high density of the reservoir sandstone. The cementation materials included carbonate rock and laumontite. Dissolution occurred primarily in the interstitial materials and unstable clasts, and the clast dissolution process involved feldspar and rock debris.

  3. The reservoir’s primary pores have disappeared. The primary pore types include dissolution pores of unstable clastic and interstitial materials, most of which are small pores and micropores with poor connectivity. With increasing depth, the porosity and permeability decrease considerably, and no obvious secondary pore zone appears. Diagenesis had the greatest impact on the reservoir’s later densification. The diagenetic facies that played a leading role in pore enlargement were the unstable clastic and cementation mineral dissolution facies.

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the workers of Shengli Oilfield of Sinopec for supplying research data. This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (ZR2020MD035) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51504143 and 51674156).

  1. Funding information: Authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Shasha Guo: conceptualization, project administration, data analysis, and writing; Xuecai Zhang: resources, sorting, and writing; Jue Wang: methodology, writing, and revising; Siwen Wang: writing and revising; Kemin Liu: writing and revising; and Jinkai Wang: conceptualization, methodology, writing, and reviewing.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this article.

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Received: 2024-01-23
Revised: 2024-09-18
Accepted: 2024-09-22
Published Online: 2024-11-04

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
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  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0711
Keywords for this article
Junggar Basin; evolution mechanism; diagenesis; deep sag; Wuerhe Formation
Creative Commons
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