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Structural features and tectonic activity of the Weihe Fault, central China

  • Qinhu Tian , Shidi Wang , Xiaoni Li and Lei Liu EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 2, 2024
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

The study of tectonic activity holds great significance in assessing historical and modern seismic risks. The Weihe Graben is a significant intracontinental graben system in China, with numerous active faults that have caused a series of earthquakes, including the Huaxian great earthquake (M ∼ 8.5) in 1556 with approximately 830,000 deaths. Despite the obvious spatial relationship between the Weihe fault (WF) and these earthquakes, detailed research on the fault is still lacking. Various techniques including remote sensing images, digital elevation model, shallow seismic lines, trench excavation, drilling sections, and optically stimulated luminescence dating, have been utilized to obtain the following results: (1) The WF passes through the scarp of the Weihe River terrace in the north of Xianyang and can be divided into east and west sections at Jinjia village; (2) The WF is a normal fault that strikes northeast and dips south with a dipping angle of 65°–75°; (3) The fault has been active during the Holocene; (4) The vertically offset and dating results suggest that the fault activity has gradually decreased since the late Pleistocene, and the vertical slip rate during the Holocene is only 0.04–0.13 mm/year.

Keywords: Weihe Graben; Weihe fault; remote sensing; DEM; shallow seismic lines

1 Introduction

Numerous studies highlight the close relationship between active tectonics and seismic activity [1,2,3]. Active thrusting and strike-slip faults related to seismicity have been proven to be related with large earthquakes, such as the thrusting fault of the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake [4,5,6] and the strike-slip fault of the 2001 Ms 8.1 Kunlun earthquake [7]. Similarly, the normal faults in China [8,9,10], Greece [11,12,13,14,15], Italy [16,17,18,19,20], Turkey [21], and the USA [22,23,24,25] have been extensively researched in recent years, which proved the relationship between seismicity and normal faults. Normal faults have high importance, as in the case of the deadliest earthquake of history, the 1556 M ∼ 8.5 Huaxian earthquake, which occurred in the Weihe Graben in central China [8,9].

The Weihe Graben, situated at the junction of the Tibetan Plateau to the southwest, the North China block to the north, and the South China Block to the south (Figure 1a) [9,10,26], has been associated with a series of large earthquakes related to normal faults [8,27,28,29,30,31]. In recent years, several normal faults in the Weihe Graben, such as the Huashan piedmont fault (HPF), the North Margin fault of the Weinan loess tableland (NMF-WLT), and the Weinan-Jingyang fault, which were correlated with historical earthquakes such as the Huaxian great earthquake (M ∼ 8.5) in 1556, have been extensively investigated [8,9,28,30]. Despite exhibiting an obvious spatial relationship with earthquakes (Figure 1b), the Weihe fault (WF), which is among the active faults in the Weihe Graben, is yet to undergo detailed research.

Figure 1 (a) Location and tectonics of the Weihe Graben (modified after Rao [9]). NCC: North China Craton; SCB: South China Block. (b) The topographic characters and structures of the study area (modified after Li [8]; Rao et al., [9,28]). QMF, Qishan-Mazhao fault; WF, Weihe fault; QPF, Qinling piedmont fault; NMF-WLT, North Margin fault of the Weinan loess tableland; KGF, Kouzhen–Guanshan fault; HPF, Huashan piedmont fault.
Figure 1

(a) Location and tectonics of the Weihe Graben (modified after Rao [9]). NCC: North China Craton; SCB: South China Block. (b) The topographic characters and structures of the study area (modified after Li [8]; Rao et al., [9,28]). QMF, Qishan-Mazhao fault; WF, Weihe fault; QPF, Qinling piedmont fault; NMF-WLT, North Margin fault of the Weinan loess tableland; KGF, Kouzhen–Guanshan fault; HPF, Huashan piedmont fault.

This study investigates the structural features of the active WF by adopting a multi-methodological approach, including remote sensing images, digital elevation model (DEM), shallow seismic lines, field and paleoseismological observations, drilling sections, and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating. The outcomes of this research can contribute to our understanding of the activity characteristics of normal faults in the Weihe Graben and their relationship with earthquakes.

2 Tectonic setting

The Weihe Graben is situated in the subduction and collision zone of the Ordos Block, North China plate, and North Qinling thrust system, and stretches in the east to west and southwest to northeast direction for about 300 km (Figure 1a) [9,26,32,33]. Geophysical exploration profiles and drilling data indicate that the graben is composed of a series of asymmetrical sub-grabens [34]. The faults in the graben have been active since the late Pleistocene, and a significant number of strong earthquakes have been recorded in history, including the Huaxian great earthquake (M ∼ 8.5) in 1556 that resulted in approximately 830,000 deaths [35,36,37]. Most of the faults, such as the WF, HPF, and NMF-WLT, extend for hundreds of kilometers in NEE-SWW to E-W direction (Figure 1b), while the Qishan-Mazhao fault (QMF) extends in NWW-SEE direction for hundreds of kilometers.

The WF is a major fault in the graben that is known for its large-scale seismic activity and is considered one of the primary faults controlling the development of the basin [38]. Over the years, numerous historical earthquakes, such as the M5.5 in BC280, M6.3 in AD1487, and M6.8 in AD1568, as well as modern earthquakes, have occurred associated with the WF (Figure 1b) [39]. The sedimentary deposits of the Weihe Graben accumulated since the Eocene are approximately 7,000 m thick because of crustal extension and the uplift of both blocks in the north and south of the graben, in particular, the sedimentary deposits since the Quaternary is 600–1,352 m [9,26,32,33,36].

The WF is primarily located on the north bank of the Weihe River [40,41,42], and extends roughly along the boundary of the First Terrace (T-I) and Second Terrace (T-II) in the north of Jinjia, as well as along the boundary of T-II and Third Terrace (T-III) in the western segment (Figure 2). The fault gradually disappears and intersects with the NMF-WLT eastward, extending through Xi’an and Xianyang to Zhouzhi westward. The WF exhibits activity in the Holocene period to the east of Zhouzhi, which has been confirmed by both displacement of the sedimentary deposits and documented earthquakes (Figure 1b) [39,43].

Figure 2 Topographic features along the WF based on 12.5 m ALOS DEM data. The terraces were revised from Geomorphological map of Guanzhong Basin at scale of 1:200,000. South of the fault is the hanging wall, and north is the foot wall.
Figure 2

Topographic features along the WF based on 12.5 m ALOS DEM data. The terraces were revised from Geomorphological map of Guanzhong Basin at scale of 1:200,000. South of the fault is the hanging wall, and north is the foot wall.

3 Materials and methods

Gaofen-2 (GF-2) is a high-resolution optical Earth observation satellite launched in 2014. Two scenes of GF-2 data were acquired in different years, one on August 3rd, 2017 and the other on September 14th, 2021, due to the relatively low temporal resolution of GF-2 and the tendency of this area to be covered by clouds. Both scenes have no clouds or snow, and the signal-to-noise ratio is high. The GF-2 data consist of four multispectral bands in the visible/near-infrared range with a spatial resolution of 4 m, as well as a panchromatic band with a spatial resolution of 1 m (https://www.cresda.com/zgzywxyyzx/index.html). For interpretation purposes, natural color images were created by layer stacking the red, green, and blue bands, which were then merged with the panchromatic band using the intensity-hue-saturation transformation method [44].

The 12.5 m resolution advanced land observing satellite (ALOS) DEM data were downloaded from the Alaska Satellite Facility website (https://search.asf.alaska.edu/). These data were utilized to aid the remote sensing interpretation of the WF, terraces, and topographic profiles by generating a 3D image with the help of ArcScene 10.2 software. This process enabled a more accurate visualization and analysis of the terrain and geological features in the study area.

Nine shallow seismic lines were implemented along the WF in a northwest to southeast direction to infer the location, extension, dip angle, and depth of the active fault (Figure 2). The measurement and data processing followed the workflow of previous research studies [5,19]. To verify the results derived from remote sensing and shallow seismic profiles, ten drillhole sections comprising 120 drill holes with a depth range of 80–100 m and three trenches were executed across the WF (Figure 2). The structures observed from the drillings and trench excavation helped to identify the characteristics of the fault. To accurately determine the active events of the fault, samples collected from the drillings and trenches were tested for OSL dating at the State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics in China.

4 Results

4.1 Identification of active faults

Active normal faults are typically characterized by the displacement of landforms, such as fault scarps [45,46]. This makes 3D imaging and topographic profiles valuable tools for identifying active faults [9,28,47,48,49]. In the western part of the study area, the loess tableland (Lt), T-III, and T-II were identified based on the scarps observed in the 3D image created by combining GF-2 images and ALOS DEM data, as illustrated in Figure 3a. The WF’s location was delineated by the development of a linear fault scarp approximately 8 m high within the T-II in the western part of the study area (as shown in Figures 3b–d), while the fault was mostly coincident with the terraces of T-II and T-I in the eastern part with the vertical offset more than 20 m (as shown in Figures 3e and f). Consequently, a series of topographic profiles were extracted from the 3D image, and the WF’s distribution and extension were interpreted, as depicted in Figure 2. The location of the fault was confirmed by shallow seismic lines, trench excavation, and drilling sections, which are described in Sections 4.2 and 4.3.

Figure 3 (a) Fault scarp of WF in GF-2 image; (b–f) topographic profiles across the WF (refer Figure 2 for locations). Lt, Loess Tableland; T-III, Third Terrace; T-II, Second Terrace; T-I, First Terrace. White arrows point to the fault scarp close to P1.
Figure 3

(a) Fault scarp of WF in GF-2 image; (b–f) topographic profiles across the WF (refer Figure 2 for locations). Lt, Loess Tableland; T-III, Third Terrace; T-II, Second Terrace; T-I, First Terrace. White arrows point to the fault scarp close to P1.

4.2 Shallow seismic and drilling profiles

Based on the remote sensing and DEM data (Figure 3), nine shallow seismic lines were designed and conducted across the WF (Figure 2). The interpretation of shallow seismic data begins with the comparison of reflected waves. Based on the time section of seismic profile, the reflected waves of adjacent seismic channels can be compared and traced according to the similarity, in-phase, continuity, amplitude, frequency characteristics, and the relationship between wave groups. The reflected wave groups that cannot be continuously traced in the whole section were compared locally. A total of eight groups of reflection waves (T1–T7, TQ) were traced and interpreted (Figure 4 and Figures S1–S8). TQ was considered to be at the bottom boundary of the Quaternary deposits because the reflection wave of the bottom boundary of the Quaternary system has the characteristic of strong reflection. In the time section, the breakpoints of the fault are interpreted by the dislocation, distortion, and abrupt occurrence of the in-phase axis of the reflected wave. Among the nine shallow seismic lines, W2 is located at Chengjia village and spans the Lt-I, Lt-II, and Lt-III in the north of the Weihe River, with a length of 5,600 m (Figure 4). The W2 seismic profile reveals eight identifiable reflection interfaces (T1 to T7 and TQ). The TQ reflection interface is likely the bottom boundary of the Quaternary deposits, as suggested by the characteristics of the reflection waves displayed in the profile. By analyzing the characteristics of the reflected wave’s in-phase axis distortion and dislocation, saltation of reflected wave energy, and number of in-phase axes, a normal fault (marked as F in Figure 4) dipping to the southeast was interpreted at the terrace scarp near the boundary of Lt-II and Lt-III, at approximately 4,106 m in Figure 4 at the surface. The location of the fault, interpreted from the shallow seismic profiles, is consistent with that inferred from the 3D image. The stratigraphic reflection wave’s characteristics suggest that the fault has dislocated the reflection interface T1 at a depth of 38–42 m (Figure 4). However, the shallowest deposits that the fault has dislocated could not be determined since no stratigraphic reflection interface prior to T1 was identified. The surface points of the WF, interpreted from the nine shallow seismic profiles, are illustrated in Figure 2 and Figures S1–S8, which reveals that the fault can be divided into two sections, the east and the west, at Jinjia village. The two sections show a sinistral en-echelon of 800 m (Figure 2).

Figure 4 Time section of the shallow seismic profile W2. Cyan lines are the interpreted boundaries of the eight groups (T1–T7, TQ).
Figure 4

Time section of the shallow seismic profile W2. Cyan lines are the interpreted boundaries of the eight groups (T1–T7, TQ).

The results of borehole indicate that the sediments of this area consist mainly of silty clay, loess, paleosol, and sand (Figure 5). Located approximately 200 m east of shallow seismic line W2, drillhole joint profile WZ4 comprises five drillholes named WZ4-5, WZ4-3, WZ4-1, WZ4-2, and WZ4-4 (from south to north). The drillholes have a uniform drilling depth of 80 m, and the intervals between two adjacent drillholes from south to north are 83.4, 10.5, 11.3, and 10 m, respectively (Figure 5). As shown in Figure 5, four sedimentary layers are present, consisting of loess, silty clay, sand gravel, and silty clay with sand interlayers (from top to bottom). The age of each sedimentary layer was determined by the stratigraphic correlation method based on the OSL dating results of the same layer tested by previous research works [30]. Three drill holes, SK1 (34°26.731′N, 108°56.817′E, drilling depth 150.6 m), BZK (108°41′42.308″E, 34°19′21.594″N, drilling depth 118 m), and YL2 (34°16′18.22″N, 108°38′15.89″E, drilling depth 102.65 m), implemented by the Shaanxi Earthquake Agency in 2022 with nearly all the layers dated by OSL method, were used as reference [39]. Based on drill core logging, the layers numbered (1) and (2) were determined to be paleosols formed in the Late Pleistocene, while (3) and (4) represent the Mid-Pleistocene (Figure 5). The background color of the four major layers (1)–(4) was denoted as green, cyan, purple, and yellow from top to bottom, respectively (Figure 5). All the layers are inclined slightly to the south. The loess, which appears yellowish-brown, is part of the Late Pleistocene aeolian deposits. The silty clay, with thickness ranging from 14 to 21 m, is alluvial brown-colored fine-grained sediment of the Late Pleistocene. The gravelly sand, 21–24 m thick, is the coarse-grained alluvial sediments of the Late Middle Pleistocene, mainly composed of medium to fine sand with interspersed rounded gravels. The layer of silty clay interlayered with sand is fluvio-lacustrine deposits of the Late Middle Pleistocene, with yellowish-brown to reddish-brown silty clay and grayish-yellow sand layers.

Figure 5 Drilling section at Chengjia village. The background color of the four major sedimentary layers (1)–(4) were denoted as green, cyan, purple, and yellow from top to bottom, respectively.
Figure 5

Drilling section at Chengjia village. The background color of the four major sedimentary layers (1)–(4) were denoted as green, cyan, purple, and yellow from top to bottom, respectively.

In the borehole joint profile (Figure 5), a clear stratigraphic discontinuity is evident between drillholes WZ4-1 and WZ4-3, with all four layers showing displacement. The fault plane has been clearly observed in the two boreholes (Figure S9). The fault dips south, with the upper breakpoint located in the soil layer at a depth of approximately 3 m. The fault extends down to the south side of borehole WZ1-3 and represents the hanging wall of a normal fault. The layers on the south side have subsided, resulting in an increased deposit thickness. Conversely, the layers on the north side have been uplifted, and the thickness of the sediments is relatively thinner. The fault is inferred to be a normal fault formed contemporaneously with the Quaternary deposits. By comparing the marker layers, the fault has caused displacement of Late Pleistocene deposits for 6.41 m (374.86–368.45) and Middle Pleistocene deposits for 31.88 m (353.15–321.27).

4.3 Trench investigation and dating results

Based on the results of remote sensing and shallow seismic profiles, three trenches were excavated across the WF. The trench, located near Yangjia village, was set at a fault scarp in the west of the study area, and six faults were identified from the profile of the trench (Figure 6). The main fault, F, was inferred to be the WF. The paleosol was used as the marker, which had been dislocated by F for approximately 16.5 m (Unit 3 in Figure 6). Similarly, the bottom of the Late Pleistocene loess was dislocated by F for about 11.0 m (Unit 2 in Figure 6). Unit 3 was more deformed than other units, making it more suitable for dating and further slip rate calculation. Based on the OSL dating of the samples collected from the bottom of the loess, the age was determined to be 37,460 ± 2,360 year B.P. Fractures were observed at the top of the main fault F, which had passed through the Late Pleistocene paleosol and reached the surface. The top of the branch fault F6 had penetrated a Han Dynasty tomb built about 2,000 years ago (communication with the Department of Archaeology, Northwest University, China), resulting in a 1–2 cm wide tension fissure at the bottom of the tomb’s brick, indicating that the fault is tensile and may be active in the Holocene (Figure 6d). A northeast-southwest-trending ground fracture was observed on Xianping Road and the wall near the trench, confirming the fault’s activity and extension direction (Figure 7).

Figure 6 (a) Photograph and (b) sketch of the west wall in trench TC1 located near Yangjia village and (c) and (d) enlarged photograph of the trench of (a).
Figure 6

(a) Photograph and (b) sketch of the west wall in trench TC1 located near Yangjia village and (c) and (d) enlarged photograph of the trench of (a).

Figure 7 (a) Location of WF and Xianping Road in GF-2 image and (b) the ground deformation with direction of northeast-southwest observed on Xianping Road near the trench.
Figure 7

(a) Location of WF and Xianping Road in GF-2 image and (b) the ground deformation with direction of northeast-southwest observed on Xianping Road near the trench.

5 Discussion and conclusion

5.1 Geometric characteristics of the WF

The geometric features of the WF were analyzed in this study using various methods, including 3D imaging, shallow seismic lines, drilling sections, and trench excavation. The results revealed that the fault plane has a strike of N65°E and dips toward SE, with dip angles ranging from 65° to 75° observed from the three trenches. According to shallow seismic lines, the dip angle of the fault is larger in the shallow part and gradually flattens in the deep part. These findings are consistent with previous studies that have reported dip angles of normal faults in the Weihe Graben to be between 40° and 80° [28,50]. We also highlight that the WF is organized into two sections, east and west, at Jinjia village, with an 800 m en-echelon step-over for the two sections (Figure 2).

5.2 Slip rates

The slip rates of active normal faults in the Weihe Graben have been the focus of numerous studies, with calculated rates ranging from 0.1 to 10.4 mm/year [8,9,27,29,35,36,51,52]. However, there is a large discrepancy among the results due to several factors. For example, some results were achieved using inferred ages of displaced landforms without accurate dating data [36,51], while most studies only used limited outcrop profiles with few samples for dating [8,9,27,29]. Few studies have estimated the slip rate of the WF, and the results are widely divergent [27,52]. For example, Xu et al. [52] obtained a result ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mm/year using sedimentary sequence data from drillhole data, while Lin et al. [27] obtained a vertical slip rate of 1.5 mm/year using topographic surface markers from DEM data and OSL dating from an outcrop profile. The limited samples for dating used in these studies result in a large discrepancy among these results, whereas the actual amount of offset is sometimes difficult to choose the topographic markers in the field.

The WF, segmented into two sections with an offset of 800 m at Jinjia village, has been studied to determine the slip rates of its west section (from Yangjia village to Jinjia village) and east section (from Jinjia village to Zhangjiawan village). The analysis was carried out using OSL dating data from this study obtained from drillings and trenches, respectively.

Boreholes have penetrated the Holocene and Late Pleistocene sedimentary deposits, but have only partially uncovered the Middle Pleistocene sedimentary deposits. Most of the Late Pleistocene and Middle Pleistocene sedimentary deposits, as well as some Holocene sedimentary deposits in the drillhole sections, have been displaced by the WF (Figure 5). Tables 1 and 2 present the vertical slip rates of the west section (from Yangjia village to Jinjia village) and the east section (Jinjia village to Zhangjiawan village), respectively, calculated from the dislocation and OSL dating results. The slip rate of Holocene for the WF is 0.04 to 0.13 mm/year, and the slip rate of Late Pleistocene ranges from 0.11 to 0.45 mm/year (Tables 1 and 2, and Figure S16). Notably, the east section has a higher slip rate in the Holocene, which is consistent with the fact that the epicenters of large earthquakes along the WF are all located in the east section (Figure 1).

Table 1

Estimated fault slip rates of west section of WF

ID Longitude Latitude Reference Vertical offset (m) Ages (Ka BP) Slip rate (mm/yr)
TC2 108.6452 34.3386 Dark loessial soils 0.15 3.7 ± 0.2 0.04
TC1 108.5523 34.3117 Paleosol 16.5 46.0 ± 3.3 0.36
ZT2 108.6428 34.3374 Isabellinus loess 14.3 36.4 ± 2.3 0.39
ZT4 108.6643 34.3427 Isabellinus loess 12.9 28.8 ± 0.1 0.45

Note: Sample location labeled in Figure 2, vertical offsets in TC1 and TC2 refer Figure 6 and Figure S10, vertical offsets in ZT2 and ZT4 refer Figures S12 and S13, respectively.

Table 2

Estimated fault slip rates of east section of WF

ID Longitude Latitude Reference Vertical offset (m) Ages (Ka BP) Slip rate (mm/yr)
TC3 108.9024 34.4192 Pale yellow fine sand 1.2 9.2 ± 0.3 0.13
ZT8 108.7909 34.3836 Grey silty clay 12.4 73.5 ± 3.2 0.17
ZT9 108.8129 34.3968 Brown gray silty clay 8.54 81.1 ± 4.2 0.11

Note: Sample location labeled in Figure 2, and vertical offset in TC3, ZT8, and ZT9 refer Figures S11, S14, and S15, respectively.

The results of this study are comparable to the 0.1–0.5 mm/year range reported by Xu et al. [52]. Moreover, our study used seven samples with accurate dating results collected from trenches and drillholes, along with precise dislocations observed from trenches or inferred from drillholes, providing more reliable results.

The large variation in slip rates for active normal faults in the Weihe Graben makes comparison among these results difficult. However, it is accepted that the slip rate of the east section of the Weihe Graben is higher than that of west section [9,27,35]. For example, the slip rates of the HPF (Figure 1) vary from 2.1 to 5.7 mm/year [9], and the rate of the QMF is 1–1.5 mm/year [27]. This is consistent with the result of this research that the east section of the WF has a higher slip rate. Therefore, more work is needed to clarify the mechanism of the differences in slip rates and identify the seismogenic faults, which requires more detailed fieldwork, drilling, and dating data for each single normal fault of the Weihe Graben.

5.3 Tectonic implications for the graben

The WF, located in the middle of the Weihe Graben, together with a series of normal faults, such as Beishan piedmont fault (BPF), NMF-WLT, and Qinling piedmont fault (QPF), controls the strong subsidence and 7,000 m sedimentary deposits (Figure 8) [27,32,33,36]. Most of the normal faults in the Weihe Graben were considered to be characterized by dip-slip movements (Figure 8) indicating a NW–SE extensional stress direction [9,27].

Figure 8 Tectonic model of the Weihe Graben. Q, Quaternary sedimentary deposits; N, Neogene sedimentary deposits; E, Eogene sedimentary deposits; Pz, Paleozoic units (mainly limestone and dolomite); Pt, Proterozoic metamorphic rocks (schist and gneiss) and granitic rocks; BPF, Beishan piedmont fault; QPF, Qinling piedmont fault; NMF-WLT, North Margin fault of the Weinan loess tableland. The vertical depths are not precisely scaled.
Figure 8

Tectonic model of the Weihe Graben. Q, Quaternary sedimentary deposits; N, Neogene sedimentary deposits; E, Eogene sedimentary deposits; Pz, Paleozoic units (mainly limestone and dolomite); Pt, Proterozoic metamorphic rocks (schist and gneiss) and granitic rocks; BPF, Beishan piedmont fault; QPF, Qinling piedmont fault; NMF-WLT, North Margin fault of the Weinan loess tableland. The vertical depths are not precisely scaled.

Recent studies have found that many faults in the Weihe Graben have exhibited left-lateral strike-slip movement since the Holocene, such as the QPF [53,54], QMF [27,55,56], and Kouzhen–Guanshan fault [57]. The Shaanxi Earthquake Agency [39] found that the WF spreads out in a horsetail shape at the western end (west of Xingping), which might result from strike-slip movement [58]. Therefore, the vertical movement of WF has weakened since the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, possibly because the strike-slip movement has gradually increased. However, the strike-slip movement has not been identified during field observation in this research, indicating that further research is needed to ascertain the existence of strike-slip movement of the WF.

  1. Funding information: This article was supported by Key Research and Development Program of Shaanxi (Program No. 2024SF-ZDCYL-05-15), Spark Program of Earthquake Sciences (Program No. XH24040B), Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi (Program No. 2023-JC-QN-0305) and the project of active fault detection and seismic risk assessment in Fengxi.

  2. Author contributions: Qinhu Tian: Methodology, Writing–original draft. Shidi Wang: Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing–review & editing. Xiaoni Li: Methodology, Writing–review & editing. Lei Liu: Supervision, Writing–original draft, Writing–review & editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

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Received: 2024-03-27
Revised: 2024-06-24
Accepted: 2024-06-27
Published Online: 2024-09-02

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0674
Keywords for this article
Weihe Graben; Weihe fault; remote sensing; DEM; shallow seismic lines
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Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Theoretical magnetotelluric response of stratiform earth consisting of alternative homogeneous and transitional layers
  3. The research of common drought indexes for the application to the drought monitoring in the region of Jin Sha river
  4. Evolutionary game analysis of government, businesses, and consumers in high-standard farmland low-carbon construction
  5. On the use of low-frequency passive seismic as a direct hydrocarbon indicator: A case study at Banyubang oil field, Indonesia
  6. Water transportation planning in connection with extreme weather conditions; case study – Port of Novi Sad, Serbia
  7. Zircon U–Pb ages of the Paleozoic volcaniclastic strata in the Junggar Basin, NW China
  8. Monitoring of mangrove forests vegetation based on optical versus microwave data: A case study western coast of Saudi Arabia
  9. Microfacies analysis of marine shale: A case study of the shales of the Wufeng–Longmaxi formation in the western Chongqing, Sichuan Basin, China
  10. Multisource remote sensing image fusion processing in plateau seismic region feature information extraction and application analysis – An example of the Menyuan Ms6.9 earthquake on January 8, 2022
  11. Identification of magnetic mineralogy and paleo-flow direction of the Miocene-quaternary volcanic products in the north of Lake Van, Eastern Turkey
  12. Impact of fully rotating steel casing bored pile on adjacent tunnels
  13. Adolescents’ consumption intentions toward leisure tourism in high-risk leisure environments in riverine areas
  14. Petrogenesis of Jurassic granitic rocks in South China Block: Implications for events related to subduction of Paleo-Pacific plate
  15. Differences in urban daytime and night block vitality based on mobile phone signaling data: A case study of Kunming’s urban district
  16. Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan
  17. Integrated geophysical approach for detection and size-geometry characterization of a multiscale karst system in carbonate units, semiarid Brazil
  18. Spatial and temporal changes in ecosystem services value and analysis of driving factors in the Yangtze River Delta Region
  19. Deep fault sliding rates for Ka-Ping block of Xinjiang based on repeating earthquakes
  20. Improved deep learning segmentation of outdoor point clouds with different sampling strategies and using intensities
  21. Platform margin belt structure and sedimentation characteristics of Changxing Formation reefs on both sides of the Kaijiang-Liangping trough, eastern Sichuan Basin, China
  22. Enhancing attapulgite and cement-modified loess for effective landfill lining: A study on seepage prevention and Cu/Pb ion adsorption
  23. Flood risk assessment, a case study in an arid environment of Southeast Morocco
  24. Lower limits of physical properties and classification evaluation criteria of the tight reservoir in the Ahe Formation in the Dibei Area of the Kuqa depression
  25. Evaluation of Viaducts’ contribution to road network accessibility in the Yunnan–Guizhou area based on the node deletion method
  26. Permian tectonic switch of the southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Constraints from magmatism in the southern Alxa region, NW China
  27. Element geochemical differences in lower Cambrian black shales with hydrothermal sedimentation in the Yangtze block, South China
  28. Three-dimensional finite-memory quasi-Newton inversion of the magnetotelluric based on unstructured grids
  29. Obliquity-paced summer monsoon from the Shilou red clay section on the eastern Chinese Loess Plateau
  30. Classification and logging identification of reservoir space near the upper Ordovician pinch-out line in Tahe Oilfield
  31. Ultra-deep channel sand body target recognition method based on improved deep learning under UAV cluster
  32. New formula to determine flyrock distance on sedimentary rocks with low strength
  33. Assessing the ecological security of tourism in Northeast China
  34. Effective reservoir identification and sweet spot prediction in Chang 8 Member tight oil reservoirs in Huanjiang area, Ordos Basin
  35. Detecting heterogeneity of spatial accessibility to sports facilities for adolescents at fine scale: A case study in Changsha, China
  36. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on soil nutrients by soft rock and sand remodeling
  37. Vibration prediction with a method based on the absorption property of blast-induced seismic waves: A case study
  38. A new look at the geodynamic development of the Ediacaran–early Cambrian forearc basalts of the Tannuola-Khamsara Island Arc (Central Asia, Russia): Conclusions from geological, geochemical, and Nd-isotope data
  39. Spatio-temporal analysis of the driving factors of urban land use expansion in China: A study of the Yangtze River Delta region
  40. Selection of Euler deconvolution solutions using the enhanced horizontal gradient and stable vertical differentiation
  41. Phase change of the Ordovician hydrocarbon in the Tarim Basin: A case study from the Halahatang–Shunbei area
  42. Using interpretative structure model and analytical network process for optimum site selection of airport locations in Delta Egypt
  43. Geochemistry of magnetite from Fe-skarn deposits along the central Loei Fold Belt, Thailand
  44. Functional typology of settlements in the Srem region, Serbia
  45. Hunger Games Search for the elucidation of gravity anomalies with application to geothermal energy investigations and volcanic activity studies
  46. Addressing incomplete tile phenomena in image tiling: Introducing the grid six-intersection model
  47. Evaluation and control model for resilience of water resource building system based on fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method and its application
  48. MIF and AHP methods for delineation of groundwater potential zones using remote sensing and GIS techniques in Tirunelveli, Tenkasi District, India
  49. New database for the estimation of dynamic coefficient of friction of snow
  50. Measuring urban growth dynamics: A study in Hue city, Vietnam
  51. Comparative models of support-vector machine, multilayer perceptron, and decision tree ‎predication approaches for landslide ‎susceptibility analysis
  52. Experimental study on the influence of clay content on the shear strength of silty soil and mechanism analysis
  53. Geosite assessment as a contribution to the sustainable development of Babušnica, Serbia
  54. Using fuzzy analytical hierarchy process for road transportation services management based on remote sensing and GIS technology
  55. Accumulation mechanism of multi-type unconventional oil and gas reservoirs in Northern China: Taking Hari Sag of the Yin’e Basin as an example
  56. TOC prediction of source rocks based on the convolutional neural network and logging curves – A case study of Pinghu Formation in Xihu Sag
  57. A method for fast detection of wind farms from remote sensing images using deep learning and geospatial analysis
  58. Spatial distribution and driving factors of karst rocky desertification in Southwest China based on GIS and geodetector
  59. Physicochemical and mineralogical composition studies of clays from Share and Tshonga areas, Northern Bida Basin, Nigeria: Implications for Geophagia
  60. Geochemical sedimentary records of eutrophication and environmental change in Chaohu Lake, East China
  61. Research progress of freeze–thaw rock using bibliometric analysis
  62. Mixed irrigation affects the composition and diversity of the soil bacterial community
  63. Examining the swelling potential of cohesive soils with high plasticity according to their index properties using GIS
  64. Geological genesis and identification of high-porosity and low-permeability sandstones in the Cretaceous Bashkirchik Formation, northern Tarim Basin
  65. Usability of PPGIS tools exemplified by geodiscussion – a tool for public participation in shaping public space
  66. Efficient development technology of Upper Paleozoic Lower Shihezi tight sandstone gas reservoir in northeastern Ordos Basin
  67. Assessment of soil resources of agricultural landscapes in Turkestan region of the Republic of Kazakhstan based on agrochemical indexes
  68. Evaluating the impact of DEM interpolation algorithms on relief index for soil resource management
  69. Petrogenetic relationship between plutonic and subvolcanic rocks in the Jurassic Shuikoushan complex, South China
  70. A novel workflow for shale lithology identification – A case study in the Gulong Depression, Songliao Basin, China
  71. Characteristics and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs in Fei-3 Member of Feixianguan Formation of Lower Triassic, Puguang area
  72. Impact of high-speed railway network on county-level accessibility and economic linkage in Jiangxi Province, China: A spatio-temporal data analysis
  73. Estimation model of wild fractional vegetation cover based on RGB vegetation index and its application
  74. Lithofacies, petrography, and geochemistry of the Lamphun oceanic plate stratigraphy: As a record of the subduction history of Paleo-Tethys in Chiang Mai-Chiang Rai Suture Zone of Thailand
  75. Structural features and tectonic activity of the Weihe Fault, central China
  76. Application of the wavelet transform and Hilbert–Huang transform in stratigraphic sequence division of Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in Southwest Sichuan Basin
  77. Structural detachment influences the shale gas preservation in the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation, Northern Guizhou Province
  78. Distribution law of Chang 7 Member tight oil in the western Ordos Basin based on geological, logging and numerical simulation techniques
  79. Evaluation of alteration in the geothermal province west of Cappadocia, Türkiye: Mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical, and remote sensing data
  80. Numerical modeling of site response at large strains with simplified nonlinear models: Application to Lotung seismic array
  81. Quantitative characterization of granite failure intensity under dynamic disturbance from energy standpoint
  82. Characteristics of debris flow dynamics and prediction of the hazardous area in Bangou Village, Yanqing District, Beijing, China
  83. Rockfall mapping and susceptibility evaluation based on UAV high-resolution imagery and support vector machine method
  84. Statistical comparison analysis of different real-time kinematic methods for the development of photogrammetric products: CORS-RTK, CORS-RTK + PPK, RTK-DRTK2, and RTK + DRTK2 + GCP
  85. Hydrogeological mapping of fracture networks using earth observation data to improve rainfall–runoff modeling in arid mountains, Saudi Arabia
  86. Petrography and geochemistry of pegmatite and leucogranite of Ntega-Marangara area, Burundi, in relation to rare metal mineralisation
  87. Prediction of formation fracture pressure based on reinforcement learning and XGBoost
  88. Hazard zonation for potential earthquake-induced landslide in the eastern East Kunlun fault zone
  89. Monitoring water infiltration in multiple layers of sandstone coal mining model with cracks using ERT
  90. Study of the patterns of ice lake variation and the factors influencing these changes in the western Nyingchi area
  91. Productive conservation at the landslide prone area under the threat of rapid land cover changes
  92. Sedimentary processes and patterns in deposits corresponding to freshwater lake-facies of hyperpycnal flow – An experimental study based on flume depositional simulations
  93. Study on time-dependent injectability evaluation of mudstone considering the self-healing effect
  94. Detection of objects with diverse geometric shapes in GPR images using deep-learning methods
  95. Behavior of trace metals in sedimentary cores from marine and lacustrine environments in Algeria
  96. Spatiotemporal variation pattern and spatial coupling relationship between NDVI and LST in Mu Us Sandy Land
  97. Formation mechanism and oil-bearing properties of gravity flow sand body of Chang 63 sub-member of Yanchang Formation in Huaqing area, Ordos Basin
  98. Diagenesis of marine-continental transitional shale from the Upper Permian Longtan Formation in southern Sichuan Basin, China
  99. Vertical high-velocity structures and seismic activity in western Shandong Rise, China: Case study inspired by double-difference seismic tomography
  100. Spatial coupling relationship between metamorphic core complex and gold deposits: Constraints from geophysical electromagnetics
  101. Disparities in the geospatial allocation of public facilities from the perspective of living circles
  102. Research on spatial correlation structure of war heritage based on field theory. A case study of Jinzhai County, China
  103. Formation mechanisms of Qiaoba-Zhongdu Danxia landforms in southwestern Sichuan Province, China
  104. Magnetic data interpretation: Implication for structure and hydrocarbon potentiality at Delta Wadi Diit, Southeastern Egypt
  105. Deeply buried clastic rock diagenesis evolution mechanism of Dongdaohaizi sag in the center of Junggar fault basin, Northwest China
  106. Application of LS-RAPID to simulate the motion of two contrasting landslides triggered by earthquakes
  107. The new insight of tectonic setting in Sunda–Banda transition zone using tomography seismic. Case study: 7.1 M deep earthquake 29 August 2023
  108. The critical role of c and φ in ensuring stability: A study on rockfill dams
  109. Evidence of late quaternary activity of the Weining-Shuicheng Fault in Guizhou, China
  110. Extreme hydroclimatic events and response of vegetation in the eastern QTP since 10 ka
  111. Spatial–temporal effect of sea–land gradient on landscape pattern and ecological risk in the coastal zone: A case study of Dalian City
  112. Study on the influence mechanism of land use on carbon storage under multiple scenarios: A case study of Wenzhou
  113. A new method for identifying reservoir fluid properties based on well logging data: A case study from PL block of Bohai Bay Basin, North China
  114. Comparison between thermal models across the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and Eastern Llanos basins in Colombia
  115. Mineralogical and elemental analysis of Kazakh coals from three mines: Preliminary insights from mode of occurrence to environmental impacts
  116. Chlorite-induced porosity evolution in multi-source tight sandstone reservoirs: A case study of the Shaximiao Formation in western Sichuan Basin
  117. Predicting stability factors for rotational failures in earth slopes and embankments using artificial intelligence techniques
  118. Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate
  119. Modification of dolomitization on reservoir spaces in reef–shoal complex: A case study of Permian Changxing Formation, Sichuan Basin, SW China
  120. Geological characteristics of the Daduhe gold belt, western Sichuan, China: Implications for exploration
  121. Rock physics model for deep coal-bed methane reservoir based on equivalent medium theory: A case study of Carboniferous-Permian in Eastern Ordos Basin
  122. Enhancing the total-field magnetic anomaly using the normalized source strength
  123. Shear wave velocity profiling of Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia, utilizing the multi-channel analysis of surface waves method
  124. Effect of coal facies on pore structure heterogeneity of coal measures: Quantitative characterization and comparative study
  125. Inversion method of organic matter content of different types of soils in black soil area based on hyperspectral indices
  126. Detection of seepage zones in artificial levees: A case study at the Körös River, Hungary
  127. Tight sandstone fluid detection technology based on multi-wave seismic data
  128. Characteristics and control techniques of soft rock tunnel lining cracks in high geo-stress environments: Case study of Wushaoling tunnel group
  129. Influence of pore structure characteristics on the Permian Shan-1 reservoir in Longdong, Southwest Ordos Basin, China
  130. Study on sedimentary model of Shanxi Formation – Lower Shihezi Formation in Da 17 well area of Daniudi gas field, Ordos Basin
  131. Multi-scenario territorial spatial simulation and dynamic changes: A case study of Jilin Province in China from 1985 to 2030
  132. Review Articles
  133. Major ascidian species with negative impacts on bivalve aquaculture: Current knowledge and future research aims
  134. Prediction and assessment of meteorological drought in southwest China using long short-term memory model
  135. Communication
  136. Essential questions in earth and geosciences according to large language models
  137. Erratum
  138. Erratum to “Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan”
  139. Special Issue: Natural Resources and Environmental Risks: Towards a Sustainable Future - Part I
  140. Spatial-temporal and trend analysis of traffic accidents in AP Vojvodina (North Serbia)
  141. Exploring environmental awareness, knowledge, and safety: A comparative study among students in Montenegro and North Macedonia
  142. Determinants influencing tourists’ willingness to visit Türkiye – Impact of earthquake hazards on Serbian visitors’ preferences
  143. Application of remote sensing in monitoring land degradation: A case study of Stanari municipality (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  144. Optimizing agricultural land use: A GIS-based assessment of suitability in the Sana River Basin, Bosnia and Herzegovina
  145. Assessing risk-prone areas in the Kratovska Reka catchment (North Macedonia) by integrating advanced geospatial analytics and flash flood potential index
  146. Analysis of the intensity of erosive processes and state of vegetation cover in the zone of influence of the Kolubara Mining Basin
  147. GIS-based spatial modeling of landslide susceptibility using BWM-LSI: A case study – city of Smederevo (Serbia)
  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
  149. Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro
  150. Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)
  151. Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia
  152. Understanding seismic hazard resilience in Montenegro: A qualitative analysis of community preparedness and response capabilities
  153. Forest soil CO2 emission in Quercus robur level II monitoring site
  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
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