Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate

Meng-Yu Tian; Yong-Jun Di; Ming-Jian Yang

doi:10.1515/geo-2022-0733

Article Open Access

Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate

Meng-Yu Tian , Yong-Jun Di and Ming-Jian Yang

Published/Copyright: November 29, 2024

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From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

The Late Cretaceous granitic rocks are widely distributed in South China; however, the precise geodynamic mechanism remains controversial. To solve this question, we conducted whole-rock geochemistry, mineral chemistry, zircon U–Pb ages, and Lu–Hf isotopic data analyses of the Maqigang beschtauite, which is exposed in southeastern Guangxi. Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry zircon U–Pb dating revealed the beschtauite emplacement at 83–85 Ma, representing Late Cretaceous magmatic activity. The rocks belong to the high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonite series and displayed metaluminous to weakly peraluminous affinity, with an A/CNK ratio ranging from 0.89 to 1.02. Whole-rock geochemical analyses showed that all rocks were enriched in Rb, Th, U, and K but depleted in Nb, Ta, Ti, Ba, and Sr. They were also rich in light rare earth elements with weakly negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.61–0.77). The beschtauite showed typical A-type granitoid affinities, with rich silica (mean: 64.95 wt%), alkali (Na₂O + K₂O, mean: 7.55 wt%), and high field strength elements (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y = 427.40–599.60 ppm) contents, high FeO^T/MgO (mean: 3.27) and 10⁴Ga/Al (mean: 2.75) ratios, and low Ba, Sr, Ti, and Eu contents. Mineral chemical analysis demonstrated that phenocrytic plagioclase was mainly andesite with an oscillating zone. Zircon Hf isotopic results showed zircon ε _Hf(t) values ranging from −10.8 to −0.9 and T_DM2 model age range from 1.2 to 1.8 Ga. These results indicate that the beschtauite was generated by the partial melting of ancient crustal materials via the underplating of mantle-derived magma. Based on these regional geological data, the Maqigang pluton was formed in an extensional back-arc setting associated with the continued rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate subduction zone.

Keywords: Late Cretaceous; A-type granitoids; beschtauite; Paleo-Pacific plate; South China

Abbreviations

HFSEs: high field strength elements
HREEs: heavy rare earth elements
LILEs: large ion lithophile elements
LREEs: light rare earth elements
REEs: rare-earth elements
SCB: South China Block
SEC: Southeast China

1 Introduction

The South China Block (SCB) is located in the west Pacific margin, a special area where the tectonic transition from Paleo-Tethys to the Paleo-Pacific during the Mesozoic, thus having a very complex tectonic framework and magmatic evolution [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. The Cretaceous crustal extension in South China induced widespread half-grabens or extensional basins (e.g., Jinqu Basin in Zhejiang and Hengyang Basins in Hunan [2,8,9]), extensional dome structures (e.g., Yuechengling, Wugongshan, and Lushan domes [10,11,12,13]), and numerous A-type granitic and bimodal volcanic rocks (e.g., the Qin-Hang Belt, and southeast coastal area [14,15,16,17,18,19]) with a total exposed area of approximately 100,000 km².

The tectonic setting responsible for the formation of Cretaceous granitic rocks in southeast China (SEC) has long been controversial [20,21,22,23,24,25]. Most scholars attribute their formation to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate [3,17,22,26,27], whereas others attribute it to the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys Ocean beneath SCB [28,29,30,31,32]. The controversy is attributed to the lack of data concerning the arc magmatism association with subduction. Despite this, it is generally agreed upon that South China experienced regional lithospheric extension during the Cretaceous, as evidenced by reliable magmatic, tectonic, and sedimentary data [9,13,28,33,34,35]. Therefore, extension-related magmatic data are key to resolving this debate.

A-type granitoids are characterized by rich silicon and alkali (Na₂O + K₂O) contents, high FeO^T/MgO and Ga/Al ratios, and low Al₂O₃, CaO, Ba, and Sr contents [36,37]. They commonly develop in extensional tectonic settings, such as post-orogenic or rift zones [36,38], and can provide valuable information on regional crust-mantle interaction and tectonic evolution [39]. Thus, studying A-type granitoids is essential for understanding continental crust evolution and the geodynamic process of orogen.

Recently, we have identified the occurrence of the Late Cretaceous A-type granitoid (Maqigang beschtauite) in southeastern Guangxi province. This study aimed to constrain the petrogenetic and tectonic settings of the Maqigang beschtauite based on new whole-rock geochemistry, mineral chemistry, zircon U–Pb ages, and Lu–Hf isotopic analyses. Our findings present a better understanding of the geodynamic processes following the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate beneath the Eurasian continent.

2 Geological setting and pluton features

The SCB consists of the Cathaysia Block in the southeast and Yangtze Craton in the northwest, which are assumed to have amalgamated during the Neoproterozoic (Figure 1; [40,41,42] and references therein), and is characterized by extensive generation of magmatic rocks [22,43,44]. The ages at which the granitic rocks intruded are roughly divided into the Paleozoic (ca. 460–400 Ma), Permian-Triassic (ca. 260–230 Ma), and Jurassic–Cretaceous (ca. 180–80 Ma) [45,46]. SEC is distinguished by the widely distributed Yanshanian granitic rocks [15,47]. Jurassic granitic rocks are mostly found in the inland area of SEC, while Cretaceous granitoids are in the coastal area of SEC (Figure 1; [15,48,49,50]).

Figure 1

Sketch map showing the Cretaceous granitic rocks in South China (modified after Refs. [182,183]). The Zircon U–Pb ages of the data sources are listed in Table S1.

The Late Cretaceous igneous rocks are mainly composed of alkali feldspar granites, with small amounts of rhyolite, granodiorite, porphyry, andesite, diorite, gabbro, and diabase (Table S1; [51,52,53,54,55,56,57]). Chronological studies have indicated that continuous Late Cretaceous magmatism in SEC occurred between 100 and 75 Ma, with a major age range of 100–90 Ma (Figure 1; Table S1). Most of the Late Cretaceous alkali feldspar granites in SEC are classified as ferroan granitoid or A-type granite, and mantle-derived magmas have played a significant role in the petrogenesis of these granites [19,41,49].

Geological records report that the general pre-Yanshanian geology of southeastern Guangxi is characterized by Caledonian and Indosinian orogenic events [58,59,60]. This region has developed a relatively complete stratigraphic sequence from the Neoproterozoic to the Quaternary, except for the Permian and Triassic strata [31,61]. The Early Palaeozoic strata include Ordovician shallow-marine silty limestones, mudstones, and fine sandstones, as well as Silurian shallow-deep-marine quartz sandstones and siltstone/slates with minor sandstone interlayers [62]. Mesozoic strata are characterized by Jurassic lake-deltaic clastic rocks and mudstones, and Cretaceous fluvial red sandstones [19,62,63]. Cenozoic strata consist of Pliocene piedmont sandstones, conglomerates, and volcanic clastic rocks [39,64]. These sedimentary units overlay the Precambrian metamorphic basement.

Northeast-to-southwest trending faults are important in the geological framework of southeastern Guangxi (Figure 2a; [64]). They control the distribution of Mesozoic igneous rocks and basins and have undergone multiple phases of activity [65,66]. During the Jurassic to Cretaceous, magmatic activity in the area was mainly distributed along the Bobai–Cenxi Fault zone [67]. This fault zone is elongated in a northeast-to-southwest direction (total length approximately 410 km) with a variable width (7–30 km) and spans from the Beibuwan Bay to the Doluoshan Mountain Huaiji County, Guangdong Province [68]. The intrusion rocks in this area are dominated by granitic rocks, which are emplaced as small plutons, stocks, and dikes [31,69]. The Maqigang beschtauite pluton is mainly composed of several irregular independent small stocks or dikes (Figure 2b), with a total exposed area of approximately 25 km². The pluton has intruded into the Upper Cretaceous Luowen Formation (K₂ l), comprising purplish-red conglomerate, sandstone, and argillaceous siltstone with irregular contact relationships [39].

Figure 2

Simplified geological map of the Maqigang pluton in southeastern Guangxi province, South China (modified after Ref. [39]).

3 Petrography

The Maqigang samples are composed of mainly medium- to coarse-grained gray beschtauite with porphyritic texture and massive structure (Figure 3a). The beschtauite is mainly composed of plagioclase (25–30 wt%), K-feldspar (15–20 wt%), biotite (8–10 wt%), orthopyroxene (1–5 wt%), clinopyroxene (1–3 wt%), and quartz (5–8 wt%), while the matrix (20–25 wt%) is mainly composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, and pyroxene (Figure 3). Subhedral plagioclase phenocrysts showed polysynthetic twinning and oscillatory zoning, while they are featured frequently with melting corrosion structure (Figure 3a–d). Euhedral to subhedral K-feldspar exists in the form of sanidine and is often observed alongside the plagioclase phenocrysts (Figure 3d). The biotite appears as subhedral flakes that are <1 mm in length (Figure 3c) and are often observed alongside the pyroxene (Figure 3e and f). Notably, beschtauite also contains irregularly arranged mafic microgranular enclaves (MMEs) (Figure 3a).

Figure 3

Petrographic characteristics of beschtauite samples from the Maqigang pluton. (a) Beschtauite with MMEs. (b and c) Subhedral plagioclase phenocrysts and allotriomorphic biotite in the beschtauite. (d) Plagioclase develops polysynthetic twinning. (e and f) Orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene in the beschtauite. Mineral abbreviations: Q: quartz; Kfs: K-feldspar; Pl: plagioclase; Bt: biotite; Opx: orthopyroxene; Cpx: clinopyroxene.

4 Methods

4.1 Whole-rock geochemistry analysis

Analysis of the major, trace, and rare-earth elements within the Maqigang beschtauite was performed at the Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution, Peking University (Beijing, China). The major elements were measured using the flax method and analyzed using a scanning wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (AR-LADVANTXP+) with an error of less than 5%. Trace and rare earth elements (REEs) were analyzed using an Agilent 7500ce inductively coupled with a plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS).

Briefly, 25 mg of powdered sample was placed in a Teflon beaker with 2 mL HF (40%), 0.6 mL HNO₃ (68%), and 0.5 mL HClO₄ (72%). The beaker was sealed and heated in an electric oven at 185°C for 72 h, and the solution was left to evaporate. Then, 1–2 mL of HNO₃ (68%) was added to the solution, which was then left to evaporate until dry. This step was repeated, and the obtained residue was redissolved in 10 mL HNO₃ (2%) before sealing and heating in an electric oven at 105°C for 12 h. The obtained solution was diluted to 25 mL using HNO₃ (2%) solution for ICP-MS measurements. The measurement precision was greater than 5%, and the analytical values for all elements showed an error of <10% compared to standard values.

4.2 Mineral analysis

Electron probe X-ray microanalyzer of plagioclases was analyzed using a JEOLJXA-8230 (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) electron microprobe. This was conducted at the Hebei Institute for Regional Geology and Mineral Investigation (Langfang, China). The microprobe operated at a voltage of 15 kV, a beam current of 2 mA, and a spot diameter of 5 μm. The error range of the instrument was between 1 and 5% and was corrected with ZAF (atomic number correction Z, absorption correction A, fluorescence correction F). Detailed data acquisition and analytical procedures have been described by Xu et al. [70].

4.3 Zircon U–Pb dating

Zircon grains were separated from two granite samples (YK041 and YK436-1) by standard density and magnetic separation. They were embedded in a polished epoxy mount and imaged by cathodoluminescence (CL) to determine their internal structures. Zircon U–Pb dating was completed by laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology (HFUT). Analyses were carried out with a beam diameter of 32 μm, repetition rate of 6 Hz, and laser energy of 10 J/cm². External zircon standard 91500 and NIST SRM 610 were used to calibrate the U–Th–Pb ratios of unknown zircon grains. Standard zircons plešovice (mean age: 337 ± 0.4 Ma [71]) was used as secondary standards to calculate age deviations. The element concentrations and isotopic ratios were calculated using the ICPMSDataCal software [72]. Detailed operating conditions have been reported by Yuan et al. [73]. Concordia plots were processed using Isoplot/Exver 3.0 software [74].

4.4 Zircon Lu–Hf isotope analysis

In-situ zircon Lu–Hf isotope analyses were performed using a Teledyne Cetac Technologies Analyte Excite laser-ablation system attached to a Neptune Plus MC-ICP-MS at the Isotope Laboratory at the School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, HFUT. A 193-nm ArF excimer laser was focused on the zircon surface with a fluence of 6.0 J/cm². The ablation protocol used a spot diameter of 50 μm at an 8 Hz repetition rate for 30 s. Helium and argon were applied as the carrier gas to transport aerosol to MC-ICP-MS. Standard zircon grains (including Penglai, Qinghu, and Plešovice) were treated as quality control during the analytical process [71,75]. The initial values of ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf and ε _Hf(t) were calculated based on an ¹⁷⁶Lu decay constant of 1.865 × 10⁻¹¹ [76] and the present-day chondritic values of ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf (0.0332) and ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf (0.282772) [77]. Depleted mantle Hf model ages (T_DM) were calculated from the measured ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf and ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf ratios of the zircons. The average crustal ¹⁷⁶Lu/¹⁷⁷Hf value of 0.015 was used to calculate the two-stage model ages (T_2DM) [78].

5 Results

5.1 Major and trace elements

The major and trace element contents of the Maqigang beschtauite samples are listed in Table S2. The beschtauite contained rich SiO₂ (mean: 64.95 wt%), abundant K₂O (mean: 4.38 wt%), and high K₂O/Na₂O (mean: 1.39) and FeO^T/MgO (mean: 3.27) ratios. The total K₂O + Na₂O contents ranged from 7.03 to 8.14 wt%. These samples belong to the high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic series on the SiO₂ vs K₂O diagram (Figure 4a) and are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous on the A/CNK vs A/NK diagram (A/CNK = molar Al₂O₃/[CaO + Na₂O + K₂O]; A/NK = molar Al₂O₃/[Na₂O + K₂O]; A/CNK = 0.89–1.02; A/NK = 1.34–1.59) (Figure 4b). As seen in the SiO₂ vs AR and AFM diagrams, Figure 4c and d indicates that the beschtauite samples have the characteristics of calc-alkaline.

Figure 4

Plots of SiO₂ vs K₂O (a), A/NK vs A/CNK (b), SiO₂ vs AR (c), and AFM (d) the Maqigang beschtauite (according to Refs. [184,185,186,187]). A/NK = molar Al₂O₃/(Na₂O + K₂O); A/CNK = molar Al₂O₃/(CaO + Na₂O + K₂O); AR = log[Al₂O₃ + CaO + (Na₂O + K₂O)^total]/[Al₂O₃ + CaO – (Na₂O + K₂O)^total]; A = Na₂O + K₂O (wt%); F = FeO^total (wt%); M = MgO (wt%). Data sources are listed in Table S2.

The total REE content of all samples ranged from 301.02 to 312.81 ppm (mean: 307.06 ppm; Table S2), and LREE/HREE (LREEs: light REEs [from La to Eu]; HREEs: heavy REEs [from Gd to Lu]) ratios of 7.95–10.67 (mean: 9.86), (La/Yb)_N ratios of 8.86–14.23 (mean: 12.64), and (Gb/Yb)_N ratios of 1.38–2.17 (mean: 1.94). These samples contained abundant LREEs and a negative Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.61–0.77; Table S2) on the chondrite-normalized REE pattern (Figure 5a). On the primitive mantle-normalized trace element pattern, all samples are enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSEs), Ba, and Sr (Figure 5b).

Figure 5

Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle-normalized trace element patterns (b) for the Maqigang beschtauite. Normalizing data are derived from Ref. [119]. Data sources are listed in Table S2.

5.2 Mineral chemistry

The plagioclase samples have the following contents (range, wt%): SiO₂, 57.25–62.41; Al₂O₃, 23.48–26.31; CaO, 5.27–8.77; Na₂O, 6.14–8.12; and K₂O, 0.44–1.37 (Table S3). On the An–Ab–Or classification diagram (Figure 6), the phenocrytic plagioclase belongs to andesine (excluding results # 014 of sample YK041-1; An: 31.43–42.77 wt%, Ab: 54.16–64.87 wt%, Or: 2.53–7.72 wt%), with an oscillatory zone (Figure 7). Meanwhile, K-feldspar belongs to orthoclase w(Or) 63.70–80.74 wt%, with stripes and zonal development [44]. All pyroxene samples belong to the Ca-Mg-Fe pyroxene group, the orthopyroxene belongs to ferrosilite (Wo: 2.85–4.75 wt%, En: 38.29–46.65 wt%, Fs: 49.09–58.86 wt%) and the clinopyroxene belongs to augite (Wo: 41.45–42.05 wt%, En: 32.67–33.43 wt%. Fs: 24.52–25.83 wt%) [44].

Figure 6

An-Ab-Or compositions diagram of plagioclases in the Maqigang beschtauite (modified after Ref. [188]). Or: sanidine; Ab: albite; An: anortheite; Ol: oligoclase; And: andesine; Lb: labradorite; By: bytownite. Data sources are listed in Table S3.

Figure 7

Compositions variation from core to rim of plagioclase in the Maqigang beschtauite. Data sources are listed in Table S3.

5.3 Zircon U–Pb ages

Samples YK436-1 (location: 22°04'23″N, 109°47'37″E) and YK041-1 (location: 22°05'30″N, 109°46'53″E) were collected from the Maqigang pluton. CL images showed that the zircons from both samples are euhedral to subhedral, long, prismatic, colorless, and transparent, with lengths ranging from 30 to 230 μm and aspect ratios of 1:1 to 6:1. All grains showed distinct oscillatory zoning, with typical magmatic characteristics (Figure 8a and b), i.e., features of igneous zircons [79,80]. Some grains also developed inherited zircon, most of which are irregular or round, with complex and diverse internal structures and rhythmic zoning and core–mantle structures (Figure 8a and b). A few grains are dark and lack rhythmic zoning, indicating that they could be affected by the high U concentration [81]. These inherited zircons may represent entrapment from the country rocks or metamorphic basement during the uplift and emplacement of the magma [82,83].

Figure 8

Zircon CL map (a and b) and LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb concordant curves (c–f) of the Maqigang beschtauite. Data sources are listed in Table S4.

From sample YK436-1, 25 spot analyses on 25 zircon grains were obtained. The zircon grains contained 45.42–321.97 ppm of Th and 97.33–652.39 ppm of U, with a Th/U ratio range of 0.12–1.17 (Table S4). The sample YK436-1 yielded 22 effective spots for U–Pb age calculation, after eliminating spots 01 and 19 on the xenocrystic zircons and spot 08 outside the concordant line. The remaining 22 spots showed consistent ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages (82–95 Ma), with a weighted mean age of 85.0 ± 1.2 Ma (N = 22, mean square of weighted deviates (MSWD) = 1.6) (Figure 8c and d).

A total of 20 spot analyses on 20 zircon grains were obtained from sample YK041. The zircon grains have Th and U contents ranging from 85.80 to 359.25 ppm and 180.20 to 926.70 ppm, respectively, with Th/U ratios of 0.33–0.97 (Table S4). Sample YK041 yielded 14 effective spots for U–Pb age calculation. Except for the 14 spots, spots 07 and 13 were carried on the xenocrystic zircons and spots 05, 12, 17, and 20 were located outside the concordant line. The remaining fourteen spots weighted mean ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U age is 83.3 ± 2.1 Ma (N = 14, MSWD = 2.1) (Figure 8e and f).

5.4 Zircon Lu–Hf isotope

The Hf isotope compositions of the zircon grains from beschtauite samples were analyzed (Table S5). Initial ¹⁷⁶Hf/¹⁷⁷Hf ratios of 0.282416–0.282690 were obtained, with ε _Hf(t) values of –10.8 and –0.9, peaking at –4.0, and a two-stage model age (T_DM2) of 1.2–1.8 Ga, peaking at 1.6 Ga (Figure 9).

Figure 9

(a) Histogram of zircon ε _Hf (t) and (b) T_DM2(Hf) values for the Late Cretaceous granitic rocks in South China. Data sources are listed in Tables S5 and S6.

6 Discussion

6.1 Formation ages and petrogenetic type

LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb dating indicates the emplacement of the Maqigang beschtauite pluton during the Late Cretaceous (83–85 Ma). This result is similar to the age data (90.2 Ma) reported by Wang et al. [39]. Furthermore, combined with the age data of previous studies (Table S1), the latest igneous rocks formed at approximately 80 Ma, implying the end of the Late Cretaceous magmatism in South China (Figure 1; [54,84]).

Granitoids are classified as I, S, and A types according to the nature of their protolith and their geochemical and petrographical features [36,85,86]. The presence of hornblende and cordierite in the rocks is the most effective marker to identify I- and S-type granitoids, respectively [6,87,88]. The A-type granitoids can be classified into aluminous and alkaline subtypes, with the former lacking the characteristic alkali-rich mafic minerals [89,90,91]. Moreover, they are distinguished from the S- and I-type granitoids by their higher FeO^T/MgO and Ga/Al ratios, and abundant Na₂O + K₂O, and HFSEs (such as Zr, Nb, Ce, Y, and Ga) contents [36,38,92].

The Maqigang beschtauite has the following A-type granitoid geochemical characteristics: high FeO^T/MgO (mean: 3.27) and 10⁴Ga/Al (mean: 2.75) ratios, and abundant total alkali (Na₂O + K₂O, mean: 7.55 wt%) and HFSE contents (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y = 427.40–599.60 ppm). On the 10⁴Ga/Al vs Ce and Zr + Nb + Ce + Y vs FeO^T/MgO diagrams, the samples are plotted in the A-type field (Figure 10a and b). Moreover, their diagrams of SiO₂ vs FeO-index (FeO* = FeO^T/[FeO^T + MgO]) and MALI developed by Frost et al. also suggest that they have an A-type granitoid affinity (Figure 10c and d) [93]. Combined with their petrographical and geochemical features, including the absence of hornblende, garnet, and cordierite and comparatively low A/CNK (0.89–1.02) ratios, evidence argues against the characteristics of I- and S-types. Thus, we strongly suggest an A-type affinity for the Maqigang beschtauite.

$Figure 10 (a and b) 104Ga/Al vs Ce and Zr + Nb + Ce + Y vs FeOT/MgO diagrams (modified after Ref. [36]). (c and d) SiO2 vs FeO-index and MALI diagrams (modified after Ref. [93]). (e and f) Nb-Y-Ce and Nb-Y-3Ga diagrams (modified after Ref. [95]; peralkaline A-type granites values are after [100,189,190]; aluminous granites values are after [98,99,100]. FG: fractionated felsic granite; OGT: unfractionated granite. FeO* = FeOT/(FeOT + MgO), MALI = Na2O + K2O – CaO (wt%). Symbols as in Figure 4. Data sources are listed in Table S2.$

Figure 10

(a and b) 10⁴Ga/Al vs Ce and Zr + Nb + Ce + Y vs FeO^T/MgO diagrams (modified after Ref. [36]). (c and d) SiO₂ vs FeO-index and MALI diagrams (modified after Ref. [93]). (e and f) Nb-Y-Ce and Nb-Y-3Ga diagrams (modified after Ref. [95]; peralkaline A-type granites values are after [100,189,190]; aluminous granites values are after [98,99,100]. FG: fractionated felsic granite; OGT: unfractionated granite. FeO* = FeO^T/(FeO^T + MgO), MALI = Na₂O + K₂O – CaO (wt%). Symbols as in Figure 4. Data sources are listed in Table S2.

A-type granitoids can be further divided into A₁- and A₂-type granites according to trace element abundances [94,95]. A₁-type granitoids are associated with intraplate or continental rift zones, whereas A₂-type granitoids are related to post-collisional and subduction-related tectonic settings [29,96,97]. The beschtauite is straddled the A₁–A₂ boundary; however, its characteristics were similar to those of Late Cretaceous aluminous A-type granitoids in Coastal Southeast China (Figure 10e and f) [98,99,100]. Considering the lack of alkali-rich mafic minerals and higher zircon saturation thermometry (T _Zr = 786–841°C; mean: 818°C) [101], we suggest that the Maqigang beschtauite is characterized as aluminous A-type granitoids [101,102,103,104,105,106].

6.2 Source and petrogenesis

The petrogenesis of A-type granitoids has long been controversial [91]. A-type granites are genetically diverse and can be produced from various sources and through different processes. Existing models for the origin of A-type granitoids include direct fractionation products of magma from the mantle [107,108,109], remelting of dry granulitic crust after granitoid melt extraction [110,111,112], melting of mafic rocks newly derived from the mantle [113,114], and mixing between mantle-derived magma and crustal components [115,116,117].

If A-type granitoids were produced by direct fractionation products of magma from the mantle, they would coexist with a large number of basaltic rocks [109,118]. However, only a few Late Cretaceous basic dikes have developed in Guangxi, which are mainly derived from mafic magma produced by partial melting of the mantle [55,69]. Moreover, evidence of contemporaneous basic rock growth has not been observed in the vicinity of the Maqigang pluton. Granitic rocks formed by direct fractional crystallization in mantle-derived magmas have high Nd/Th ( >15) and Ce/Pb (>9) ratios [119]. By contrast, the Maqigang beschtauite has low Nd/Th (2.70–3.19) and Ce/Pb (4.72–6.43) ratios. Moreover, all beschtauite samples showed partial melting trends on the La/Sm vs La and Th/Zr vs Th diagrams (Figure 11), which further contradict this origin.

$Figure 11 Fractional crystallization and partial melting discriminative diagrams for the samples from the Maqigang pluton. (a) La/Sm vs La diagram (modified after Ref. [191]); (b) Th vs Th/Zr diagram (modified after Ref. [192]). PM: partial melting; FC: fractional crystallization. Symbols as in Figure 4. Data sources are listed in Table S2.$

Figure 11

Fractional crystallization and partial melting discriminative diagrams for the samples from the Maqigang pluton. (a) La/Sm vs La diagram (modified after Ref. [191]); (b) Th vs Th/Zr diagram (modified after Ref. [192]). PM: partial melting; FC: fractional crystallization. Symbols as in Figure 4. Data sources are listed in Table S2.

Experimental studies have verified that granitic rocks generated by the remelting of depleted granulitic residues contain abundant Ca and Al but low K and Si, and FeO^T/MgO contents [120,121]. The major elements of beschtauite are different from these characteristics (Table S2). Magmatic rocks formed by the partial melting of the mafic rocks in the lower crust are commonly metaluminous with K₂O/Na₂O ratios of <1 [113,122,123]. Moreover, beschtauite is metaluminous to weakly peraluminous (A/CNK = 0.89–1.02), with a K₂O/Na₂O ratio of 1.14–1.61. Therefore, the first three models cannot sufficiently explain the petrogenesis of the Maqigang beschtauite.

Based on its moderate SiO₂ (mean: 64.95 wt%) and MgO (mean: 1.74 wt%) contents, beschtauite may have originated from crust-involved magmas or highly evolved mantle-derived magmas [124]. The presence of Mesoproterozoic inherited zircons (1,439 Ma; Figure 8b) provides strong evidence for the involvement of ancient crustal materials in the formation of the beschtauite. Trace element ratios have important implications for the origin of igneous rocks [106,125]. The Nb/La, Sm/Nd, and Rb/Sr ratios of beschtauite range from 0.46–0.55, 0.18–0.23 and 0.51–0.67, respectively, which are closer to the average values of the crust (Nb/La: 0.5, Sm/Nd: 0. 3, Rb/Sr: 0.4) [126,127]. By contrast, their Nb/Ta and Zr/Hf values range from 15.92 to 20.59 and 34.10 to 40.17, respectively, which are close to those of the primitive mantle (Nb/Ta: 17.5, Zr/Hf: 37; [119]). The Mg^# (38.85–58.25; Mg^# = 100 × molar MgO/[MgO + FeO^T]) of the beschtauite is generally higher than that of crustal rock-derived melts (Mg^# < 40, [124,128,129,130]), suggesting the involvement of mantle-derived magmas.

Beschtauite has a relatively low initial Sr (0.7091–0.7092) and high ε _Nd(t) values (–5.6 to –5.2) (Table S7; Figure 12). Furthermore, two-stage Nd model ages (1.33–1.36 Ga; Table S7) are significantly younger than those of basement metamorphic rocks of the Cathaysia Block (1.8–2.2 Ga) [131]. Our samples were plotted above the evolutionary trend from the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic basement of the Cathaysia Block to the CHUR line, as shown in Figure 12a. The ε _Hf(t) values (−10.8 to −0.9) and T_DM2 model ages (1.2–1.8 Ga) of the beschtauite also clearly record this mantle contribution (Figure 13).

Figure 12

Zircon U–Pb ages vs ε _Nd(t) and (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)i vs ε _Nd(t) illustrations of the Late Cretaceous granitic rocks in South China. The Nd evolution trend shown for the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic basement of the Cathaysia Block was taken from Ref. [131]. Data of the Ningyuan basaltic rocks and Precambrian crust in Nanling range are from Refs. [117,135], and Sr-Nd isotopic data of the Maqigang beschtauite are from Ref. [39]. DM: depleted mantle; CHUR: chondritic uniform reservoir. The range of Sn, W-bearing granites in Nanling is from Ref. [193]. Data sources are listed in Table S7.

Figure 13

Zircon U–Pb ages vs ε _Hf(t) illustration of the Late Cretaceous granitic rocks in South China. DM: depleted mantle; CHUR: chondritic uniform reservoir. The values used for constructing the DM and crustal evolution reference lines were from Refs. [78,194]. The evolutionary area shown for the crustal basement of the Cathaysia Block was from Ref. [195]. Data sources are listed in Tables S5 and S6.

Many other Mesozoic A-type granitoids are widely distributed along the coastal region of South China, requiring the involvement of mantle material during their petrogenesis [57,132,133,134]. To evaluate the contribution of the mantle-derived and crust-derived magma, we used Ningyuan basalts and the Precambrian crust as two end-member components [117,135], indicating that 30–40% mantle-originated magma is essential to form the Maqigang beschtauite (Figure 12b).

According to experimental petrological studies, the zonal composition of plagioclase reveals magma evolution and crust–mantle mixing process [136,137,138]. The zonal structure of plagioclase crystals can record the changes in magma composition, temperature, and pressure owing to the slow diffusion of CaAl–NaSi composition during their growth [139,140]. The different types of plagioclase zoning patterns represent the compositional disequilibrium between the crystal and melt, which is considered a result of magma mixing [137,138,141,142].

Based on textural patterns, plagioclase may be divided into two types: normal and oscillatory. Plagioclase crystals (YK041-1 and YK042-9 samples) with oscillatory zoning fluctuate in the range of andesine from the core–mantle–edge (Figure 7). This may be attributed to the relatively stable crystal growth environment, resulting in a weak fluctuation of their An components, suggesting less variation in temperature and pressure within the magma chamber [143,144]. However, some crystals showed unclear oscillatory zoning, which may be due to the grains growing in volatile or high-temperature magmatic environments (Figure 3d) [44,144,145]. Normal zoning of plagioclase crystals indicates that a gradual decrease in An components from the core to the edge [44]. This could be attributed to the reaction between the growing crystal and out-of-equilibrium melt. Then, the growing crystals are rapidly encapsulated by later crystals, implying formation in a mafic magma or volatile saturated fraction environment [144].

Moreover, the large-scale variation in the Ba content of K-feldspar crystals from the core to the edge indicates that the occurrence of various magma recharging and/or mixing events in the magmatic plumbing systems [44,146]. Importantly, irregular MMEs and round quartz of the samples (Figure 3a) also provide evidence for magma mixing. Hence, these findings imply that the Maqigang pluton was most likely derived from the partial melting of ancient crustal materials through the underplating of mantle-derived magma.

6.3 Tectonic implications

The Late Mesozoic geology of South China is characterized by magmatic rocks consisting mainly of rhyolites and granites with minor mafic rocks [20,31,61,134,147,148,149,150]. These magmatic activities provide favorable geologic settings for mineralization, thus making South China a world-renowned polymetallic mineralized area [5,22,151,152,153]. However, the dynamic mechanism for Cretaceous extension has been controversial owing to the special location of the SCB at the junction of the Pacific and the Tethys tectonic domains [33,154]. Some researchers agree that it is was associated with the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate [3,22,27,46], while others have linked it to the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys plate [33,155,156]. As the Neo-Tethys subduction trench is far from the SCB, the influence of Neo-Tethys may be negligible [157,158]. Therefore, the subduction of the Paleo‐Pacific plate may be the main cause of the Cretaceous tectonism and magmatism in South China [48,65,159,160]. The Late Mesozoic flat-slab subduction and the Paleo-Pacific plate rollback resulted in compression to extension by forming the thrust fault and extensional growth strata [13,39,161,162,163]. Regarding the initial timing of extension, most scholars believe that the extensional tectonic system of South China began in the Late Jurassic (ca. 150 Ma) and ended in the late stage of the Late Cretaceous (ca. 72 Ma) [48,164,165].

The intrusion age of the Maqigang beschtauite was dated during the Late Cretaceous. The rocks had rich LILEs (e.g., Rb, Th, U, and K) and relative HFSEs (e.g., Nb, Ta, P, and Ti) deficits in terms of trace elements, indicative of a subduction zone/arc affinity [166,167,168]. On the Rb/30 vs Hf–Ta × 3 diagram (Figure 14a), the beschtauite samples are plotted in a field straddling the VAG (volcanic arc granites) and post-COLG (post-collision granites) boundary. On the Y + Nb vs Rb diagram (Figure 14b), the samples are associated with a post-collision tectonic environment. The widespread A-type granitic magmatism and development of pull-apart basins filled with bimodal magmatic rocks in southeastern China indicate that this area underwent back-arc extension during the Cretaceous [15,18,23,84,169].

Figure 14

Tectonic discrimination of the Late Cretaceous granitic rocks in South China (according to [168]). VAG = volcanic arc granite, Syn-COLG = syn-collision granite, post-COLG = post-collision granite, WPG = within plate granite, ORG = oceanic ridge granite. Symbols as in Figure 4. Data sources are listed in Table S2.

Based on the structural geological, petrological, geochemical, and geophysical data [9,10,11,13,23,47,100,165,170,171], during the Early Jurassic (ca. 190 Ma), the beginning of subduction of the Paleo-Pacific plate beneath the SCB marked the termination of the Indosinian orogeny [48,159,172]. Subsequently, the slab break-off and foundering of the flab-slab occurred in the Late Jurassic (ca. 160 Ma), resulting in the strong upwelling of the asthenospheric mantle and mafic magma underplating. A large-scale magmatic event happened in South China in response to the remarkable increase in geotherms [161,163,172,173]. Then, a retreating arc system developed in the Late Jurassic–Cretaceous after the rollback of the subducted slab, accompanied by the formation of arc-related and bimodal magmatism in an extensional setting [23,25,172]. In the Late Cretaceous, the South China margin experienced a transition from an Andean-type to a Western Pacific-type continental margin [14,159,174,175], leading to regional back-arc extension [15,25,61,166,175] and forming extensive back-arc rift basins [9,15,176]. Late Cretaceous extensional basins were also revealed by geophysical data in the South China Sea region [165,177,178].

Overall, with continued rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate since the Late Cretaceous, there was an increase in slab subduction angle, which enhanced back‐arc extension [15,175,179,180,181]. This resulted in the upwelling of asthenospheric material that induced the melting of lithospheric mantle material. Then, mantle-sourced magma underplating occurred, leading to the remelting of back-arc ancient crustal materials and the formation of the Maqigang beschtauite (Figure 15; [19,27,133]).

Figure 15

Tectonic-magmatic model of the Late Cretaceous (ca. 90 Ma) in South China (modified after Ref. [196]).

7 Conclusion

Based on mineralogy, petrogeochemistry, zircon U–Pb ages, and Lu–Hf isotopic characteristics of the Maqigang beschtauite, the conclusions of this study are as follows:

The LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb ages of 85.0 ± 1.2 Ma to 83.3 ± 2.1 Ma indicate that the Maqigang pluton was formed in the Late Cretaceous.
Geochemical analysis results revealed that the Maqigang beschtauite is a metaluminous to weakly peraluminous granite with typical geochemical signatures of A‐type granitoid affinity, such as high FeO^T/MgO and Ga/Al ratios; abundant SiO₂, Na₂O + K₂O, REE, HFSEs (such as Zr, Nb, Ce, Y, and Ga) contents; and extremely depleted Ba, Sr, Ti, and Eu concentrations.
Petrography, mineral chemistry, and Sr‐Nd‐Hf isotopic data suggest that the Maqigang beschtauite was generated by the partial melting of ancient crustal materials through the underplating of mantle-derived magma.
The Maqigang pluton was formed in an extensional back-arc setting associated with the continued rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate subduction zone.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Hang Liu from the Hefei University of Technology (Hefei, China), for his help in the zircon U–Pb dating and Hf isotope analyses. We also thank Ms. Baoling Huang from the Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution of Peking University (Beijing, China) for her assistance in whole-rock analysis.

Funding information: This study is partly supported by funded projects of the China Geological Survey (DD20190379-79).
Author contributions: M.T. and Y.D. conceived and planned the workflow of the article. M.T. and M.Y. carried out the fieldwork, sampling, and data collection. Y.D. contributed to the interpretation of the results. M.T. and Y.D. took the lead in writing the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
Data availability statement: The data involved during the present study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-03-06

Revised: 2024-10-27

Accepted: 2024-10-29

Published Online: 2024-11-29

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0733

Keywords for this article

Late Cretaceous; A-type granitoids; beschtauite; Paleo-Pacific plate; South China

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Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate

Article

Abstract

Abbreviations

1 Introduction

2 Geological setting and pluton features

3 Petrography

4 Methods

4.1 Whole-rock geochemistry analysis

4.2 Mineral analysis

4.3 Zircon U–Pb dating

4.4 Zircon Lu–Hf isotope analysis

5 Results

5.1 Major and trace elements

5.2 Mineral chemistry

5.3 Zircon U–Pb ages

5.4 Zircon Lu–Hf isotope

6 Discussion

6.1 Formation ages and petrogenetic type

6.2 Source and petrogenesis

6.3 Tectonic implications

7 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Supplementary Material

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