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Geological characteristics of the Daduhe gold belt, western Sichuan, China: Implications for exploration

  • Yize Zhang , Zailin Chen EMAIL logo , Chengjiang Zhang , Shijun Ni , Xianfeng Cheng and Liu Kexin
Published/Copyright: December 11, 2024
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

Geological characteristics, genetic model, and exploration implications in the Daduhe gold belt are studied. Three categories of gold deposits have been distinguished: “gold deposits in the basement (GDB),” “gold deposits in the cover layer (GDC),” and “gold deposits at the interface (GDI).” Among them, quartz vein type and quartz vein altered rock type are the main types of mineral deposits. The following features have been obtained: (1) inclusions of gold particles exist in pyrite, pyrrhotite, quartz, sellaite, and other sulfides; in fractures; or along cracks and grain margins. (2) The distribution curve of rare earth elements in pyrite and quartz indicates strong mineralization intensity in the GDB, (La/Sm)N fractionation characteristics, suggesting that pyrite may be more influenced by crustal materials and quartz by mantle materials. (3) The H–O and He–Ar isotopes manifested the ore-forming fluids derived from the mixing between crust and mantle. (4) The ranges of δ 34 S values of pyrite (−5.0 to 7.6‰) are consistent with those of metasomatized mantle lithosphere. (5) The homogenization temperatures and salinity of all quartz inclusions are concentrated from 150 to 210°C and 2.1–8.7 wt%, indicating a medium-low-temperature, low-salinity hydrothermal fluid. (6) The Daduhe orogenic gold deposits can be defined as epizonal subtypes. (7) The Daduhe gold deposits are medium-low temperature, low-salinity, and epizonal orogenic gold deposits, and fluid comes from a mixture of crust and mantle. In the future, efforts should be made to increase the exploration of deep gold deposits.

Keywords: Daduhe gold belt; mineralogy; geochemistry; mantle fluid model; prospecting potential

1 Introduction

Orogenic gold deposits [1,2] account for more than 30% of the world’s gold resources, making them a critical type of gold deposit for global gold resource exploration [3–5]. Recently, Qinling [6–8] and Jiaodong orogenic gold deposit [9,10] in China has made significant progress in both mineral exploration and mineralization models. However, the breakthrough in mineral exploration of Daduhe Golden Valley in southwestern China has stagnated [11,12].

The Daduhe gold orogenic metallogenic belt was discovered in the 1980s and ranges from Kongyu in Kangding County in the north (102°3′E, 32°32′N) to Guzan in Kangding County in the south (102°10′E, 30°7′N). Gold deposits are primarily distributed in the pre-Sinian Kangding complex [13]. More than 70 gold deposits (spots) have been found within a 60-km-long range from north to south and a several km- to 30-km-wide range from east to west; these deposits form the famous Daduhe “golden valley” [14,15] and have been mined for more than 200 years. In recent years, the newly discovered Yanzigou gold deposit [16–18] and Danba gold deposit [19] in the north, coupled with the Tianwan gold deposit [20] and Zhangjiapingzi gold deposit [21,22] in the south, manifested great potential for gold deposits in Daduhe.

Previous studies of our team [23–31] and several other scientists [14,32–34] have focused on the geological characteristics of individual ore deposits and their geochronology, as well as fluid sources in this region. However, comparisons of internal mineral deposits in order to establish prospecting directions and determine favorable areas [35] seem to lack such work. A recent study established a genetic model and discussed its exploratory potential [36,37]. Devolatilization of subducted altered oceanic crust and overlying oceanic sediments caused hydration, sulfidation, and fertilization of the mantle lithosphere in the Neoproterozoic. Auriferous fluids derived from the devolatilization of the sub-continental lithospheric mantle were transported to higher levels within the crust due to lithosphere extension and asthenosphere upwelling subsequent to crustal shearing. Then, the auriferous fluids were released to form the gold deposits, for example, Danba gold deposit in the Lower Jurassic [38]. Also, we need to verify whether this model is applicable to the research area.

Therefore, the objectives of this review were to (1) obtain the geological characteristics of the Daduhe gold metallogenic belt; (2) explore the metallogenic mechanism of gold mineralization controlled by the Kangding complex; (3) clarify the origin of ore genesis; and (4) summarize regional mineralization patterns to propose prospecting directions.

2 Geologic setting

2.1 Tectonic evolution

The Daduhe gold belt is situated on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton (Figure 1a), which is restricted by the Songpan–Garzê accretionary prism in the southeast [39,40], the Paleotethyan Garzê–Litang suture in the west [41,42], and the Animaqing–Mianlue suture zone in the north [43,44]. This gold belt is located at the intersection of three plates (the North China plate, Yangtze plate, and Indian plate), influenced by three tectonic belts (the north‒south Kangdian tectonic belt, northwest Xianshuihe tectonic belt, and northeast Longmenshan tectonic belt), and adjacent to three important metallogenic belts (the Sanjiang metallogenic belt, Songpan Ganzi metallogenic belt, and Panxi metallogenic belt). During its long geological evolution, the gold belt has experienced the pre-Sinian basement formation stage, the Sinian–Middle–Triassic passive continental margin stage [45,46], the Late Triassic–Cretaceous collisional orogenic stage, and the Cenozoic intracontinental orogenic stage [47,48].

Figure 1 (a) Simplified geotectonic map. (b) Structural outline map of the Daduhe gold belt, modified after the studies by Zhao and coauthors [19,38].
Figure 1

(a) Simplified geotectonic map. (b) Structural outline map of the Daduhe gold belt, modified after the studies by Zhao and coauthors [19,38].

Convergence between the Qiangtang block, South China, and North China, along with the closure of the Paleotethyan Ocean [49,50] in the Late Triassic, led to the deposition of thick (5–15 km) Triassic flyschoid sediments [51] in the Songpan–Garzê Basin [52] and then led to the formation of an accretionary prism [19,53].

The Mesozoic dome belt (Figure 1b) [54,55] is distributed along the Longmenshan thrust nappe belt on the western margin of the Yangtze craton, which contains extensional metamorphic core complexes [56] ranging from 180 to 160 Ma [13,56,57]. The Neoproterozoic crystalline basement (860–750 Ma) is widespread along the dome [58] and was the result of Triassic metamorphism of the combination of the Panxi–Hannan arc magmatic rocks [13,56]. The Silurian–Devonian metamorphic sedimentary sequence and Triassic flyschoid strata overlie the Neoproterozoic basement [59].

Researchers have widely confirmed that three tectonic events have occurred since the Mesozoic: 1) the closure of the Late Triassic Paleo–Tethys Ocean, which formed the Songpan–Garzê Fold [60]; 2) the initial formation of the Early Jurassic dome; and 3) the minor Cenozoic reverse thrust belt connected with the India–Asia collision [59].

2.2 Lithostratigraphy and metamorphism

The regional strata are divided into two parts, the basement and the caprock, with the caprock unconformably overlying the basement at a distinct angle.

The ancient basement of the Yangtze Platform [61] is composed of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic “Kangding Group” and Mesoproterozoic “Yanjing Group,” both of which are angular unconformities that are distributed mainly on both sides of the Daduhe gold belt. The “Kangding Group” is the oldest stratum in the area (distributed in the central area) and has experienced different degrees of migmatization [62,63]; it is subdivided into the upper Lengzhuguan Formation (Htlz) and lower Zanli Formation (Htzl) [64]. The “Yanjing Group” is composed of shallow metamorphic intermediate–acidic–basic volcanic rocks.

The cover layer overlies the basement and a set of strata deposited in a geosyncline. The Sinian, Silurian, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and Quaternary strata are exposed at different levels, but the Cambrian strata are missing. The Sinian, Silurian, and Devonian systems are composed of a set of metamorphic marine clastic, argillaceous, and carbonate rocks. The Permian strata are a set of marine pillow basalts intercalated with carbonate rocks. The Triassic strata are mainly composed of a set of marine argillaceous clastic rocks with a small amount of carbonate rocks.

2.3 Magmatic rocks

2.3.1 Granitic intrusions

To the west of the Daduhe gold belt, Cenozoic granitoids of the Zheduoshan granite were generated at 18.0–14.4 Ma [65]; they are syntectonic granites of the Xianshuihe fault system related to continental collision between Indochina block and South China block [66].

2.3.2 Basic–ultrabasic dykes

The mafic–ultramafic dyke in the Daduhe gold metallogenic belt is mainly diabase, which has been found in several typical gold deposits in this region and is divided into three phases: 754, 430, and 220 Ma [67]. Considering that the mineralization age of gold deposits [14] predates the formation time of mafic–ultramafic dikes, the mafic–ultrabasic magma may have provided a migration pathway for gold-bearing fluids.

3 Regional deposit geology

The crystalline basement in the area is distributed mainly in the Daduhe gold belt and its two sides, which are a set of metamorphic strata that underwent different degrees of migmatization. These rocks can be divided into two groups: the upper Lengzhuguan Formation (Htlz), which is mainly composed of biotite granulite, hornblende plagioclase granulite, biotite diorite metamorphic rocks, migmatite, etc., and the original rock is intermediate-acidic volcanic rocks [68]. The lower Zanli Formation (Htzl) is mainly composed of dioritic migmatite, migmatite, plagioclase breccia migmatite, felsic migmatite, granodiorite migmatite–gneiss, etc. [58]. The original rocks are a set of intermediate–basic volcanic rocks with high gold abundance [14] and form the source layer for gold mineralization in the area.

The cover layer mainly overlies the basement. Except for the absence of the Cambrian system, the Sinian, Silurian, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and Quaternary strata are exposed to varying degrees, forming a set of geosynclinal sedimentary strata. The Sinian system is composed of a set of metamorphic marine clastic, argillaceous, and carbonate rocks in parallel unconformable contact with the upper Silurian system. The Silurian system is composed of a set of metamorphic marine clastic, argillaceous, and carbonate rocks in parallel unconformable contact with the lower Sinian system. The Devonian system is composed of a set of marine metamorphic clastic, argillaceous, and carbonate rocks and is in parallel unconformable contact with the upper Permian system. The Permian system is characterized by a set of marine pillow basalts with carbonate rocks and is in parallel unconformable contact with the Lower Devonian system and the Upper Triassic system. The Triassic system is mainly composed of a set of marine argillaceous rocks and clastic rocks mixed with minor carbonate rocks and in parallel unconformable contact with the lower Permian strata. For the Quaternary system, according to its genesis, the Quaternary system can be divided into alluvial, proluvial, and glacial deposits; slope deposits; and swamp deposits.

Figure 2 Geological map of the Daduhe gold belt, including typical ore deposits, modified after the studies by Li et al. and Zhang [15,61].
Figure 2

Geological map of the Daduhe gold belt, including typical ore deposits, modified after the studies by Li et al. and Zhang [15,61].

The formation of diverse types of gold deposits in Daduhe gold belt originated from the different material bases and geological evolutionary histories of the Presinian Kangding complex and Neoproterozoic Paleozoic sedimentary cover. To be precise, the gold deposits in the entire area are subdivided into three categories: “gold deposits in the basement (Kangding complex) (GDB),” “gold deposits in the cover layer (GDC),” and “gold deposits at the interface (GDI),” according to the different layers in which gold occurs. Then, they are further divided into five types (Table 1) according to the surrounding ore-bearing rocks and ore formations.

Table 1

Rock types in the gold deposit (Figure 2, Table S1)

Gold deposit type Examples Ore wall rocks Ore-controlling structure Ref
Class subtype
GDB Quartz vein Yizhuxiang (YZX) (Figure S6) Migmatization plagioclase granite Shear zone, ductile‒brittle shear zones [31]
Sandiao (SD) Plagioclase hornblende [27]
Altered rock–quartz vein Baijintaizi (BJTZ) (Figure S1) Migmatitic granite [69]
Huangjinping (HJP) (Figure S2) Dioritic migmatite, Migmatitic granite [24]
Jiucaiping (JCP) (Figure S4) Plagioclase hornblende, Granodiorite [26]
GDI Quartz vein Jintaizi (JTZ) Mylonite Ductile‒brittle shear zones [29]
GDC Carbonate rocks Pianyanzi (PYZ) (Figure S5) Carbonaceous slate Bedding ductile‒brittle shear zones [12,30]
Epimetamorphic clastic rocks Erligou (ELG) (Figure S3) Dolomite [25]

The deposits are composed of structurally fractured quartz vein altered rock type (QVART), quartz vein type (QVT), Carbonate rocks type, and Epimetamorphic clastic rocks type. The mineralization process is complex, with multiple stages and distinct characteristics, and is strictly constrained by ductile‒brittle shear zones [11] or Xianshuihe strike-slip faults (lithosphere scale).

4 Ore body geology

4.1 Ore body characteristics

The GDB is the foremost gold deposit type, with a considerable number of mineral deposits and two types of small- to medium-sized deposits (based on the gold reserves (Table S10)) (the QVT is controlled by hydrothermal filling and the QVART is controlled by hydrothermal filling metasomatism) (Figure 3). The ore-bearing formation is a granite-greenstone belt, and the host rocks are quartz dioritic migmatite and granite. The ore-forming structure is composed of ductile‒brittle and brittle‒ductile shear zones [11], and the ore body was formed by filling and metasomatizing of the ore-forming hydrothermal fluid along the shear zone. The wallrock alteration is characterized by pyritization, sericitization, silicification, and carbonation [61]. The ore body is relatively large in scale and simple in shape, mainly in veins and lenticular shapes, with moderate to steep slopes. The ore types include QVART, QVT, and oxidized ores. The primary metallic mineral is pyrite and the primary gangue mineral is quartz. Natural gold occurs in the cracks and gaps of quartz, pyrite and other sulfides or as gold inclusions. The blocks near the quartz veins are often high-grade ore bodies, whereas the alteration zones far from the quartz veins are weakly mineralized to contain no ore, indicating that the ore-forming elements are carried by hydrothermal quartz veins. Among them, the QVART gold deposit is the main type.

Figure 3 Characteristics of typical gold ore bodies. (a) and (b) Gold bearing quartz vein in HJP and JCP; (c) Altered rock and quartz vein interbedding in BJTZ; (d) Gold bearing quartz vein and carbonaceous slate interbedding in ELG; (e) and (f) Gold ore bodies in PYZ and HJP; (g) Goaf with residual gold ore bodies in YZX; (h) Sample from gold bearing quartz vein in JTZ; (i) Quartz vein altered rock gold ore body in JCP.
Figure 3

Characteristics of typical gold ore bodies. (a) and (b) Gold bearing quartz vein in HJP and JCP; (c) Altered rock and quartz vein interbedding in BJTZ; (d) Gold bearing quartz vein and carbonaceous slate interbedding in ELG; (e) and (f) Gold ore bodies in PYZ and HJP; (g) Goaf with residual gold ore bodies in YZX; (h) Sample from gold bearing quartz vein in JTZ; (i) Quartz vein altered rock gold ore body in JCP.

The GDI type is the product of different diagenetic environments, where there is a contact abruptly defining environmental conditions; this contact is an extremely important geochemical interface and the most favorable location for mineral precipitation (Figure 3h). The regional fracture zone connects two different environmental systems and is also a stress-releasing section, providing favorable conditions for the migration and storage of ore-forming fluids [70]. The basement provides a material source for gold deposits (Table S11), and the interface provides shielding conditions for gold deposit preservation.

The GDC type is also a vital type of gold deposit in the region, with many mineral deposits, but the scale is small, and the morphology is complex (Figure 3d and e). This type of gold deposit refers to the gold deposits in the sedimentary cover around the Kangding complex, which can be divided into two deposit types: the polymetallic QVT gold deposit (Pianyanzi deposit) in the Sinian carbonate rocks [32] and the QVT gold deposit (Erligou gold deposit) in the Devonian black rock series. The gold ore is primarily natural gold, occurring in quartz, fluoromagnesite, pyrite and other sulfide fractures and gaps or as gold inclusions.

4.2 Ore minerals

The gold particle inclusions exist in quartz, pyrite, pyrrhotite, sellaite, and other sulfides (Figure 4, Table S9) [32], in fractures, or along cracks and grain margins [61]. They are commonly intergrown with galena, enargite, and tetrahedrite (Figure S7). The particle sizes of gold are mainly microgold (5–200 μm), followed by clear gold and sub-microgold. The natural gold particle sizes in the GDB → GDI → GDC have a trend of changing from medium-fine to fine-slight particles.

Figure 4 Petrography of typical gold ore and mineral assemblages: (a) Gold inclusions in pyrite (reflected light), (b) Pyrrhotite (Po) (reflected light), (c) replacement of fluorite (Fl) with sellaite (St) (SEM), (d) flaky natural gold in a quartz vein (reflected light), (e) microgold particles in pyrite (SEM), (f) natural gold and galena (Gn) filling in quartz fractures (reflected light), (g) replacement of tetrahedrite (Tt) with chalcopyrite [Ccp (reflected light)], (h) replacement of tetrahedrite (Tt) with blue digenite (Dg) along the edge (reflected light), (i) replacement of tetrahedrite (Te) with tetradymite [Tet (SEM)], (j) minor natural gold and natural silver coexisting in enargite (En) (SEM), (k) natural gold filling in the fissure between tetrahedrite and pyrite (SEM), and (l) Bournonite [Bnn (SEM)]. The energy spectra of these minerals are listed in Figure S7.
Figure 4

Petrography of typical gold ore and mineral assemblages: (a) Gold inclusions in pyrite (reflected light), (b) Pyrrhotite (Po) (reflected light), (c) replacement of fluorite (Fl) with sellaite (St) (SEM), (d) flaky natural gold in a quartz vein (reflected light), (e) microgold particles in pyrite (SEM), (f) natural gold and galena (Gn) filling in quartz fractures (reflected light), (g) replacement of tetrahedrite (Tt) with chalcopyrite [Ccp (reflected light)], (h) replacement of tetrahedrite (Tt) with blue digenite (Dg) along the edge (reflected light), (i) replacement of tetrahedrite (Te) with tetradymite [Tet (SEM)], (j) minor natural gold and natural silver coexisting in enargite (En) (SEM), (k) natural gold filling in the fissure between tetrahedrite and pyrite (SEM), and (l) Bournonite [Bnn (SEM)]. The energy spectra of these minerals are listed in Figure S7.

Gold fineness [71] is consistent with Archean amphibolite-facies gold deposits [72–74], increased from an average of 887 (Table S7) (obtained from spectrum analysis) to an average of 954 [32] from the GDB to the GDC, indicating the diversity of ore-forming fluid sources.

The ore minerals in the Daduhe gold belt can be depicted in terms of gold deposit classification: 1) the typomorphic minerals of the QVART of the GDB are pyrite; 2) the typomorphic minerals of the quartz veins of the GDB and GDI are pyrite and chalcopyrite; and 3) the typomorphic minerals of the GDI are pyrite, sellaite, and other sulfides.

4.3 Ore geochemistry

4.3.1 Rare earth element (REE) geochemistry

All the REEs of bulk pyrite and quartz have been selected and analyzed by project team members in Applied Nuclear Technology in Geosciences Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province for the purpose of revealing the ore provenance. The chondrite-normalized pattern (Figure 5a) for the REEs in pyrite [average concentration (JTZ, ELG, BJTZ, JCP, and HJP)] (Table S2) resembles that of the REEs in the amphibolite and leptynite in the Kangding complex [14]. However, the distribution patterns of PYZ and YZX are exceptions, suggesting differences in mineralization (Figure 5).

Figure 5 Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for (a) pyrite and (b) quartz [14]. Note: AM(KDC)-Amphibolite, LE(KDC)-Granulite.
Figure 5

Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for (a) pyrite and (b) quartz [14]. Note: AM(KDC)-Amphibolite, LE(KDC)-Granulite.

The δEu of pyrite was in the order of GDB > GDI > GDC (Table 2), and (La/Sm)N reflects the degree of fractionation between LREE. Thus, the degree of fractionation of pyrite in the GDB is low and GDI is high, while quartz is the opposite.

Table 2

The mean anomaly and fractionation value of REE in different gold deposit types normalized to the chondrite

Pyrite Quartz
GDB GDI GDC GDB GDI GDC
LREE/HREE 4.86 13.96 6.81 7.27 5.58 5.78
(La/Yb)N 4.71 20.80 11.61 7.23 6.23 7.59
(La/Sm)N 2.05 3.08 3.27 2.95 2.42 2.29
(Gd/Yb)N 1.54 3.92 2.03 1.31 1.51 1.84
δEu 1.06 0.90 0.78 1.22 1.34 0.98
δCe 0.95 1.10 0.54 0.98 0.81 0.89

δ Eu N = Eu N / ( Sm N × Gd N ) 1 / 2 , δ Ce N = Ce N / ( La N × Pr N ) 1 / 2 .

Subscript N indicates the normalized abundance with chondrite.

4.3.2 H–O and He–Ar isotope geochemistry

The isotopic compositions of H–O and He–Ar are often used to constrain the source of ore-forming hydrothermal fluids [75,76]. The compositions of the samples from Huangjinping and Pianyanzi are between those of the initial magmatic water and metamorphic water [77], and the samples from Baijintaizi are within the range of metamorphic water and meteoric water [15]. However, the δ 18 D values of three samples from Jintaizi are lower than the values of metamorphic water (Figure 6a) and very close to the threshold of the meteoric water line [78], indicating the influence of meteoric water. H–O isotopes combined with lower He–Ar isotope values (Figure 6b) in the previous study [15,79] that manifested the ore fluids of the Daduhe orogenic gold deposits were derived from the mixing between crust and mantle.

Figure 6 (a) and (b) Summary of H–O and He–Ar isotope ratios of orogenic gold deposits in the Daduhe gold belt [15].
Figure 6

(a) and (b) Summary of H–O and He–Ar isotope ratios of orogenic gold deposits in the Daduhe gold belt [15].

4.3.3 S isotope geochemistry

The δ 34 S values of pyrite in quartz veins range from −5.0 to 7.6‰, with an average value of 2.38‰ (Figure 7, Table S4), which are lower than those of the Danba gold deposit (7.80‰) [19] and different from the negative value of δ 34 S (−9.5 to −6.8‰) in surrounding rock pyrrhotite [38]. The δ 34 S values of pyrite are consistent with the δ 34 S values of sulfides in granodiorite in Daduhe gold belt (3.0–3.9‰) [80], metasomatized mantle lithosphere [11,81–83].

Figure 7 The δ 34 S values of gold-bearing pyrite. Note: DB, Danba gold deposit [19]; YZG, Yanzigou gold deposit [16–18]; MML, Metasomatized mantle lithosphere [37].
Figure 7

The δ 34 S values of gold-bearing pyrite. Note: DB, Danba gold deposit [19]; YZG, Yanzigou gold deposit [16–18]; MML, Metasomatized mantle lithosphere [37].

4.3.4 Metallogenic fluid temperature

The fluid inclusions in the area are mainly found in quartz veins and are mainly primary fluid inclusions. They are evenly distributed and of a relatively single type in quartz veins, mainly gas‒liquid two-phase fluid inclusions (L + V). Possible three-phase fluid inclusions (L + L + V) can be observed, with the inclusion sizes ranging from 3 to 20 μm, mainly 5–12 μm [84], and the fluid inclusions are mostly elliptical, with a small number of rounded and irregular polygons visible (Figure S8).

The homogenization temperatures [85] of all the fluid inclusions in quartz are 75–300°C, as shown in Figure 8; these fluid inclusions have temperatures concentrated within 150–210°C (Table S5). Moreover, the homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in the quartz of the GDC and GDI (160–293°C) are higher than those in the quartz of the GDB (75–247°C, with the exception of the SD gold deposit).

Figure 8 Homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in gold-bearing quartz. Note: DB, Danba gold deposit, YZG: Yanzigou gold deposit.
Figure 8

Homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions in gold-bearing quartz. Note: DB, Danba gold deposit, YZG: Yanzigou gold deposit.

4.3.5 Mineralization age

The metallogenic ages of different gold deposits [86] are concentrated from 25 to 10 Ma based on quartz Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) and muscovite K–Ar (Table S6).

5 Discussions

5.1 Metallogenic framework of the “three-story” structure

The overall characteristics of the Kangding metamorphic core complex include the upper cover extension fault system, the middle detachment layer and detachment fault, and the mylonite belt in the lower basement rock series. The main gold deposits in the Daduhe gold field are mostly distributed in the basement rock series.

The “three-story” vertical zoning structure of the metallogenic model [14] in this area is as follows from top to bottom: (1) the Tonglufang-type [87], in which polymetallic QVT gold deposits in carbonate and clastic rocks are restrained by brittle faults, such as by gliding along caprock interlayers; (2) the Pianyanzi-type [14,61], in which QVT gold deposits are present in the upper ductile–brittle shear zone of the basement complex; and (3) the Huangjinping-type [24], in which the QVART gold deposit is present in the brittle–ductile shear zone in the middle of the basement complex. All types have the following commonalities: (1) all of the ore bodies are restricted by structures and mainly consist of steeply dipping brittle fractures; (2) they are mainly QVT gold deposits, followed by QVART gold deposits; (3) the QVT gold deposits are all superimposed on the QVART gold deposits, and the grade of a single QVART gold deposit is relatively low; (4) the deposits are often associated with basic dike swarms; and (5) mineralization mainly occurred in the Cenozoic era (Table 3).

Table 3

Brief metallogenic characteristics of the Daduhe gold deposit

Type Metallogenic characteristics
Location Kangdian ancient land uplift zone; Kangding complex migmatite and cover stratum
Ore body In the dioritic migmatite of the Zanli Formation of the Kangding Group, in the form of medium and small veins, composed of QVART and QVT ores
Mineralization age During the Himalayan period, mainly at ∼20 Ma
Ore-controlling factors Structures, mainly controlled by steeply dipping brittle fractures in ductile shear zones
Wallrock alteration Pyritization, silicification, and sericitization are dominant, followed by carbonation, chloritization, albitization, and kaolinization
Ore minerals Mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, and galena. The main beneficial component is Au, accompanied by Ag
Mineralization type QVT deposits, the same mineralization series occurring in the cover, basement, or interface

The distribution curves of REEs in BJTZ, JCP, and HJP in quartz (Table S3) are approximately the same, whereas those in the other samples (PYZ, JTZ, ELG, and YZX) are the same in different ways, indicating differences in the mineralization of hydrothermal fluids among different ore deposits and further indicating the strong intensity of mineralization [88] at the base in study area (Figure 5).

The δEu of Pyrite was in the order of GDB > GDI > GDC (Table 2), indicating that the GDB originated from primary hydrothermal crystallization whereas GDC was from remobilization [89]. (La/Sm)N reflects the degree of fractionation between LREE. Thus, the degree of fractionation of pyrite in the GDB is low and GDI is high, while quartz is the opposite, suggesting that pyrite may be more influenced by crustal materials and quartz by mantle materials.

5.2 Gold precipitation mechanism

Gold is transported in the form of disulfide complexes at near neutral pH and relatively reduced fluid [90], and AuHS0 is dominant in gold-bearing hot liquid systems below 300℃, while Au(HS)2 – is generally considered to be the more important complex in epizonal environments. In brittle and brittle-ductile states, fault rupture may induce large local fluid pressure gradients, while rapid pressure fluctuations may be sufficient to cause phase separation and precipitate-free gold in quartz veins. [91]. However, AuHS(H2S)3 0 may be the most important in controlling the solubility of gold [92].

The process of gold precipitation from hydrothermal solution and forming ore bodies is varied. It is generally accepted that the fluid-surrounding rock reaction drives mineral precipitation in disseminated and displaced orebodies. Sulfidation of wall rocks with high Fe/Fe + Mg ratios, such as basic igneous rocks, can make gold unstable because the sulfur-containing ligands are broken down into pyrite and other sulfide minerals [93,94]. So, the grade of gold may sometimes be related to the abundance of sulfide minerals. When the gold-bearing hydrothermal fluid is exchanged with the carbonaceous metamorphic sediment, the fO2 and/or pH values in the fluid change, and the gold-transporting complex will decompose more easily. The potassium and CO2 metasomatism of the host rock and the release of hydrogen ions will lead to a decrease in pH and further aggravate the instability of gold from the fluid phase [95].

The fractures, folds, joints, and other fissure structures developed in the GDB provide space for the migration, extraction, and precipitation of ore-forming fluids and determine the morphology of the ore body. The ore bodies at the GDI are all located in the shear metamorphic zone, and the mylonite zone is the development site of the ore bodies. The attitude is basically consistent with the foliation of the mylonite, indicating that the gold ore fluid comes from the deep. The permeability of the GDC is poor, and hydrothermal fluids containing gold and iron are prone to sedimentation and mineralization in interlayer slip zones due to the influence of meteoric water and groundwater.

The fluctuation of pressure is conducive to gold deposition, especially in quartz vein orebodies. According to the fault valve concept, with the settlement of the veins and the re-sealing and re-fracturing of the channels, the pressure in the channels will continue to change dramatically [96], which may be an important reason for the massive deposition of gold in the background of the intense tectonic movement in the Daduhe gold belt.

The overall pattern of material symbiosis in gold deposits is the close coexistence of gold with sulfides and quartz (Table S9). The reason is that gold fittings have a strong affinity for sulfur, which makes them easy to form sulfur complexes for transportation through the deep fault (δ 34 S proves that the gold-bearing fluid originates from deep sources). Iron containing magma can promote the binding of S2− and Fe2+ in the gold-bearing fluid (Au(HS) x ) to form pyrite, leading to the precipitation of Au [97]. Meanwhile, it is beneficial for both Au and SiO2 to precipitate simultaneously on granite fracture surface when the compression shear fracture surface formed by the Kangding Complex during the main collision period was separated by tension.

5.3 Metallogenic mechanism

The Daduhe gold deposit has undergone a long geological evolution, including a basement formation stage, a passive continental margin stage, and a collisional orogenic stage, which provided a driving force for the formation of gold deposits. Furthermore, the Daduhe gold belt is located on the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, and its tectonic evolution has changed as the Tibetan Plateau has evolved. Since the beginning of the Cenozoic, the collision between the rigid Indian plate and the plastic Eurasian plate has led to the formation of the Himalayas [98] and the continuous uplift of the Tibetan Plateau [56], thereby forming a series of ductile shear zones [12] (the first set is the ductile shear zone surrounding the Kangding complex, which is located at the boundary between the surrounding rock and the complex, or within the surrounding rock; the second set is the ductile shear zone located within the complex rock; and the third set is the large shear zone cutting the complex, namely, the Daduhe and Xianshuihe shear zones [14]). The Daduhe gold belt is controlled mainly by these ductile shear zones [37] and appears in groups and bands. Considering that there is no genetic relationship between magmatic activity and orogenic gold mineralization [99], we conclude that the mining area containing metamorphic water samples (HJP) has greater prospecting potential at greater depths. As stated by Powell [100], most gold deposits in metamorphic zones are formed late in the orogenic process, usually after the regional metamorphism of host rocks.

In addition, the diabase veins, which are widely developed in the area, appear near large amounts of gold-mineralized bodies in the Daduhe shear zone, which may provide channels for gold mineralization fluids because their formation ages are much earlier than those of the gold ore bodies. It may be because the formation of brittle shear fractures or tensile fractures and their filling veins is easier under the brittle and ductile condition of greenschist.

5.4 Genetic model

The water in the ore-forming fluid [61] of GDB and GDC may have originated from a mixture of initial magmatic water and metamorphic water, whereas the GDI may have originated from a mixture of metamorphic water, meteoric water, and initial magmatic water (Figure 6) [101]. On the other hand, the main sources of ore-forming fluids in this region are still metamorphic water and initial magmatic water [3].

The δ 34 S values of pyrite are consistent with the δ 34 S values of sulfides in granodiorite in Daduhe gold belt (3.0–3.9‰) [80], metasomatized mantle lithosphere [11,81–83], and other mineral deposits around the research area during the same geological period [102,103], suggesting that ore-forming fluids may come from the mantle. Moreover, the δ 34 S values and ranges of fluctuation in pyrite in the GDC and GDI are greater than those in the GDB, indicating the influence of crustal-sourced sulfur [104], evidenced by (La/Sm)N (Table 2). In particular, in the ELG, the sulfur predominantly comes from the Devonian carbonaceous slate (Figure 3d).

The fluid inclusion compositions of the Daduhe gold deposits are dominated by H2O, CO2, and CH4, with minor NaCl (2.1–8.7 wt%, average 4.5 wt%) [11], belonging to low-salinity mineral deposits [61]. The homogenization temperatures of all the fluid inclusions in quartz are under 300°C, combined with low greenschist facies host rocks, these gold deposits in Daduhe gold belt could be interpreted as epizonal orogenic gold deposits [105].

The metallogenic ages of different gold deposits [86] are concentrated from 25 to 10 Ma (Table S6), after the Miocene continental collision between the Indochina block and the South China block [103,106,107].

The geochemical characteristics, fluid inclusion, and metallogenic ages of the above discussions show that they may have the same ore-forming material source and ore-forming model in the Daduhe gold belt. Changes in their gold mineralization patterns may be related to changes in the pressure-temperature conditions of the host rock and associated changes in metamorphic grade [108]. The change of tectonic state at the same depth and the fluctuation of ductile‒brittle conditions can even lead to different ore styles in adjacent parts of the same ore body. The disseminated Jiaojia type and brittle vein type and exquisite gold deposits near the Jiaodong Peninsula are such examples [109].

The crustal metamorphic fluid model [104,110,111] cannot explain the source of giant volumes of fluid for the Daduhe gold belt. At present, orogenic gold deposits of different ages in the Phanerozoic generally favor the mantle fluid model (Figure 9) [5]. The gold-bearing fluids can be transported from the Xianshuihe lithosphere-scale fault to the crust of the ductile‒brittle transition zone during crustal movement [112], and these fluids from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (14 ppb Au) [113,114] typically generate gold. In this regard, field geological survey, ore body characteristics, geochemical characteristics, fluid inclusion, and metallogenic ages suggest that the genetic model of the Daduhe gold belt consistent with the subcontinental lithospheric mantle model [37,38].

Figure 9 Genetic model for the Daduhe orogenic gold belt, modified after the studies by Wang et al. and Zhang [5,61].
Figure 9

Genetic model for the Daduhe orogenic gold belt, modified after the studies by Wang et al. and Zhang [5,61].

The Kangding metamorphic core complex is the product of regional metamorphism, anatexis and deformation, which control the distribution range of gold deposits [11] in the Daduhe gold belt. The ductile shear zone within the Kangding metamorphic core complex provides channels for fluid and space for ore body precipitation.

5.5 Implications for exploration

Gold ore bodies are widely distributed along strike and downdip. Single veins or groups of veins usually run for hundreds of meters. Individual giant gold deposits may extend for 2–5 km along the strike. Individual lodes may be within a few tens of meters in width, whereas entire deposits may be more than 1 kilometer wide (e.g., Golden Mile, Muruntau). The orebodies are usually distributed in bands along regional fault systems or parallel faults, which can be hundreds of kilometers long and tens of kilometers wide.

The discovery and development of the Yanzigou gold deposit [16] and Danba gold deposit [19] in northern China, coupled with the Tianwan gold deposit [20] and Zhangjiapingzi gold deposit [21,22] in southern China, provides stronger motivation for future breakthroughs in gold mining resources in this belt. Moreover, the widely distributed hydrous metal-enriched metasomatized mantle lithosphere [115] linked to subduction [116] below the Daduhe gold belt indicates that the gold resources in the study area have great potential.

The Daduhe orogenic gold belt has a mining history of more than 200 years [61], with most gold deposits being mined at depths of only 200–300 m [14]. Its gold resources may be underestimated because of the lesser amount of geological work and poor documentation [12]. The Cenozoic gold deposits in this belt formed in a collisional orogeny and were restricted by shear zones. The potential of deep gold resources is unknown [117]. Therefore, the metallogenic potential of the Daduhe gold belt is still untapped.

6 Conclusions

The gold deposits in the Daduhe gold belt are subdivided into three categories: “gold deposits in the basement (Kangding complex) (GDB),” “gold deposits in the cover layer (GDC),” and “gold deposits at the interface (GDI).” Among them, the QVT and QVART are the main types of mineral deposits.

The distribution pattern of REEs in pyrite and quartz suggests that the intensity of mineralization in the GDB was greater than that in the GDC and GDI, (La/Sm)N fractionation characteristics suggesting that pyrite may be more influenced by crustal materials and quartz by mantle materials. The H and O isotopic compositions indicate that the main source of the ore-forming fluids was still initial magmatic water and metamorphic water. The δ 34 S values of pyrite (−5.0 to 7.6‰) are consistent with those of metasomatized mantle lithosphere. The homogenization temperatures and salinity of all quartz inclusions are concentrated from 150 to 210°C and 2.1–8.7 wt%, indicating a medium‒low-temperature, low-salinity hydrothermal fluid, belonging to the epizonal orogenic gold deposits. The fluid comes from a mixture of crust and mantle.

Acknowledgments

We thank all the members of the project team for their tireless work (Chen, Y., Huang, J. H., Song, X. T., Wang, J. Y., Wang, X., Xu, H. Y., Zhao, Y. C., Zhou, J. J., etc.) and the leaders and staff of each mining area for their proper arrangements.

  1. Funding information: This study was supported by the China Geological Survey (1212011220391), the Engineering Center of Yunnan Education Department for Health Geological Survey & Evaluation (9135009009), the Applied Geology and Mineral Geology Technology Innovation Team (2022KJTD02), the Yunnan Department of Education Science Research Fund Project (2024J1444), and the Opening Fund of the Provincial Key Lab of Applied Nuclear Techniques in Geosciences (gnzds202306, gnzds2024008).

  2. Author contributions: ZYZ and CZL wrote the manuscript. ZCJ and NSJ conducted supervision. CZL conducted investigation and method research. CXF and LKX collated the data. The authors applied the SDC approach for the sequence of authors.

  3. Conflict of interest: We declare that all the authors have no competing interests.

  4. Supplementary data: Supplementary data for this article can be found online.

  5. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-07-03
Revised: 2024-10-26
Accepted: 2024-10-27
Published Online: 2024-12-11

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  133. Major ascidian species with negative impacts on bivalve aquaculture: Current knowledge and future research aims
  134. Prediction and assessment of meteorological drought in southwest China using long short-term memory model
  135. Communication
  136. Essential questions in earth and geosciences according to large language models
  137. Erratum
  138. Erratum to “Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan”
  139. Special Issue: Natural Resources and Environmental Risks: Towards a Sustainable Future - Part I
  140. Spatial-temporal and trend analysis of traffic accidents in AP Vojvodina (North Serbia)
  141. Exploring environmental awareness, knowledge, and safety: A comparative study among students in Montenegro and North Macedonia
  142. Determinants influencing tourists’ willingness to visit Türkiye – Impact of earthquake hazards on Serbian visitors’ preferences
  143. Application of remote sensing in monitoring land degradation: A case study of Stanari municipality (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  144. Optimizing agricultural land use: A GIS-based assessment of suitability in the Sana River Basin, Bosnia and Herzegovina
  145. Assessing risk-prone areas in the Kratovska Reka catchment (North Macedonia) by integrating advanced geospatial analytics and flash flood potential index
  146. Analysis of the intensity of erosive processes and state of vegetation cover in the zone of influence of the Kolubara Mining Basin
  147. GIS-based spatial modeling of landslide susceptibility using BWM-LSI: A case study – city of Smederevo (Serbia)
  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
  149. Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro
  150. Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)
  151. Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia
  152. Understanding seismic hazard resilience in Montenegro: A qualitative analysis of community preparedness and response capabilities
  153. Forest soil CO2 emission in Quercus robur level II monitoring site
  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0736
Keywords for this article
Daduhe gold belt; mineralogy; geochemistry; mantle fluid model; prospecting potential
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  139. Special Issue: Natural Resources and Environmental Risks: Towards a Sustainable Future - Part I
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  141. Exploring environmental awareness, knowledge, and safety: A comparative study among students in Montenegro and North Macedonia
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  143. Application of remote sensing in monitoring land degradation: A case study of Stanari municipality (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
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  145. Assessing risk-prone areas in the Kratovska Reka catchment (North Macedonia) by integrating advanced geospatial analytics and flash flood potential index
  146. Analysis of the intensity of erosive processes and state of vegetation cover in the zone of influence of the Kolubara Mining Basin
  147. GIS-based spatial modeling of landslide susceptibility using BWM-LSI: A case study – city of Smederevo (Serbia)
  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
  149. Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro
  150. Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)
  151. Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia
  152. Understanding seismic hazard resilience in Montenegro: A qualitative analysis of community preparedness and response capabilities
  153. Forest soil CO2 emission in Quercus robur level II monitoring site
  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
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