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Disparities in the geospatial allocation of public facilities from the perspective of living circles

  • Xi Chen , Qi Zhang and Hui Zhang EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: October 17, 2024
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Open Geosciences
From the journal Open Geosciences Volume 16 Issue 1

Abstract

This research meticulously explores the spatial variances in the allocation of public service facilities within Wenzhou’s central urban area, deploying a lens of “living circles” and utilizing a 15-min walkable distance as a pivotal metric. Employing a suite of analytical methods, including kernel density estimation, nearest neighbor index, Ripley’s K, and Z-score analysis, and leveraging Amap data, the study unveils pronounced disparities in both the quantity and distribution of public service facilities. Notably, a conspicuous concentration of facilities, particularly in transportation and commercial sectors, is observed in the early-developed core region, while surrounding areas manifest a palpable deficiency in both quantity and category, impacting residents’ quality of life and accessibility. The research further delineates a “single-center” structural pattern in the spatial distribution of public service facilities, albeit with distinct patterns for different facility types. Furthermore, a comprehensive evaluation at the street level, considering factors such as comprehensive accessibility scores, variation coefficients, and population density, reveals substantial disparities and internal variations in facility accessibility among different streets. The findings underscore a critical need for strategic optimization in the allocation of public service facilities, with recommendations including supplementing facilities based on extant needs, addressing internal disparities among streets, and prioritizing facility development in streets characterized by diverse attributes and population densities. This study not only augments our understanding of spatial disparities in public service facility distribution but also provides actionable insights for enhancing strategic allocation and planning in Wenzhou’s central urban area, thereby contributing to the burgeoning body of knowledge in urban planning and public service facility allocation within the context of living circles.

Keywords: public service facilities; spatial disparities; accessibility; urban planning; Amap

1 Introduction

Public service facilities substantially influence the quality of life and well-being of urban inhabitants [1,2]. Consequently, the judicious distribution of these facilities has emerged as a pivotal theme in contemporary urban geography. Serving as conduits for fundamental public services, these facilities span a myriad of sectors, including education, culture, social security, and the ecological environment, thereby directly permeating various facets of daily life [3]. Thus, ensuring a strategic allocation of public service facilities is paramount to achieving equilibrium between the supply and demand of urban public services while concurrently adhering to principles of innovation, coordination, green development, openness, and sharing. Educational facilities act as hubs for learning and the dissemination of knowledge [4], cultural facilities augment the spiritual and cultural dimensions of life [5], social security facilities extend welfare support to vulnerable demographics [6], and ecological environment facilities champion the sustainable development of natural resources and ecosystems [7]. Nonetheless, the disparate distribution of public service facilities amid urbanization has become increasingly salient. Central urban areas typically amass a more substantial number of public service facilities, while peripheral or economically underprivileged areas grapple with limited access to such amenities [8]. Moreover, varying social demographics harbor distinct demands for public service facilities; for instance, young families might prioritize educational facilities, whereas older individuals may necessitate medical and social security facilities [9]. Therefore, strategically allocating public service facilities to cater to the needs of diverse population segments has become an imperative in urban development [10].

Teitz and Bart initially introduced the concept of orchestrating public service facilities to amplify welfare in 1968 [11], underscoring the pivotal aspects of efficiency and equity in facility arrangement. This viewpoint continues to hold substantial directive relevance for urban planning and the formulation of public policy, particularly in the context of constrained resources and shifting social demands. Bertaud’s research appears to concentrate on probing the optimal configuration of public service facilities grounded in supply levels and layout paradigms [12]. The present study endeavors to discern an optimal methodology for the allocation of public service facilities to maximize social welfare. Hoelscher et al. [13] embarked on planning research concerning school facilities, taking into account the student population, traffic dynamics, and urban development trajectories. Employing mathematical models and GIS tools, they ascertained optimal locations and capacities for school facilities. This research aids in optimizing the arrangement of school facilities, amplifying students’ educational accessibility, curtailing commute times, and enhancing urban living quality. Furthermore, BenDor et al. [14] conducted an analysis of the distribution of urban park facilities, factoring in environmental sustainability, the safeguarding of natural resources, and residents’ recreational requirements. Utilizing GIS technology, they evaluated the accessibility and ecosystem services of various parks. This research aims to assist urban planners in more adeptly balancing the planning of park facilities with the preservation of the natural environment, thereby elevating the quality of urban life.

Research into urban public service facilities has predominantly explored four main domains: spatial distribution characteristics, location selection and layout patterns, accessibility and equity, and social differentiation in supply and its impact mechanism. This research aligns closely with the foundational concept of the 15-min living circle, which seeks to enhance urban compactness, accessibility, and livability through strategic urban planning and resource allocation. While numerous scholars have embarked on research underpinned by the “15-min living circle,” yielding a wealth of findings, certain limitations in existing studies have been identified. For instance, Zhou [15] and Zhang et al. [16] provided valuable methodologies for evaluating facility configuration and standards within living circles, but their outcomes and application scenarios were somewhat abstract and constrained, respectively. Similarly, while Zhao et al. [17] and Xu and Han [18] offered insights into resident demand and community public service facilities, a limited focus has been placed on exploring the disparities in demands among different resident groups for identical facility types. Moreover, Li and Lou et al. [19] proposed facility configuration standards but did not fully explore the practical application in varied urban contexts.

Despite the valuable attempts and methodologies presented in these studies, a gap persists in providing a universally applicable model that simplifies conceptual understandings, accurately measures facility supply levels and resident usage needs, and offers scalability in assessment, making it broadly applicable to the urban planning contexts of various cities. This study, therefore, seeks to navigate through these challenges and bridge this research gap by investigating the spatial disparities of public service facilities in Wenzhou’s central urban area, employing a diverse array of analysis methods, including kernel density, Ripley’s K, nearest neighbor index, and Z-score.

The choice of Wenzhou’s central urban area as a focal point for this study is pivotal due to its unique urban development patterns, demographic dynamics, and the distinct spatial distribution of its public service facilities, which present a compelling case for exploring the practical applications and challenges of implementing the 15-min living circle concept. This region exemplifies a microcosm where rapid urbanization, population density, and socioeconomic factors intertwine, thereby providing a rich context for examining the spatial disparities and formulating strategies for optimizing public service facility allocation.

This study delivers a comprehensive evaluation at the street level, quantifying facility supply utilizing open-source data and survey data, with the primary objective of formulating a performance assessment methodology for living circle public service facilities, viewed through the lens of supply–demand equilibrium. Furthermore, it seeks to furnish a reference framework for the current status assessment and planning enhancement in living circles, applicable to other urban contexts, thereby contributing to the broader discourse on urban planning and public service facility allocation and enhancing the universality and applicability of the 15-min living circle concept in varied urban landscapes.

2 Methods

2.1 Study area

The study area in this research is the central urban area of Wenzhou City. Wenzhou is a nationally recognized historical and cultural city, as well as an important coastal commercial and regional center in Southeast China. Located in the southeastern part of Zhejiang Province, Wenzhou City is situated in the middle section of the Chinese mainland’s Pacific coastline (Figure 1). Its geographic coordinates range from approximately 27°03′ to 28°36′ north latitude and 119°37′ to 121°18′ east longitude. The city is bordered by the East China Sea to the east, Fujian Province to the south, Lishui City to the west and northwest, and Taizhou City to the north and northeast. The central urban area of Wenzhou City, as defined in the “Urban Master Plan of Wenzhou City (2003-2020)” by the State Council of China, includes Lucheng District (excluding Tengqiao Town and Shanfu Town), Longwan District, Ouhai District (excluding Zeya Town), Dongtou District’s Beiao Street and Lingkun Street, Oubei Subdistrict in Yongjia County. The total land area of the central urban area is 998 km2. It serves as the administrative, commercial, and cultural center of Wenzhou City, accommodating numerous government institutions, commercial centers, cultural facilities, and a dense population. Being the core area of Wenzhou City, the central urban area possesses unique urban characteristics and development needs. It features thriving commercial districts, distinctive historical and cultural landscapes, and abundant social resources. However, the central urban area of Wenzhou City also faces challenges associated with urbanization, such as population growth, land use pressure, and traffic congestion. Therefore, studying the provision of public service facilities in this area is of significant importance for rational urban planning and improving residents’ quality of life.

Figure 1 Study area.
Figure 1

Study area.

2.2 Data sources and processing

In this study, data on the administrative boundaries, residential communities, points of interest (POI) representing public service facilities, and walking times from residential communities to POIs in the study area were obtained using the AMap API (Application Programming Interface). The data coordinates were then converted to the China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000 (CGCS2000) using a Gauss-Krüger 3° projection with a central meridian of 117° east, and the unit of measurement was set as meters. Through manual interpretation using tools like Google Earth and Baidu Street View, 159,943 residential community data points within the central urban area of Wenzhou City were determined using ArcGIS. Based on the population statistics of street-level administrative areas in Wenzhou City from the Statistical Yearbook of Wenzhou City in 2019, the population of each residential community was calculated according to the proportional building area within each street [20]. To ensure consistency with a 15-min walking time radius, duplicate and redundant POI data related to public service facilities were removed, resulting in a final selection of 65,303 data points. These points were further categorized into 7 major types and 20 subtypes, including transportation, commerce, healthcare, sports, culture, leisure, and education. The weights of the eight major types of public service facilities were calculated using the entropy weighting method, which was then utilized in the comprehensive evaluation of the accessibility of public service facilities at the street level (Table 1).

Table 1

Quantity and weights of public service facilities (POIs)

Facility category Facility subcategory Count Proportion (%) Weight
Transportation facilities Bus stops, metro stations, parking lots 7,731 11.84 0.20
Commercial facilities Convenience stores, large supermarkets, comprehensive markets 41,635 63.76 0.14
Medical facilities Pharmacies, health service centers, general hospitals 4,569 7.00 0.11
Sports facilities Comprehensive sports stadiums, convenient fitness points 4,569 7.00 0.13
Cultural facilities Community cultural centers, libraries, art galleries 1,692 2.59 0.09
Leisure facilities Parks and green spaces, urban squares 1,273 1.95 0.13
Educational facilities Kindergartens, primary schools, middle schools, training institutions 3,834 5.87 0.20
Total 65,303 100 1

2.3 Research method

2.3.1 Kernel density estimation

Kernel density estimation is a non-parametric estimation method widely used in spatial analysis of point features. It estimates the density of point patterns by utilizing a moving window, generating a visual representation of feature density changes, and providing continuous spatial distribution results that reflect the relative concentration of point features [21]. The kernel density function is calculated as follows:

λ ( s ) = ∑ 1 − 1 n 1 π r 2 φ d r ,

where λ ( s ) represents the kernel density value at grid cell s , r denotes the search radius, n is the total number of POI points, d represents the distance between POI points, and φ is the weight.

2.3.2 Nearest neighbor index

The nearest neighbor distance is a geographical indicator that represents the degree of proximity between point features in geographic space. It effectively reflects the spatial distribution characteristics of point features [22,23]. The calculation method involves comparing the observed nearest neighbor distance with the expected nearest neighbor distance, represented by the ratio NNI . The formula for determining the distribution characteristics of POIs based on the ratio of observed and expected nearest neighbor distances is as follows:

NNI = r 1 ¯ r E ¯ = 2 D × r 1 ¯ ,

r E ¯ = 1 2 n / A = 1 2 D n ,

where NNI is the nearest neighbor index, r 1 ¯ is the average distance between nearest neighbor points, r E is the expected nearest neighbor distance, D represents point density, A is the area of the study region, and n is the number of study objects.

When NNI = 1 , it indicates a random distribution of point features where r 1 ¯ = r E ¯ .

When NNI > 1 , it suggests a tendency toward a uniform distribution of point features.

When NNI < 1 , it indicates an aggregated distribution of point features.

2.3.3 Ripley’s K function

Ripley’s K function is used to determine the statistical significance of clustering or dispersion of features within a certain distance range [24]. It involves counting the number of points within a specified search radius and is calculated using the following formula:

K ( t ) = A ∑ i = 1 j = 1 n ∑ i j n w i j ( t ) n 2 ,

L ( t ) = K ( t ) π − t ,

where n is the number of point features, w i j ( t ) represents the distance between point i and point j within the distance range t , and A is the area of the study region.

Under a random distribution state, the expected value of L ( t ) is 0. If L ( t ) ＞ 0, it indicates a clustered distribution. If L ( t ) ＜ 0, it suggests a dispersed distribution. The first peak of L ( t ) (the maximum deviation from the confidence interval) can be used to measure the degree of clustering, and the corresponding t value is used to measure the scale of clustering.

2.3.4 Comprehensive accessibility score calculation

Due to the varying importance of different types of public service facilities in meeting residents’ daily needs, it is necessary to assign different weights to different categories of public service facilities when calculating the comprehensive accessibility score. In this study, the entropy weight method is first used to calculate the weights of each category of public service facilities. Then, for each residential community, the quantities of public service facilities are normalized using Min–Max standardization and weighted by their respective weights to obtain the comprehensive accessibility score of public service facilities for that residential community. Finally, taking the population size of each residential community as the weight, the comprehensive scores of public service facilities are aggregated across all residential communities to obtain the scores for each street [25,26].

The formula for calculating weights using the entropy weight method is

W p = d j ∑ j = 1 n d j .

The formula for calculating the comprehensive accessibility score of a residential community is

R i = ∑ i n ( W p × X i j ) .

The formula for calculating the comprehensive accessibility score of a street is

S k = ∑ k m p i ∑ k m p i × R i ,

where W P represents the weights of each category of public service facilities, n is the number of indicators, d j denotes the information entropy redundancy, and the calculation method is detailed in the reference literature. R i is the comprehensive score of each residential community, X i j represents the value of the j th evaluation indicator for the i th residential area, S k is the comprehensive score of each street, k denotes the number of streets, m is the number of residential communities within a street, and p i represents the population size of the residential community.

2.4 Z-score

Z-score, also known as the standard score, is a process that involves taking the difference between a number and the mean and then dividing it by the standard deviation. In statistics, the standard score represents the number of standard deviations by which an observation or data point is above or below the mean value of the observed or measured values [27]. Scores above the mean will have a positive standard score, while scores below the mean will have a negative standard score. The calculation formula is as follows:

Z = X − μ σ ,

where μ is the mean and σ is the standard deviation. The Z value represents the distance between the data and the mean. Z ＞ 0 indicates that the data is above the mean, while Z ＜ 0 indicates that it is below the mean.

3 Results

3.1 Distribution and agglomeration analysis of public service facilities

The central urban area of Wenzhou exhibits significant disparities in the quantity and distribution of public service facilities. Table 1 demonstrates variations in both the quantity and weights of different types of public service facilities. Transportation and commercial facilities are the most numerous, with 7,731 and 41,635 facilities, respectively, constituting 11.84 and 63.76% of the total, and they also hold a substantial share in the overall weight. In contrast, cultural and recreational facilities are comparatively scarce, with 1,692 and 1,273 facilities, respectively, holding a lower percentage. These data reveal an uneven distribution of various types of public service facilities, which may have implications for residents’ quality of life.

In order to gain a deeper understanding of the spatial distribution characteristics of public service facilities, we employed kernel density analysis and the NNI for further investigation. From the results of kernel density analysis, public service facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou exhibit a typical “single-center” structure, but different facility types display distinct spatial distribution patterns (Figure 2). For instance, educational, commercial, and medical facilities have a broader distribution range in the central urban area, displaying a pronounced “multi-center” clustering morphology. In contrast, sports, cultural, recreational, and elderly care facilities are relatively scarce and sparsely distributed, which may result in their relative scarcity in certain areas. The data in Table 2 further support these observations. An NNI value less than 1 indicates significant spatial clustering, while an NNI value close to 1 suggests a relatively uniform distribution. According to the NNI values in Table 2, commercial facilities have an NNI of 0.219529, indicating a strong clustering characteristic of commercial facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou, consistent with their high proportion in quantity and weight in Table 1. Conversely, cultural facilities have an NNI of 0.363082, signifying a pronounced clustering in the distribution of cultural facilities, contrary to the previous description. Additionally, the analysis of Ripley’s K function results (Table 2) reveals significant differences in the clustering scale and intensity of different types of public service facilities. Transportation facilities exhibit the largest clustering scale and intensity, while recreational facilities exhibit the smallest clustering scale and intensity. This indicates that there are substantial variations in the distribution and clustering level of different types of public service facilities in the urban central area, underscoring the need for further attention in urban planning and facility optimization. Taking into account the different types of public service facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou, their distribution and clustering characteristics vary significantly. These variations may have substantial implications for residents’ quality of life and convenience. Commercial facilities and cultural facilities exhibit a pronounced clustering, potentially making it easier for residents to access related services. However, other types of facilities may require more improvements and distribution optimization to meet the needs of residents.

Table 2

Spatial aggregation characteristics of public service facilities

Facility category Nearest neighbor index Riply’s K
Expected value Observed value NNI Expected value Observed value Peak value of L(t)
Facility category 100.2795 23.0272 0.22963 21116.18581 25875.03448 4758.848674
Transportation facilities 100.2795 23.0272 0.22963 21146.6334 25131.01668 3984.383281
Commercial facilities 122.6888 26.9338 0.219529 20288.22627 24834.46409 4546.237819
Medical facilities 358.6158 79.6144 0.222005 20382.49268 24428.50322 4046.010542
Sports facilities 358.6158 79.6144 0.222005 20382.49268 24428.50322 4046.010542
Cultural facilities 604.0864 219.3328 0.363082 20838.24273 24495.3128 3657.070072
Leisure facilities 646.5663 228.7035 0.353720 20540.73754 22906.02762 2365.290076
Educational facilities 390.5465 96.2311 0.246401 19645.26827 24274.61988 4629.35161
Figure 2 Density distribution of public service facilities in the downtown area of Wenzhou: (a) educational facilities, (b) commercial facilities, (c) medical facilities, (d) sports facilities, (e) cultural facilities, (f) leisure facilities. (g) transportation facilities, and (h) complex facilities.
Figure 2

Density distribution of public service facilities in the downtown area of Wenzhou: (a) educational facilities, (b) commercial facilities, (c) medical facilities, (d) sports facilities, (e) cultural facilities, (f) leisure facilities. (g) transportation facilities, and (h) complex facilities.

3.2 Analysis of accessible public service facilities for residential travel

In the analysis of residents’ travel accessibility, we started from various residential neighborhoods and counted the number and categories of accessible public service facilities within a 15-min walking distance. From the data in Table 3, it is evident that there are significant differences in the number of accessible public service facilities from different residential neighborhoods within a 15-min walk. Residents from various residential neighborhoods are categorized into five levels based on the number of accessible public service facilities. The highest level of neighborhoods has access to 0–22 facilities, with 112,713 neighborhoods, constituting 70.65% of the total. The lowest level neighborhoods have access to 245–689 facilities, with 944 neighborhoods, making up 0.59% of the total. These data reveal notable disparities in travel convenience among different residential areas. The primary reason is the significant variation in the number of accessible public service facilities within a 15-min walk in the central urban area of Wenzhou. The majority of residential neighborhoods’ residents (70.65%) have access to a lower number of public service facilities within 15 min, suggesting that these neighborhoods may require further improvements to enhance travel convenience. Only 0.59% of neighborhoods’ residents can access a higher number of public service facilities within 15 min, indicating their higher travel convenience.

Table 3

Number of accessible facilities for residential communities

Level Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Number of categories 0–22 23–66 67–131 132–244 245–689
Number of residential communities 112,713 29,554 11,754 4,564 944
Percentage (%) 70.65% 18.53% 7.37% 2.86% 0.59%

From the spatial distribution map (Figure 3a), we can observe that the number of accessible public service facilities within the living circle of different residential neighborhoods is consistent with the distribution of public service facilities, showing distinct concentric distribution characteristics. Some residential neighborhoods located in the central urban area have a significantly higher number of accessible public service facilities for their residents compared to neighborhoods in the city’s peripheral regions. For instance, residential neighborhoods in core areas such as Fuqian Street, Chengzhong Road, Lucheng Avenue, Yintai City South Road, etc., have a higher number of accessible public service facilities within 15 min. In contrast, neighborhoods in some peripheral areas, like Minhang Road, Liming West Road, have a lower number of accessible facilities, ranging from 3 to 212. This further underscores the differences in travel accessibility across various regions within the central urban area of Wenzhou.

Figure 3 Accessible facilities for residential communities: (a) number of accessible facilities and (b) categories of accessible facilities.
Figure 3

Accessible facilities for residential communities: (a) number of accessible facilities and (b) categories of accessible facilities.

However, having a higher number of accessible public service facilities within a 15-min living circle does not necessarily mean that all facility categories are equally available. To gain a deeper understanding of this aspect, we conducted an analysis of the facility categories accessible to residents within residential neighborhoods (Table 4). The results show that 27.85% of neighborhoods’ residents can access all eight categories of public service facilities within 15 min, while 80.70% of neighborhoods’ residents can access seven or more categories of facilities. This implies that a majority of residential areas’ residents can access a rich variety of public service facilities within a 15-min walking range. However, there are still 0.42% of neighborhoods where residents can access fewer than five categories of facilities within 15 min, which may impact their quality of life.

Table 4

Categories of facilities accessible to residential community residents

Level Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7
Number of categories 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of residential communities 27,652 23,271 16,559 16,622 18,042 18,539 12,387
Percentage (%) 20.78 17.49 12.44 12.49 13.56 13.93 9.31

Looking at the spatial distribution map (Figure 3b), the distribution of streets with comprehensive categories of accessible public service facilities is generally consistent with regions having a higher number of public service facilities. Nevertheless, even in streets surrounding densely populated areas like Fuqian Street, Chengzhong Road, there are instances of incomplete accessibility. Regions with fewer accessible facility categories are predominantly situated at the periphery of the central urban area of Wenzhou, such as Dawangzhuang Street, Dagujie Street, and so on. Additionally, the topography and transportation in Wenzhou city also influence the accessibility of public service facilities, leading to situations where some residential neighborhoods, although proximate to these facilities, still require a longer time to access them within a 15-min walk. For example, residents of neighborhoods along Lucheng Avenue, Yintai City South Road have a five-level accessibility in terms of the number of accessible facilities, while neighborhoods along Fudong Road, Jinxiu Road have a four-level or even three-level accessibility, with significant differences in the categories of accessible facilities. These disparities need to receive more attention in urban planning and transportation design to enhance residents’ travel convenience and quality of life.

3.3 Comprehensive evaluation of accessible public service facilities for residents in each street

First, based on the comprehensive accessibility scores of public service facilities on each street, they are categorized into five classes using the natural breakpoint method, as illustrated in Figure 4a. Streets exhibit a “center-high, periphery-low” trend in terms of their scores, with the highest-scoring areas still concentrated around residential neighborhoods centered around Fuqian Street, Chengzhong Road, Lucheng Avenue, Yintai City South Road, and so on. Except for streets without residential neighborhoods, streets with the lowest scores are below 0.02, indicating a considerable discrepancy compared to the highest-scoring streets. This implies that, overall, there are substantial disparities in the accessibility of public service facilities among residents on different streets. Additionally, there is also variance in the accessibility of public service facilities among residential neighborhoods within the same street (Figure 4b), with most streets having coefficients of variation less than 0.37, indicating limited internal differences. These streets are mostly located in the core areas, having relatively smaller areas, concentrated residential neighborhoods, and consequently smaller disparities in the number and category of accessible facilities.

Figure 4 Overall level and internal variations in the accessibility of facilities by streets: (a) overall evaluation score and (b) Z-score.
Figure 4

Overall level and internal variations in the accessibility of facilities by streets: (a) overall evaluation score and (b) Z-score.

To further provide an objective evaluation of the accessibility of public service facilities on different streets, a Z-score analysis was conducted, considering the comprehensive evaluation scores, variation coefficients, and population density of public service facilities on each street. Among the results, Z comprehensive scores, Z variation coefficients, and Z population density greater than 0 signify high levels, substantial variations, and high density, respectively, while the reverse indicates lower levels. The matching results of accessibility scores and variation coefficients for public service facilities on each street reveal (Figure 5a) that streets of the “high level-high variation” type are predominantly located in the central areas, such as Lucheng Avenue, Cihu Street, etc. These streets have high levels of public service facilities, but they also exhibit significant disparities, partly due to factors like mountainous topography that creates variations within certain regions. Streets of the “low level-low variation” type are mostly situated in peripheral areas, such as Luoxi Residential Area, Beicang Town, etc. These streets have an overall poor configuration of public service facilities, coupled with a considerable distance from areas with concentrated public service facilities, leading to low levels and minimal differences within the streets. “High level-low variation” streets are relatively scarce and are distributed in the central areas, such as the northern regions of Baili East Road and Jiangbin West Road, which serve as the traditional economic centers. They feature an overall high level of public service facilities with minimal differences within the area. Streets of the “low level-high variation” type are mainly found in the intermediary zones among the aforementioned categories. These streets exhibit lower overall development levels, are influenced by the proximity of high-level areas, contain small-scale commercial centers, and, as a result, have a higher level of public service facilities in certain areas, leading to substantial differences in accessibility within the streets. For instance, “low level-high variation” streets are relatively concentrated around Sanxiang Avenue and are regions where the improvement of public service facility configurations is prioritized.

Figure 5 Matching of street accessibility and population density variations: (a) matching of street accessibility and internal variations and (b) matching of street accessibility and street population density.
Figure 5

Matching of street accessibility and population density variations: (a) matching of street accessibility and internal variations and (b) matching of street accessibility and street population density.

Examining the matching results between accessibility scores and population density for public service facilities on each street (Figure 5b), streets of the “low level-low density” type and “low level-high density” type are intertwined in peripheral regions. The former has a sparse population, resulting in a poor configuration of public service facilities. However, these streets are adjacent to areas with high population density, presenting an opportunity to attract population migration to these streets by optimizing public service configurations. This can serve as a means of relieving the population pressure in the core areas. “Low level-high density” streets are regions that have experienced rapid development in recent years, and enhancing the configuration of public service facilities in these areas can contribute to improving residents’ sense of happiness and well-being. “High level-low density” streets are located in the core areas of the central city, characterized by high levels of urbanization but a lower concentration of residents. It is advisable to promote the transfer of certain public service facilities from the central areas to the lower-level areas.

4 Discussion

Introducing the concept of living circles to guide the allocation of urban public service facilities largely meets the requirements of demand-oriented public service facilities driven by supply-side structural reforms and provides new ideas for the rational allocation of urban public service facilities. In this study, a 15-min walking distance was taken as the living circle range, and using Amap data, the spatial variations of public service facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou were analyzed, with residential communities as the evaluation units, and a comprehensive evaluation was conducted at the street level. It was found that there is an imbalance in the allocation of public service facilities in Wenzhou. The core areas of the central urban area, due to early development, have a concentration of public service facilities with complete provisions, while surrounding areas lack an adequate number of public service facilities and have a deficiency in certain types of public service facilities. Furthermore, Wenzhou’s unique riverine topography has also affected the accessibility of its public service facilities, resulting in “gaps” or disparities. The Z-score matching analysis of street-level variations and internal differences shows that even if streets have the same overall level, they still exhibit internal variations, leading to different contradictions in the development of public service facilities within each street. For example, streets with high level-high variation exhibit a high overall level of public service facilities but with significant internal differences, highlighting the conflicts within the streets. In accordance with the requirements of the living circle concept, more targeted efforts should be made to improve the allocation of public service facilities in different types of streets to better meet the practical needs of residents. The use of internet map services with route planning functionality in this study better corresponds to the actual travel situations of residents, providing more precise and convenient measurements compared to traditional spatial distance measurements, thus offering detailed data support for analyzing the 15-min living circle. However, it should be noted that this study did not consider the actual needs of different population groups for public service facilities when evaluating residents’ accessibility to public service facilities. Previous research has shown that different population groups, such as the elderly, children, etc., have different demands for public service facilities. Therefore, in future research, a more precise evaluation of public service facility allocation should be conducted by taking into account the actual needs of different types of residents.

5 Conclusion

Based on Amap data and utilizing methods such as kernel density estimation, nearest neighbor index, Ripley’s K, and Z-score, this study investigates the spatial variations in the distribution of public service facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou from the perspective of living circles. The following conclusions can be drawn:

  1. The distribution of public service facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou is uneven, exhibiting an overall “single-center” structure in terms of the quantity and clustering of public service facilities. Different categories of public service facilities also show variations in quantity and clustering.

  2. The number and variety of accessible facilities for residents exhibit significant spatial disparities, forming a concentric distribution pattern. They decrease notably from the central areas towards the periphery. Additionally, the presence of terrain features influences the accessibility, with residents on the western side of the central urban area in Wenzhou having greater accessibility than those on the eastern side. Overall, the configuration of public service facilities displays a “gap” in its distribution.

  3. The comprehensive scores of each street exhibit a consistent “high in the center, low in the surrounding areas” structure. However, there are different internal differences among streets, mainly characterized by a higher number of streets with low scores-low differences and low scores-high differences, which are distributed in the peripheral areas of the central urban area. Streets with high scores-low differences and high scores-high differences are fewer in number and are distributed in the core areas of the central urban area in an overlapping manner.

  4. The number of streets that match the population density with the accessibility scores in the “high level-high density” category is small and concentrated in the core areas. The “low level-low density” category has a larger number of streets and is distributed in the surrounding areas. The “low level-high density” and “high level-low density” categories, which do not match the population density with the accessibility scores, have a larger number of streets and are widely distributed.

Based on the research findings, the following suggestions can be proposed for optimizing the allocation of public service facilities in the central urban area of Wenzhou based on a 15-min living circle: (1) Regarding the categories of public service facilities, it is necessary to supplement and construct facilities based on the current status of public service facilities in residential areas, addressing the contradiction between the strong demand for cultural and recreational facilities by residents and the insufficient provision of such facilities. There should be an increase in the allocation of these two categories of public service facilities; (2) According to the results of the matching analysis of accessibility scores and differences at the street level, efforts should be made to improve internal differences by addressing the shortcomings of streets in the “low level-low difference” category and optimizing the configuration structure of streets in the “high level-high difference” category; (3) Based on the results of matching population and street-level public service facility scores, it is necessary to clarify the key areas for the development of different types of streets, develop public service facilities in “low level-low density” streets to alleviate population and facility pressure in the core areas, optimize public service facilities in “low level-high density” streets to improve residents’ well-being and satisfaction, and transfer some public service facilities from “high level-high density” streets to optimize land use structure.

# Xi Chen and Qi Zhang contributed equally and are both first authors.

Acknowledgments

Our study thanks the help from faculty of Wenzhou-Kean University and Thanks Miss Jing Su, who gave us many local information about Wenzhou City.

  1. Author contributions: Xi Chen and Qi Zhang jointly conducted the experiments, collected data, and were involved in the initial data analysis. Hui Zhang provided critical local insights and expertise, particularly in contextualizing the research within Wenzhou’s urban landscape, enhancing the study’s applicability. Qi Zhang led the statistical analysis and drafted the manuscript, with Xi Chen and Hui Zhang providing significant revisions and feedback. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

  2. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  3. Data availability statement: Our data will be available upon reasonable request.

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Received: 2023-07-03
Revised: 2024-03-20
Accepted: 2024-06-04
Published Online: 2024-10-17

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2022-0654
Keywords for this article
public service facilities; spatial disparities; accessibility; urban planning; Amap
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Theoretical magnetotelluric response of stratiform earth consisting of alternative homogeneous and transitional layers
  3. The research of common drought indexes for the application to the drought monitoring in the region of Jin Sha river
  4. Evolutionary game analysis of government, businesses, and consumers in high-standard farmland low-carbon construction
  5. On the use of low-frequency passive seismic as a direct hydrocarbon indicator: A case study at Banyubang oil field, Indonesia
  6. Water transportation planning in connection with extreme weather conditions; case study – Port of Novi Sad, Serbia
  7. Zircon U–Pb ages of the Paleozoic volcaniclastic strata in the Junggar Basin, NW China
  8. Monitoring of mangrove forests vegetation based on optical versus microwave data: A case study western coast of Saudi Arabia
  9. Microfacies analysis of marine shale: A case study of the shales of the Wufeng–Longmaxi formation in the western Chongqing, Sichuan Basin, China
  10. Multisource remote sensing image fusion processing in plateau seismic region feature information extraction and application analysis – An example of the Menyuan Ms6.9 earthquake on January 8, 2022
  11. Identification of magnetic mineralogy and paleo-flow direction of the Miocene-quaternary volcanic products in the north of Lake Van, Eastern Turkey
  12. Impact of fully rotating steel casing bored pile on adjacent tunnels
  13. Adolescents’ consumption intentions toward leisure tourism in high-risk leisure environments in riverine areas
  14. Petrogenesis of Jurassic granitic rocks in South China Block: Implications for events related to subduction of Paleo-Pacific plate
  15. Differences in urban daytime and night block vitality based on mobile phone signaling data: A case study of Kunming’s urban district
  16. Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan
  17. Integrated geophysical approach for detection and size-geometry characterization of a multiscale karst system in carbonate units, semiarid Brazil
  18. Spatial and temporal changes in ecosystem services value and analysis of driving factors in the Yangtze River Delta Region
  19. Deep fault sliding rates for Ka-Ping block of Xinjiang based on repeating earthquakes
  20. Improved deep learning segmentation of outdoor point clouds with different sampling strategies and using intensities
  21. Platform margin belt structure and sedimentation characteristics of Changxing Formation reefs on both sides of the Kaijiang-Liangping trough, eastern Sichuan Basin, China
  22. Enhancing attapulgite and cement-modified loess for effective landfill lining: A study on seepage prevention and Cu/Pb ion adsorption
  23. Flood risk assessment, a case study in an arid environment of Southeast Morocco
  24. Lower limits of physical properties and classification evaluation criteria of the tight reservoir in the Ahe Formation in the Dibei Area of the Kuqa depression
  25. Evaluation of Viaducts’ contribution to road network accessibility in the Yunnan–Guizhou area based on the node deletion method
  26. Permian tectonic switch of the southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Constraints from magmatism in the southern Alxa region, NW China
  27. Element geochemical differences in lower Cambrian black shales with hydrothermal sedimentation in the Yangtze block, South China
  28. Three-dimensional finite-memory quasi-Newton inversion of the magnetotelluric based on unstructured grids
  29. Obliquity-paced summer monsoon from the Shilou red clay section on the eastern Chinese Loess Plateau
  30. Classification and logging identification of reservoir space near the upper Ordovician pinch-out line in Tahe Oilfield
  31. Ultra-deep channel sand body target recognition method based on improved deep learning under UAV cluster
  32. New formula to determine flyrock distance on sedimentary rocks with low strength
  33. Assessing the ecological security of tourism in Northeast China
  34. Effective reservoir identification and sweet spot prediction in Chang 8 Member tight oil reservoirs in Huanjiang area, Ordos Basin
  35. Detecting heterogeneity of spatial accessibility to sports facilities for adolescents at fine scale: A case study in Changsha, China
  36. Effects of freeze–thaw cycles on soil nutrients by soft rock and sand remodeling
  37. Vibration prediction with a method based on the absorption property of blast-induced seismic waves: A case study
  38. A new look at the geodynamic development of the Ediacaran–early Cambrian forearc basalts of the Tannuola-Khamsara Island Arc (Central Asia, Russia): Conclusions from geological, geochemical, and Nd-isotope data
  39. Spatio-temporal analysis of the driving factors of urban land use expansion in China: A study of the Yangtze River Delta region
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  65. Usability of PPGIS tools exemplified by geodiscussion – a tool for public participation in shaping public space
  66. Efficient development technology of Upper Paleozoic Lower Shihezi tight sandstone gas reservoir in northeastern Ordos Basin
  67. Assessment of soil resources of agricultural landscapes in Turkestan region of the Republic of Kazakhstan based on agrochemical indexes
  68. Evaluating the impact of DEM interpolation algorithms on relief index for soil resource management
  69. Petrogenetic relationship between plutonic and subvolcanic rocks in the Jurassic Shuikoushan complex, South China
  70. A novel workflow for shale lithology identification – A case study in the Gulong Depression, Songliao Basin, China
  71. Characteristics and main controlling factors of dolomite reservoirs in Fei-3 Member of Feixianguan Formation of Lower Triassic, Puguang area
  72. Impact of high-speed railway network on county-level accessibility and economic linkage in Jiangxi Province, China: A spatio-temporal data analysis
  73. Estimation model of wild fractional vegetation cover based on RGB vegetation index and its application
  74. Lithofacies, petrography, and geochemistry of the Lamphun oceanic plate stratigraphy: As a record of the subduction history of Paleo-Tethys in Chiang Mai-Chiang Rai Suture Zone of Thailand
  75. Structural features and tectonic activity of the Weihe Fault, central China
  76. Application of the wavelet transform and Hilbert–Huang transform in stratigraphic sequence division of Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in Southwest Sichuan Basin
  77. Structural detachment influences the shale gas preservation in the Wufeng-Longmaxi Formation, Northern Guizhou Province
  78. Distribution law of Chang 7 Member tight oil in the western Ordos Basin based on geological, logging and numerical simulation techniques
  79. Evaluation of alteration in the geothermal province west of Cappadocia, Türkiye: Mineralogical, petrographical, geochemical, and remote sensing data
  80. Numerical modeling of site response at large strains with simplified nonlinear models: Application to Lotung seismic array
  81. Quantitative characterization of granite failure intensity under dynamic disturbance from energy standpoint
  82. Characteristics of debris flow dynamics and prediction of the hazardous area in Bangou Village, Yanqing District, Beijing, China
  83. Rockfall mapping and susceptibility evaluation based on UAV high-resolution imagery and support vector machine method
  84. Statistical comparison analysis of different real-time kinematic methods for the development of photogrammetric products: CORS-RTK, CORS-RTK + PPK, RTK-DRTK2, and RTK + DRTK2 + GCP
  85. Hydrogeological mapping of fracture networks using earth observation data to improve rainfall–runoff modeling in arid mountains, Saudi Arabia
  86. Petrography and geochemistry of pegmatite and leucogranite of Ntega-Marangara area, Burundi, in relation to rare metal mineralisation
  87. Prediction of formation fracture pressure based on reinforcement learning and XGBoost
  88. Hazard zonation for potential earthquake-induced landslide in the eastern East Kunlun fault zone
  89. Monitoring water infiltration in multiple layers of sandstone coal mining model with cracks using ERT
  90. Study of the patterns of ice lake variation and the factors influencing these changes in the western Nyingchi area
  91. Productive conservation at the landslide prone area under the threat of rapid land cover changes
  92. Sedimentary processes and patterns in deposits corresponding to freshwater lake-facies of hyperpycnal flow – An experimental study based on flume depositional simulations
  93. Study on time-dependent injectability evaluation of mudstone considering the self-healing effect
  94. Detection of objects with diverse geometric shapes in GPR images using deep-learning methods
  95. Behavior of trace metals in sedimentary cores from marine and lacustrine environments in Algeria
  96. Spatiotemporal variation pattern and spatial coupling relationship between NDVI and LST in Mu Us Sandy Land
  97. Formation mechanism and oil-bearing properties of gravity flow sand body of Chang 63 sub-member of Yanchang Formation in Huaqing area, Ordos Basin
  98. Diagenesis of marine-continental transitional shale from the Upper Permian Longtan Formation in southern Sichuan Basin, China
  99. Vertical high-velocity structures and seismic activity in western Shandong Rise, China: Case study inspired by double-difference seismic tomography
  100. Spatial coupling relationship between metamorphic core complex and gold deposits: Constraints from geophysical electromagnetics
  101. Disparities in the geospatial allocation of public facilities from the perspective of living circles
  102. Research on spatial correlation structure of war heritage based on field theory. A case study of Jinzhai County, China
  103. Formation mechanisms of Qiaoba-Zhongdu Danxia landforms in southwestern Sichuan Province, China
  104. Magnetic data interpretation: Implication for structure and hydrocarbon potentiality at Delta Wadi Diit, Southeastern Egypt
  105. Deeply buried clastic rock diagenesis evolution mechanism of Dongdaohaizi sag in the center of Junggar fault basin, Northwest China
  106. Application of LS-RAPID to simulate the motion of two contrasting landslides triggered by earthquakes
  107. The new insight of tectonic setting in Sunda–Banda transition zone using tomography seismic. Case study: 7.1 M deep earthquake 29 August 2023
  108. The critical role of c and φ in ensuring stability: A study on rockfill dams
  109. Evidence of late quaternary activity of the Weining-Shuicheng Fault in Guizhou, China
  110. Extreme hydroclimatic events and response of vegetation in the eastern QTP since 10 ka
  111. Spatial–temporal effect of sea–land gradient on landscape pattern and ecological risk in the coastal zone: A case study of Dalian City
  112. Study on the influence mechanism of land use on carbon storage under multiple scenarios: A case study of Wenzhou
  113. A new method for identifying reservoir fluid properties based on well logging data: A case study from PL block of Bohai Bay Basin, North China
  114. Comparison between thermal models across the Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and Eastern Llanos basins in Colombia
  115. Mineralogical and elemental analysis of Kazakh coals from three mines: Preliminary insights from mode of occurrence to environmental impacts
  116. Chlorite-induced porosity evolution in multi-source tight sandstone reservoirs: A case study of the Shaximiao Formation in western Sichuan Basin
  117. Predicting stability factors for rotational failures in earth slopes and embankments using artificial intelligence techniques
  118. Origin of Late Cretaceous A-type granitoids in South China: Response to the rollback and retreat of the Paleo-Pacific plate
  119. Modification of dolomitization on reservoir spaces in reef–shoal complex: A case study of Permian Changxing Formation, Sichuan Basin, SW China
  120. Geological characteristics of the Daduhe gold belt, western Sichuan, China: Implications for exploration
  121. Rock physics model for deep coal-bed methane reservoir based on equivalent medium theory: A case study of Carboniferous-Permian in Eastern Ordos Basin
  122. Enhancing the total-field magnetic anomaly using the normalized source strength
  123. Shear wave velocity profiling of Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia, utilizing the multi-channel analysis of surface waves method
  124. Effect of coal facies on pore structure heterogeneity of coal measures: Quantitative characterization and comparative study
  125. Inversion method of organic matter content of different types of soils in black soil area based on hyperspectral indices
  126. Detection of seepage zones in artificial levees: A case study at the Körös River, Hungary
  127. Tight sandstone fluid detection technology based on multi-wave seismic data
  128. Characteristics and control techniques of soft rock tunnel lining cracks in high geo-stress environments: Case study of Wushaoling tunnel group
  129. Influence of pore structure characteristics on the Permian Shan-1 reservoir in Longdong, Southwest Ordos Basin, China
  130. Study on sedimentary model of Shanxi Formation – Lower Shihezi Formation in Da 17 well area of Daniudi gas field, Ordos Basin
  131. Multi-scenario territorial spatial simulation and dynamic changes: A case study of Jilin Province in China from 1985 to 2030
  132. Review Articles
  133. Major ascidian species with negative impacts on bivalve aquaculture: Current knowledge and future research aims
  134. Prediction and assessment of meteorological drought in southwest China using long short-term memory model
  135. Communication
  136. Essential questions in earth and geosciences according to large language models
  137. Erratum
  138. Erratum to “Random forest and artificial neural network-based tsunami forests classification using data fusion of Sentinel-2 and Airbus Vision-1 satellites: A case study of Garhi Chandan, Pakistan”
  139. Special Issue: Natural Resources and Environmental Risks: Towards a Sustainable Future - Part I
  140. Spatial-temporal and trend analysis of traffic accidents in AP Vojvodina (North Serbia)
  141. Exploring environmental awareness, knowledge, and safety: A comparative study among students in Montenegro and North Macedonia
  142. Determinants influencing tourists’ willingness to visit Türkiye – Impact of earthquake hazards on Serbian visitors’ preferences
  143. Application of remote sensing in monitoring land degradation: A case study of Stanari municipality (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
  144. Optimizing agricultural land use: A GIS-based assessment of suitability in the Sana River Basin, Bosnia and Herzegovina
  145. Assessing risk-prone areas in the Kratovska Reka catchment (North Macedonia) by integrating advanced geospatial analytics and flash flood potential index
  146. Analysis of the intensity of erosive processes and state of vegetation cover in the zone of influence of the Kolubara Mining Basin
  147. GIS-based spatial modeling of landslide susceptibility using BWM-LSI: A case study – city of Smederevo (Serbia)
  148. Geospatial modeling of wildfire susceptibility on a national scale in Montenegro: A comparative evaluation of F-AHP and FR methodologies
  149. Geosite assessment as the first step for the development of canyoning activities in North Montenegro
  150. Urban geoheritage and degradation risk assessment of the Sokograd fortress (Sokobanja, Eastern Serbia)
  151. Multi-hazard modeling of erosion and landslide susceptibility at the national scale in the example of North Macedonia
  152. Understanding seismic hazard resilience in Montenegro: A qualitative analysis of community preparedness and response capabilities
  153. Forest soil CO2 emission in Quercus robur level II monitoring site
  154. Characterization of glomalin proteins in soil: A potential indicator of erosion intensity
  155. Power of Terroir: Case study of Grašac at the Fruška Gora wine region (North Serbia)
  156. Special Issue: Geospatial and Environmental Dynamics - Part I
  157. Qualitative insights into cultural heritage protection in Serbia: Addressing legal and institutional gaps for disaster risk resilience
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