Home Physical Sciences Use of glycerol waste in lactic acid bacteria metabolism for the production of lactic acid: State of the art in Poland
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Use of glycerol waste in lactic acid bacteria metabolism for the production of lactic acid: State of the art in Poland

  • Grzegorz S. Jodłowski EMAIL logo and Edyta Strzelec
Published/Copyright: September 27, 2021
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Open Chemistry
From the journal Open Chemistry Volume 19 Issue 1

Abstract

Lactic acid is a naturally existing organic acid, which may be used in many different branches of industrial application. It can be made in the sugar fermentation process from renewable raw lactic acid, which is an indispensable raw material, including in the agricultural, food, and pharmaceutical industries. It is an ecological product that has enjoyed great popularity in recent years. In 2010, the US Department of Energy published a report about lactic acid to be a potential building element for future technology, whose demand grows year by year. The lactic acid molecule naturally exists in plants, microorganisms, and animals and can also be produced by carbohydrate fermentation or chemical synthesis from coal, petroleum products, and natural gas. In industry, lactic acid can be produced by chemical synthesis or fermentation. Although racemic lactic acid is always produced chemically from petrochemical sources, the optically pure L(+) – or D(−) – lactic acid forms can be obtained by microbial fermentation of renewable resources when an appropriate microorganism is selected. Depending on the application, one form of optically pure LA is preferred over the other. Additionally, microbial fermentation offers benefits including cheap renewable substrates, low production temperatures, and low energy consumption. Due to these advantages, the most commonly used biotechnological production process with the use of biocatalysts, i.e., lactic acid bacteria. The cost of raw materials is one of the major factors in the economic production of lactic acid. As substrate costs cannot be reduced by scaling up the process, extensive research is currently underway to find new substrates for the production of LA. These searches include starch raw materials, lignocellulosic biomass, as well as waste from the food and refining industries. Here, the greatest attention is still drawn to molasses and whey as the largest sources of lactose, vitamins, and carbohydrates, as well as glycerol – a by-product of the biodiesel component production process. Focusing on the importance of lactic acid and its subsequent use as a product, but also a valuable raw material for polymerization (exactly to PLA), this review summarizes information about the properties and applications of lactic acid, as well as about its production and purification processes. An industrial installation for the production of lactic acid is only planned to be launched in Poland. As of today, there is no commercial-scale production of this bio-raw material. Thus, there is great potential for the application of the lactic acid production technology and research should be carried out on its development.

Keywords: lactic acid; lactic acid bacteria; waste management; glycerol; circular economy

1 Introduction

Circular economy (CE) is the trend in engineering that improves the development of technology to maximize the exploitation of resources and make them recyclable [1,2,3]. This tendency is observed also in fuels and energy management, especially in renewable resources of fuels and energy [4]. The term circular economy covers the steps of recycling in which technology should preserve the resources or prevent waste production; design of product making possible to reuse parts of the product, possibly the whole product; and recycle material or finally (and at least) energy recycling of flammable residues [5,6,7,8]. The last opportunity could be widened by the other technologic options like gasification of organic residues to a kind of syngas and use it for energy production in a fuel cell [9,10,11]. Increasing attention to renewable energy resources is given in recent years, among others to the production of renewable liquid fuels. One significant example of fermentation usage is the production of alcohols and to further extend ethers as a substitute (or add-on) of gasoline in tropical and mild climate regions, respectively [12,13,14,15,16,17]. Even etherification of glycerol is regarded as a possibility for automotive renewable fuel production [18,19]. Anaerobic digestion is used for biogas production as a biofuel but possibilities of its usage are significantly higher in biofuel production and by-products utilization [20,21,22,23,24]. Many strategies for a circular economy are met in engineering and management. Thus, recovery of additional commercial goods from the process of organics production (among other fuels) is an important prospect in the point of view of the circular economy [25,26,27,28]; in the focus of the authors are bioprocesses used in renewable fuel production. Some of those processes are waste-less or with minimal by-product generation (e.g., the conversion of bioethanol to bioether) but in some other processes by-products generation is significant (e.g., fatty acids conversion to FAME with glycerol formation). Waste biomass is transformed into many commercial products by several physicochemical or biological processes applying the rules of green chemistry [29]. The first step is to recover the secondary raw materials. Next, the most appropriate way for biomass recycling is the refining of secondary biocomponents for further processes and then using other steps of recycling. Figure 1 illustrates the idea of biorefinery for waste biomass.

Figure 1 The idea of components or energy recovery from bioprocesses waste or by-product. Descriptors: (1) fermentation, (2) hydrolysis, (3) pyrolysis, (4) outgasification, (5) combustion, (6) reforming (hydro-reforming), and (7) catalytic synthesis.
Figure 1

The idea of components or energy recovery from bioprocesses waste or by-product. Descriptors: (1) fermentation, (2) hydrolysis, (3) pyrolysis, (4) outgasification, (5) combustion, (6) reforming (hydro-reforming), and (7) catalytic synthesis.

Boldface arrows on the chart (Figure 1) represent primary processes of biomass wastes or by-product treatment while the slender ones describe secondary processes. Both bioprocesses and classic physicochemical treatment are used in bio-refining or fuels and energy recovery. In biotechnology, fermentation plays a special role and often is associated with hydrolysis as preprocessing [30,31]. Fermentation leads to the production of bioethanol [13,32,33], biogas [20,21,34,35], hydrogen from dark fermentation [36,37], as well as biomass reforming for fuel cell purpose [38]. In classic physicochemical processes, preliminary processing leads to syngas, and in secondary processes hydrocarbons are produced by catalytic synthesis [39,40]. Moreover, syngas could be used as a substrate for fermentation toward alcohols and organic acids [41,42]. Another classic processing process is pyrolysis, which could yield solid carbonizate – char, pyrolytic gases, and pyrolysis oil containing a mixture of organic compounds. Char has possible application as an adsorbent, pyrolytic gases as fuel, and some chemicals could be separated from pyrolysis oil (e.g., limonene) or hydrocarbons are produced by hydroreforming [43,44,45].

Finally, the focus of this paper is the processing of biofuels, specially FAME. Glycerol is a by-product of the transesterification of fatty acids [46]. In the classic approach, the alkali catalyst is used but recent trends are to use enzymes, e.g., lipase [47]. Such an approach makes the process more renewable and eco-friendly because all substrates are from biological sources. The aim is to make the process even more efficient and eco-friendly at every stage of the processing of main and by-products. One of the possible solutions that are currently being considered is the biorefining of glycerol as a by-product of biocomponent production for diesel fuel [48,49].

Some value-added chemicals could be produced from glycerol, among others: succinic acid [50], hydrogen in the hydrothermal conversion of acrolein [51], and lactic acid [52]. In particular, the role of lactic acid has been growing in recent years in many applications ranging from food processing, through cosmetics, medicine, and ending with typically engineering applications such as the production of lactic acid polymer (PLA) and its subsequent use as a biodegradable additive to other materials, production of filaments for printers, and 3-D and prototyping various goods [6,53,54].

2 Catalytic methods of lactic acid production from glycerol

Scientists or engineers use different strategies for lactic acid production from glycerol applying chemical reactions with different kinds of catalysts or biotechnology methods utilizing microorganisms of a different kind, including GMO ones. Komanoya et al. propose a combined catalyst with Pt nanoparticles and TiO2 as an effective improvement of reaction with 63% yield [55]. Yin et al. elaborated graphite-based catalyst with NiO nanoparticles, which improve the selectivity of reaction up to 97.6% in an alkaline water solution of glycerol [56]. Another team with the same leader (Yin-Zhang et al.) developed a series of Cu-based catalysts (Cu/hydroxyapatite, Cu/MgO, Cu/ZrO2) resulting in 91% conversion of glycerol and 90% selectivity toward lactic acid [57]. A similar idea followed the team of Moreira et al.; they produced a series of catalysts using copper and based on Al2O3, ZnO, or MgO also in an alkaline glycerol solution [58]. The team of Arcanjo et al. tested an activated carbon catalyst with noble metals deposited on 5% Pt/C and 10% Pd/C giving 99% glycerol conversion with 68 and 74% selectivity, respectively [59]. Noble metals were used as active material on activated carbon by Zhang et al. with mild alkali solution; LiOH, KOH, NaOH, and Ba(OH)2 were tested and they conclude that many variants of conditions play role in the conversion to lactic acid with selectivity from 69.3 to 100% [60]. Yang et al. developed zirconia-supported copper oxide catalysts (CuO/ZrO2) and depending on the composition they even obtained 100% glycerol conversion with 94.6% selectivity to lactic acid [61]. A different approach was presented by Rodrigues et al. also using an alkaline medium for conversion, while NaOH and KOH were used as catalysts and the reaction reached 97% efficiency [62]. Only selected technologies for the catalytic conversion of glycerol to lactic acid are presented above. The latest research introduces further modifications to the catalysts: Cu on CaO/MgO [63], zirconium–cerium oxides/SBA-15 [64], Au/bentonite [65], Ni–NiO x [66], Au/hydroxyapatite/BN [67], and research is still in progress.

All chemical methods of converting glycerol have a common disadvantage of the necessary energy input since most of the reactions were carried out at elevated temperatures. Biotechnological methods do not require additional energy for the reaction and are carried out under moderate temperature conditions. Unfortunately, the degrees of glycerol conversion in biochemical methods are usually much lower, and at the same time require glycerol dilutions. However, in the point of view of green chemistry, biotechnological processes of glycerol conversion are more environmentally friendly [29].

However, a review of biotechnology methods for glycerol conversion to lactic acid is the purpose of this publication and is presented in the following section.

3 Lactic acid production by biotechnological methods

The chemical synthesis of the commercial process is based on lactonitrile and this process occurs in the liquid phase at high atmospheric pressure [68,69,70,73]. This process has many steps to produce lactic acid and is represented by the following reactions:

This chemical synthesis yields a racemic mixture of lactic acid. Musashino, Japan, and Sterling Chemicals Inc., USA, are using this technology on the fabric procedure. The next options are base-catalyzed degradation of sugars, the reaction of acetaldehyde, oxidation of propylene glycol, carbohydrate fermentation, and many others [84,85,90].

Fermentation is the best option to provide an ecological and economical biotechnology process. A batch reactor, a half-batch reactor, and a reactor with repeated dosing of feedstock, and a continuous reactor are the most frequently used reactors in the production of lactic acid. The higher concentration of lactic acid has been tested and is obtained in cultures using a batch reactor and semi-batch reactor, while higher productivity is obtained by a continuous reactor. Reports in the literature state that the latest biotechnological research on lactic acid differs in fermentation and process methods and process parameters [71,72,82,83].

The parameters responsible for the fermentation are temperature, flow rate, pressure, mixing, pH, and oxygenation [78,79,80,81]. These factors are the most important and of great influence to process because they indicate productivity, selectivity, and yield of a reaction [77,89].

The most important, however, is the selection of microorganisms for the fermentation process, which may affect the technological regime and the profitability of the process. Currently, many microorganisms useful for the production of lactic acid have already been identified, and further applications and optimization of current processes are also being worked out [86,87,88]. Exemplary cultures of microorganisms used in the production of lactic acid are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Example of yield, productivity, and quantity of lactic acid microbial production [83]

Microorganism Concentration (g/L) Yield (g/g) Productivity (g/L h)
Rhizopus oryzae ATCC 52311 83.0 0.88 2.6
Rhizopus oryzae NRRL 395 104.6 0.87 1.8
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 144.0 0.96 5.1
Lactobacillus rhamnosus ATCC 10863 67.0 0.84 2.5
Lactobacillus helveticus ATCC 15009 65.5 0.66 2.7
Lactobacillus bulgaricus NRRL B-548 38.7 0.90 3.5
Lactobacillus casei NRRL B-441 82.0 0.91 5.6
Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 21028 41.0 0.97 1.0
Lactobacillus pentosus ATCC 9041 21.8 0.77 0.8
Lactobacillus amylopilus GV6 76.2 0.70 0.8
Lactobacillus delbrueckii NCIMB 8130 90.0 0.97 3.8
Lactococcus lactis ssp. Lactis IFO 12007 90.0 0.76 1.6

Various substrates are taken into account for the production of lactic acid. Screening shows that for a given substrate, a specific microorganism or a set of microorganisms can be selected for optimal processing of the raw material into lactic acid. The choice of substrates with selected microorganisms is presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Examples of cheap and popular waste material for feedstock application in producing lactic acid biotechnologically [83]

Substrate Organism Concentration (g/L) Productivity (g/L h)
Molasses Lactobacillus delbrueckii NCIMB 8130 90.0 3.8
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 95.7 4.0
Rye Lactobacillus paracasei No. 8 84.5 2.4
Sweet sorghum Lactobacillus paracasei No. 8 81.5 2.7
Lactobacillus paracasei No. 8 106.0 3.5
Wheat Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis ATCC 19435 106.0 1.0
Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 102.0 4.8
Corn Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 63.5 0.5
Lactobacillus amylovorus ATCC 33620 10.1 0.8
Cassava Lactobacillus amylovorus ATCC 33620 4.8 0.2
Potato Lactobacillus amylovorus ATCC 33620 4.2 0.1
Lactobacillus sp. RKY2 129.0 2.9
Rice Lactobacillus casei NRRL B-441 162.0 3.4
Barley Lactobacillus amylophilus GV6 27.3 0.3
Cellulose Lactobacillus coryniformis ssp. torquens ATCC 2560 24.0 0.5
Rhizopus sp. MK-96-1196 24.0 0.3
Corncob waste paper Lactobacillus coryniformis ssp. torquens ATCC 2560 23.1 0.5
Rhizopus orizae NRRL 395 49.1 0.7
Lactobacillus delbrueckii NRRL B-445 108.0 0.9
Wood Enterococcus faecalis RKY1 93.0 1.7
Lactobacillus helveticus R211 66.0 1.4
Whey Lactobacillus casei NRRL B-441 46.0 4.0

The use of alternative substrates in fermentation processes, aiming at the utilization of agricultural low-cost raw materials or by-products from various industries (molasses, bran, corn syrup, whey, etc.) lowers the cost of the culture medium used and hence the final product [74,75,91]. However, these substrates have complex compositions whose exact total is often unknown. In addition to the carbon source and other nutrients, some compounds that may be present or even formed during the process steps, as pre-treatment, may be factors capable of inhibiting the growth of microorganisms or prevent the synthesis of the metabolite of interest [70,92,97].

The most commonly used substrate for Lactobacillus (L.) rhamnosus ATCC 10863 fermentation for lactic acid production is glucose, but cellulose, lignocellulose, and sucrose are also used. Molasses hydrolyzed can also be used and, in this work, the lactic acid production with this cheap and green substrate without a pre-treatment will be explored [76,77,95,96,98].

Along with the growing interest in biocomponents for diesel fuels, a large amount of glycerol appears in the market. It is used in many industries, as an additive to cosmetics or as fuel. An interesting direction in the processing of this by-product would be its transformation into lactic acid as a chemical raw material. Currently, there is little information in the literature on the biotechnological conversion of glycerol to lactic acid, and hence, the authors’ interest in the development and optimization of this method. In particular, in Poland, there will also be an increase in the production of biocomponents, and thus glycerol, as a result of the adjustment to the EU policy.

4 The potential of lactic acid production from biofuel by-product in Poland

Poland produces about one million tonnes of biodiesel annually in 2020 and will increase significantly until 2030. In addition, Poland is expected to increase from 10% under the biodiesel obligation to 20% by 2030. An increase in biodiesel production is therefore related to inevitable abundance of glycerol as by-product. That increased amount of crude glycerol must be used for increasing efficiency of biodiesel industry by introducing new pathways for circular economy, e.g., lactic acid production. Consequently, almost the entire industry uses only refined glycerol as raw material, as unrefined glycerol has become a potential environmental pollutant. Purification of glycerol is a much more costly process, and the low process level obtained recently made it economical. For the sustainability of the biodiesel industry, it is important to find a viable and efficient solution to converting waste glycerol into valuable products. Alternative oil handling solution of waste glycerol is transforming it into a more valuable product, for example, lactic acid [72,99,100,105].

In Poland, over a million tonnes of biofuels are already used. They help to reduce emissions in transport, and is expected to grow in the coming years The share of renewable energy in Polish transport is not optimistic – it is far from the requirements of 2020 and lower than the EU average, mainly due to the fact that Poland probably will not meet the EU renewable energy target for later years. But, the result only improves with biofuels. Over one million tons of biofuels were used with almost 25 million tons of total official consumption of liquid fuels. Importantly, the use of “advanced” biofuels, for example, from waste, which counts twice in EU statistics, has finally increased [109,110].

According to the data from Trend Economy about open access to data on the import and export of molasses and glycerol as raw materials in the production of lactic acid, the information is presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Import and export of glycerol in the world (chosen country) in 2019 [115]

Country Glycerol, glycerol waters, glycerol lyes
Exports Imports
Value (US$) World share (US$) Value (US$) World share (US$)
Indonesia 123,269,715 26.97 881,140 0.15
Brasil 48,776,123 10.67 79,709 0.01
Spain 35,369,146 7.73 2,606,929 0.44
Germany 33,369,146 7.32 44,083,259 7.57
France 30,175,005 6.60 2,099,318 0.36
Malaysia 22,992,707 5.03 22,766,139 3.91
Netherlands 20,894,871 4.57 34,310,242 5.89
USA 18,754,794 4.10 9,296,641 1.59
Argentina 12,691,168 2.77 1,587 0.00
Poland 12,649,298 2.76 343,016 0.05
Belgium 12,524,594 2.74 13,917,475 2.39
Thailand 10,066,763 2.20 1,334,636 0.22
Portugal 7,064,742 1.54 127,995 0.02
Canada 6,086,080 1.33 3,328,951 0.57
United Kingdom 5,375,405 1.17 17,869,989 3.07
Colombia 5,330,001 1.16 8,091 0.00
Korea 5,233,883 1.14 1,477,898 0.25
Czech Republic 4,637,885 1.01 5,264,982 0.90
India 4,057,010 0.88 23,110,723 3.97
Romania 4,013,475 0.87 109,713 0.01
Lithuania 3,612,292 0.79 75,553 0.01
Greece 3,498,359 0.76 28,357 0.00

Note: Bold row in Table signs the situation in Poland as a country regarded in the title of paper.

The value of glycerine exports from Poland shows the large possibilities of processing this by-product. The balance of exports against imports shows the overproduction of glycerol, which could be transformed into other valuable products, e.g., lactic acid.

Two years back, it turned out that the share of renewable energy sources in transport, instead of growing was decreasing. This is due to the fact that after the elimination of the gray economy, fuel consumption increased rapidly, which did not translate into biofuels. In 2018, however, something changed. The share of biofuels in transport increased by more than a half, and the share of renewable energy sources was 5.63% – the Central Statistical Office reported in 2018 [93,101,103].

Nowadays, the market of the biofuels industry and waste management is huge. The policy of the fuels market is complicated but the market forecasts show quite good statistics of the growing demand for biofuels, and hence, the growing waste market.

Optimized, effective waste management is integral to petroleum refinery operations. It helps minimize risk to both people and the environment, enhances resource utilization, and can also reduce costs. Many countries have detailed legislative requirements and control systems that apply to all aspects of waste management, while others have less regulatory oversight and guidance [69,94,103,104].

Petroleum refineries generate one of the most important categories of waste – process waste. Refineries produce industrial process wastes that are inherent to the activities they carry out in the handling and processing of crude petroleum and petroleum products [102,106,107].

5 Investigated method for use of LAB

A few studies by Polish scientists so far have not shown the daily calculations and the transformation into large-scale technology. Research groups are investigating this matter; however, it is a fresh topic in Poland. Additionally, numerous worldwide studies show how important is the subject of ecological changes.

The world production of lactic acid is estimated at around 520 thousand tons per year. So far, lactic acid has not been produced in Poland, and its shortage in the entire region of Central and Eastern Europe forced the recipients of this raw material to import from Asia and Western Europe [93,108].

A project led by polish researchers implement the first installation in Poland operating on the basis of an innovative technology for the production of lactic acid using waste from agri-food and biorefinery industry. Lactic acid has a key role in the production of the most popular, fully biodegradable polymer, polylactide (PLA), used among others for the production of biodegradable packaging. PLA has a number of applications in the construction industry, technology, optics, and the automotive industry, and due to its properties, including transparency, it is also used in the production of photovoltaic cells, as well as in medicine and pharmacy, where it is used for the production of implants, screws, and surgical threads [111,112,113,114].

First of all, lactic acid bacteria metabolism has to be studied. The research plans include screening the microorganisms for the best, most economical bacteria as a biocatalyst. In addition, the catalyst used in the biotechnological process should have a low-cost financial outlay, i.e., process parameters. To judge this, a series of studies must be conducted showing possible pathways to the process. Subsequently, the fermentation process itself, first on a laboratory scale, and then in large-scale production with the proposed purification process will be conducted. According to world studies, the purification stage is the most expensive. However, to sum up, and taking into account the advantages and disadvantages – knowing that waste can be used, the treatment process can be covered by the lower energy consumption of the process than the one carried out with the chemical method.

We are currently testing three LAB species in our laboratory: Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Lactobacillus leichmanii. Preliminary studies show great difficulty in cultivating any LAB species on pure glycerin. Therefore, we decided to mix raw glycerin in a water solution with other waste materials like molasses. The results currently obtained do not yet allow the process to scale, but are promising. The concentration of glycerin in the aqueous solution must not exceed 5%; otherwise, there is a strong toxic effect on LAB. We tested various concentrations of glycerol up to 5% in solutions, as well as other natural waste substances, e.g., molasses or fruit peels. There is an increase in the concentration of lactic acid and a decrease in the concentration of glycerol. Lactic acid concentration is measured by using an iron chemical complex and UV-Vis spectrophotometer.

The use of molasses as a co-reactant is justified as it is also a waste material with high availability, especially it is also a precursor for the production of glycerin by chemical means. The presence of sugar-rich molasses in a mixture with glycerin should increase the efficiency of the lactic acid fermentation process, as suggested by preliminary experiments by using food waste or with the addition of molasses. Molasses is a by-product of sugar production. It was chosen by the authors as the second substance for processing into lactic acid for the comparison of processes. Figure 2 presents the change in the molasses trade balance in Poland.

Figure 2 Import and export Polish molasses in 2008, 2015, and 2019 (from left) [116].
Figure 2

Import and export Polish molasses in 2008, 2015, and 2019 (from left) [116].

These data show a huge problem with waste management but also an advantage to scientists who care about human resources and petrochemical processes and develop the biotechnology war for molasses transformation into lactic acid.

The glycerin fermentation procedure with the addition of molasses or food waste requires further development. The team plans to publish the results of ongoing experiments soon.

6 Summary

The uses for glycerol waste continue to expand. The above examples show the valuable products obtainable from this process. It is still a research topic that remains largely untapped. An additional aspect is the development of more and more common white biotechnology. In this field of science, microorganisms are used that are involved in the creation of many valuable chemical products. Biotechnological methods largely prevail over chemical methods. The basis is the possibility of avoiding the disadvantages resulting from the use of catalysts or the purification and preparation of the raw material. This significantly reduces the cost of technology and contributes to conscious waste management. Moreover, this pathway stays in accordance with green chemistry or circular economy, where every product is used in an optimized way and sustainable to the environment.

The preliminary results of the team’s laboratory test indicate the possibility of using LAB to convert glycerol or molasses to lactic acid, but the procedure still needs to be developed and optimized, first on a laboratory scale, and then also on an industrial scale.

An industrial installation for the production of lactic acid is only planned to be launched in Poland [117]. As of today, there is no commercial-scale production of this bio-raw material. Thus, there is great potential for the application of the lactic acid production technology and research should be carried out for its development.

  1. Funding information: The work was financially supported by the Statutory Research of AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow (Poland), No. 16.16.210.476.

  2. Author contributions: E.S. – conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, investigation, writing – original draft; G.J. – formal analysis, data curation, investigation, resources, supervision, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: There are no conflicts of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the repository: https://trendeconomy.com/data/commodity_h2/1520, https://trendeconomy.com/data/h2/Poland/1703

  5. Ethical approval: The conducted research is not related to either human or animal use.

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Received: 2021-04-02
Revised: 2021-06-18
Accepted: 2021-07-09
Published Online: 2021-09-27

© 2021 Grzegorz S. Jodłowski and Edyta Strzelec, published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  27. The effects of salinity on changes in characteristics of soils collected in a saline region of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam
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  36. Machine vision-based driving and feedback scheme for digital microfluidics system
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  39. Preparation of composite soybean straw-based materials by LDHs modifying as a solid sorbent for removal of Pb(ii) from water samples
  40. Synthesis and spectral characterizations of vanadyl(ii) and chromium(iii) mixed ligand complexes containing metformin drug and glycine amino acid
  41. In vitro evaluation of lactic acid bacteria with probiotic activity isolated from local pickled leaf mustard from Wuwei in Anhui as substitutes for chemical synthetic additives
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  45. Optimization of Murrayafoline A ethanol extraction process from the roots of Glycosmis stenocarpa, and evaluation of its Tumorigenesis inhibition activity on Hep-G2 cells
  46. Highly sensitive determination of α-lipoic acid in pharmaceuticals on a boron-doped diamond electrode
  47. Synthesis, chemo-informatics, and anticancer evaluation of fluorophenyl-isoxazole derivatives
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  49. Topological indices of bipolar fuzzy incidence graph
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  51. Construction of a new luminescent Cd(ii) compound for the detection of Fe3+ and treatment of Hepatitis B
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  53. Discoloration of methylene blue at neutral pH by heterogeneous photo-Fenton-like reactions using crystalline and amorphous iron oxides
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  55. Synthesis of novel thiourea-/urea-benzimidazole derivatives as anticancer agents
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  58. Synthesis, optical and structural characterisation of ZnS nanoparticles derived from Zn(ii) dithiocarbamate complexes
  59. Presence of short and cyclic peptides in Acacia and Ziziphus honeys may potentiate their medicinal values
  60. The role of vitamin D deficiency and elevated inflammatory biomarkers as risk factors for the progression of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
  61. Quantitative structure–activity relationship study on prolonged anticonvulsant activity of terpene derivatives in pentylenetetrazole test
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  65. Identification of synthetic cannabinoid methyl 2-{[1-(cyclohexylmethyl)-1H-indol-3-yl] formamido}-3-methylbutanoate using modern mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques
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  67. Two Cu(ii)-based coordination polymers: Crystal structures and treatment activity on periodontitis
  68. Conversion of furfuryl alcohol to ethyl levulinate in the presence of mesoporous aluminosilicate catalyst
  69. Review Articles
  70. Hsien Wu and his major contributions to the chemical era of immunology
  71. Overview of the major classes of new psychoactive substances, psychoactive effects, analytical determination and conformational analysis of selected illegal drugs
  72. An overview of persistent organic pollutants along the coastal environment of Kuwait
  73. Mechanism underlying sevoflurane-induced protection in cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury
  74. COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2: Everything we know so far – A comprehensive review
  75. Challenge of diabetes mellitus and researchers’ contributions to its control
  76. Advances in the design and application of transition metal oxide-based supercapacitors
  77. Color and composition of beauty products formulated with lemongrass essential oil: Cosmetics formulation with lemongrass essential oil
  78. The structural chemistry of zinc(ii) and nickel(ii) dithiocarbamate complexes
  79. Bioprospecting for antituberculosis natural products – A review
  80. Recent progress in direct urea fuel cell
  81. Rapid Communications
  82. A comparative morphological study of titanium dioxide surface layer dental implants
  83. Changes in the antioxidative properties of honeys during their fermentation
  84. Erratum
  85. Erratum to “Corrosion study of copper in aqueous sulfuric acid solution in the presence of (2E,5E)-2,5-dibenzylidenecyclopentanone and (2E,5E)-bis[(4-dimethylamino)benzylidene]cyclopentanone: Experimental and theoretical study”
  86. Erratum to “Modified TDAE petroleum plasticiser”
  87. Corrigendum
  88. Corrigendum to “A nitric oxide-releasing prodrug promotes apoptosis in human renal carcinoma cells: Involvement of reactive oxygen species”
  89. Special Issue on 3rd IC3PE 2020
  90. Visible light-responsive photocatalyst of SnO2/rGO prepared using Pometia pinnata leaf extract
  91. Antihyperglycemic activity of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. leaf ethanol extract SNEDDS in zebrafish (Danio rerio)
  92. Selection of oil extraction process from Chlorella species of microalgae by using multi-criteria decision analysis technique for biodiesel production
  93. Special Issue on the 14th Joint Conference of Chemistry (14JCC)
  94. Synthesis and in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation of isatin-pyrrole derivatives against HepG2 cell line
  95. CO2 gas separation using mixed matrix membranes based on polyethersulfone/MIL-100(Al)
  96. Effect of synthesis and activation methods on the character of CoMo/ultrastable Y-zeolite catalysts
  97. Special Issue on Electrochemical Amplified Sensors
  98. Enhancement of graphene oxide through β-cyclodextrin composite to sensitive analysis of an antidepressant: Sulpiride
  99. Investigation of the spectroelectrochemical behavior of quercetin isolated from Zanthoxylum bungeanum
  100. An electrochemical sensor for high sensitive determination of lysozyme based on the aptamer competition approach
  101. An improved non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor amplified with CuO nanostructures for sensitive determination of uric acid
  102. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2020
  103. Fast discrimination of avocado oil for different extracted methods using headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectroscopy with PCA based on volatile organic compounds
  104. Effect of alkali bases on the synthesis of ZnO quantum dots
  105. Quality evaluation of Cabernet Sauvignon wines in different vintages by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomics
  106. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2019)
  107. Diatomaceous Earth: Characterization, thermal modification, and application
  108. Electrochemical determination of atenolol and propranolol using a carbon paste sensor modified with natural ilmenite
  109. Special Issue on the Conference of Energy, Fuels, Environment 2020
  110. Assessment of the mercury contamination of landfilled and recovered foundry waste – a case study
  111. Primary energy consumption in selected EU Countries compared to global trends
  112. Modified TDAE petroleum plasticiser
  113. Use of glycerol waste in lactic acid bacteria metabolism for the production of lactic acid: State of the art in Poland
  114. Topical Issue on Applications of Mathematics in Chemistry
  115. Theoretical study of energy, inertia and nullity of phenylene and anthracene
  116. Banhatti, revan and hyper-indices of silicon carbide Si2C3-III[n,m]
  117. Topical Issue on Agriculture
  118. Occurrence of mycotoxins in selected agricultural and commercial products available in eastern Poland
  119. Special Issue on Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Biological Investigation of Medicinal Plants
  120. Acute and repeated dose 60-day oral toxicity assessment of chemically characterized Berberis hispanica Boiss. and Reut in Wistar rats
  121. Phytochemical profile, in vitro antioxidant, and anti-protein denaturation activities of Curcuma longa L. rhizome and leaves
  122. Antiplasmodial potential of Eucalyptus obliqua leaf methanolic extract against Plasmodium vivax: An in vitro study
  123. Prunus padus L. bark as a functional promoting component in functional herbal infusions – cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects
  124. Molecular and docking studies of tetramethoxy hydroxyflavone compound from Artemisia absinthium against carcinogens found in cigarette smoke
  125. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2020)
  126. Preparation of cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) essential oil loaded poly(lactic acid) nanofibers
  127. Influence of mica mineral on flame retardancy and mechanical properties of intumescent flame retardant polypropylene composites
  128. Production and characterization of thermoplastic elastomer foams based on the styrene–ethylene–butylene–styrene (SEBS) rubber and thermoplastic material
  129. Special Issue on Applied Chemistry in Agriculture and Food Science
  130. Impact of essential oils on the development of pathogens of the Fusarium genus and germination parameters of selected crops
  131. Yield, volume, quality, and reduction of biotic stress influenced by titanium application in oilseed rape, winter wheat, and maize cultivations
  132. Influence of potato variety on polyphenol profile composition and glycoalcaloid contents of potato juice
  133. Carryover effect of direct-fed microbial supplementation and early weaning on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing Najdi lambs
  134. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ABB 2021)
  135. The electrochemical redox mechanism and antioxidant activity of polyphenolic compounds based on inlaid multi-walled carbon nanotubes-modified graphite electrode
  136. Study of an adsorption method for trace mercury based on Bacillus subtilis
  137. Special Issue on The 1st Malaysia International Conference on Nanotechnology & Catalysis (MICNC2021)
  138. Mitigating membrane biofouling in biofuel cell system – A review
  139. Mechanical properties of polymeric biomaterials: Modified ePTFE using gamma irradiation
https://doi.org/10.1515/chem-2021-0073
Keywords for this article
lactic acid; lactic acid bacteria; waste management; glycerol; circular economy
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Regular Articles
  2. Qualitative and semi-quantitative assessment of anthocyanins in Tibetan hulless barley from different geographical locations by UPLC-QTOF-MS and their antioxidant capacities
  3. Effect of sodium chloride on the expression of genes involved in the salt tolerance of Bacillus sp. strain “SX4” isolated from salinized greenhouse soil
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  5. Influence of nanoscale-modified apatite-type calcium phosphates on the biofilm formation by pathogenic microorganisms
  6. Removal of paracetamol from aqueous solution by containment composites
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  9. Recovery of γ-Fe2O3 from copper ore tailings by magnetization roasting and magnetic separation
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  27. The effects of salinity on changes in characteristics of soils collected in a saline region of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam
  28. Synthesis, properties, and activity of MoVTeNbO catalysts modified by zirconia-pillared clays in oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane
  29. Synthesis and crystal structure of N,N′-bis(4-chlorophenyl)thiourea N,N-dimethylformamide
  30. Quantitative analysis of volatile compounds of four Chinese traditional liquors by SPME-GC-MS and determination of total phenolic contents and antioxidant activities
  31. A novel separation method of the valuable components for activated clay production wastewater
  32. On ve-degree- and ev-degree-based topological properties of crystallographic structure of cuprite Cu2O
  33. Antihyperglycemic effect and phytochemical investigation of Rubia cordifolia (Indian Madder) leaves extract
  34. Microsphere molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction for diazepam analysis using itaconic acid as a monomer in propanol
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  36. Machine vision-based driving and feedback scheme for digital microfluidics system
  37. Study on the application of a steam-foam drive profile modification technology for heavy oil reservoir development
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  39. Preparation of composite soybean straw-based materials by LDHs modifying as a solid sorbent for removal of Pb(ii) from water samples
  40. Synthesis and spectral characterizations of vanadyl(ii) and chromium(iii) mixed ligand complexes containing metformin drug and glycine amino acid
  41. In vitro evaluation of lactic acid bacteria with probiotic activity isolated from local pickled leaf mustard from Wuwei in Anhui as substitutes for chemical synthetic additives
  42. Utilization and simulation of innovative new binuclear Co(ii), Ni(ii), Cu(ii), and Zn(ii) diimine Schiff base complexes in sterilization and coronavirus resistance (Covid-19)
  43. Phosphorylation of Pit-1 by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 at serine 126 is associated with cell proliferation and poor prognosis in prolactinomas
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  45. Optimization of Murrayafoline A ethanol extraction process from the roots of Glycosmis stenocarpa, and evaluation of its Tumorigenesis inhibition activity on Hep-G2 cells
  46. Highly sensitive determination of α-lipoic acid in pharmaceuticals on a boron-doped diamond electrode
  47. Synthesis, chemo-informatics, and anticancer evaluation of fluorophenyl-isoxazole derivatives
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  49. Topological indices of bipolar fuzzy incidence graph
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  51. Construction of a new luminescent Cd(ii) compound for the detection of Fe3+ and treatment of Hepatitis B
  52. Investigation of bovine serum albumin aggregation upon exposure to silver(i) and copper(ii) metal ions using Zetasizer
  53. Discoloration of methylene blue at neutral pH by heterogeneous photo-Fenton-like reactions using crystalline and amorphous iron oxides
  54. Optimized extraction of polyphenols from leaves of Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) grown in Lam Dong province, Vietnam, and evaluation of their antioxidant capacity
  55. Synthesis of novel thiourea-/urea-benzimidazole derivatives as anticancer agents
  56. Potency and selectivity indices of Myristica fragrans Houtt. mace chloroform extract against non-clinical and clinical human pathogens
  57. Simple modifications of nicotinic, isonicotinic, and 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acids toward new weapons against plant diseases
  58. Synthesis, optical and structural characterisation of ZnS nanoparticles derived from Zn(ii) dithiocarbamate complexes
  59. Presence of short and cyclic peptides in Acacia and Ziziphus honeys may potentiate their medicinal values
  60. The role of vitamin D deficiency and elevated inflammatory biomarkers as risk factors for the progression of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus
  61. Quantitative structure–activity relationship study on prolonged anticonvulsant activity of terpene derivatives in pentylenetetrazole test
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  67. Two Cu(ii)-based coordination polymers: Crystal structures and treatment activity on periodontitis
  68. Conversion of furfuryl alcohol to ethyl levulinate in the presence of mesoporous aluminosilicate catalyst
  69. Review Articles
  70. Hsien Wu and his major contributions to the chemical era of immunology
  71. Overview of the major classes of new psychoactive substances, psychoactive effects, analytical determination and conformational analysis of selected illegal drugs
  72. An overview of persistent organic pollutants along the coastal environment of Kuwait
  73. Mechanism underlying sevoflurane-induced protection in cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury
  74. COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2: Everything we know so far – A comprehensive review
  75. Challenge of diabetes mellitus and researchers’ contributions to its control
  76. Advances in the design and application of transition metal oxide-based supercapacitors
  77. Color and composition of beauty products formulated with lemongrass essential oil: Cosmetics formulation with lemongrass essential oil
  78. The structural chemistry of zinc(ii) and nickel(ii) dithiocarbamate complexes
  79. Bioprospecting for antituberculosis natural products – A review
  80. Recent progress in direct urea fuel cell
  81. Rapid Communications
  82. A comparative morphological study of titanium dioxide surface layer dental implants
  83. Changes in the antioxidative properties of honeys during their fermentation
  84. Erratum
  85. Erratum to “Corrosion study of copper in aqueous sulfuric acid solution in the presence of (2E,5E)-2,5-dibenzylidenecyclopentanone and (2E,5E)-bis[(4-dimethylamino)benzylidene]cyclopentanone: Experimental and theoretical study”
  86. Erratum to “Modified TDAE petroleum plasticiser”
  87. Corrigendum
  88. Corrigendum to “A nitric oxide-releasing prodrug promotes apoptosis in human renal carcinoma cells: Involvement of reactive oxygen species”
  89. Special Issue on 3rd IC3PE 2020
  90. Visible light-responsive photocatalyst of SnO2/rGO prepared using Pometia pinnata leaf extract
  91. Antihyperglycemic activity of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. leaf ethanol extract SNEDDS in zebrafish (Danio rerio)
  92. Selection of oil extraction process from Chlorella species of microalgae by using multi-criteria decision analysis technique for biodiesel production
  93. Special Issue on the 14th Joint Conference of Chemistry (14JCC)
  94. Synthesis and in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation of isatin-pyrrole derivatives against HepG2 cell line
  95. CO2 gas separation using mixed matrix membranes based on polyethersulfone/MIL-100(Al)
  96. Effect of synthesis and activation methods on the character of CoMo/ultrastable Y-zeolite catalysts
  97. Special Issue on Electrochemical Amplified Sensors
  98. Enhancement of graphene oxide through β-cyclodextrin composite to sensitive analysis of an antidepressant: Sulpiride
  99. Investigation of the spectroelectrochemical behavior of quercetin isolated from Zanthoxylum bungeanum
  100. An electrochemical sensor for high sensitive determination of lysozyme based on the aptamer competition approach
  101. An improved non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor amplified with CuO nanostructures for sensitive determination of uric acid
  102. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 2020
  103. Fast discrimination of avocado oil for different extracted methods using headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectroscopy with PCA based on volatile organic compounds
  104. Effect of alkali bases on the synthesis of ZnO quantum dots
  105. Quality evaluation of Cabernet Sauvignon wines in different vintages by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance-based metabolomics
  106. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2019)
  107. Diatomaceous Earth: Characterization, thermal modification, and application
  108. Electrochemical determination of atenolol and propranolol using a carbon paste sensor modified with natural ilmenite
  109. Special Issue on the Conference of Energy, Fuels, Environment 2020
  110. Assessment of the mercury contamination of landfilled and recovered foundry waste – a case study
  111. Primary energy consumption in selected EU Countries compared to global trends
  112. Modified TDAE petroleum plasticiser
  113. Use of glycerol waste in lactic acid bacteria metabolism for the production of lactic acid: State of the art in Poland
  114. Topical Issue on Applications of Mathematics in Chemistry
  115. Theoretical study of energy, inertia and nullity of phenylene and anthracene
  116. Banhatti, revan and hyper-indices of silicon carbide Si2C3-III[n,m]
  117. Topical Issue on Agriculture
  118. Occurrence of mycotoxins in selected agricultural and commercial products available in eastern Poland
  119. Special Issue on Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Biological Investigation of Medicinal Plants
  120. Acute and repeated dose 60-day oral toxicity assessment of chemically characterized Berberis hispanica Boiss. and Reut in Wistar rats
  121. Phytochemical profile, in vitro antioxidant, and anti-protein denaturation activities of Curcuma longa L. rhizome and leaves
  122. Antiplasmodial potential of Eucalyptus obliqua leaf methanolic extract against Plasmodium vivax: An in vitro study
  123. Prunus padus L. bark as a functional promoting component in functional herbal infusions – cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects
  124. Molecular and docking studies of tetramethoxy hydroxyflavone compound from Artemisia absinthium against carcinogens found in cigarette smoke
  125. Special Issue on the Joint Science Congress of Materials and Polymers (ISCMP 2020)
  126. Preparation of cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) essential oil loaded poly(lactic acid) nanofibers
  127. Influence of mica mineral on flame retardancy and mechanical properties of intumescent flame retardant polypropylene composites
  128. Production and characterization of thermoplastic elastomer foams based on the styrene–ethylene–butylene–styrene (SEBS) rubber and thermoplastic material
  129. Special Issue on Applied Chemistry in Agriculture and Food Science
  130. Impact of essential oils on the development of pathogens of the Fusarium genus and germination parameters of selected crops
  131. Yield, volume, quality, and reduction of biotic stress influenced by titanium application in oilseed rape, winter wheat, and maize cultivations
  132. Influence of potato variety on polyphenol profile composition and glycoalcaloid contents of potato juice
  133. Carryover effect of direct-fed microbial supplementation and early weaning on the growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing Najdi lambs
  134. Special Issue on Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ABB 2021)
  135. The electrochemical redox mechanism and antioxidant activity of polyphenolic compounds based on inlaid multi-walled carbon nanotubes-modified graphite electrode
  136. Study of an adsorption method for trace mercury based on Bacillus subtilis
  137. Special Issue on The 1st Malaysia International Conference on Nanotechnology & Catalysis (MICNC2021)
  138. Mitigating membrane biofouling in biofuel cell system – A review
  139. Mechanical properties of polymeric biomaterials: Modified ePTFE using gamma irradiation
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