Plant polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids in oral health
-
Vida Arzani
,
Mohsen Soleimani
Abstract
Introduction
Herbal products are increasingly being used for their potential to promote oral health. Phytochemicals can act as scavengers of reactive or toxic chemicals, selective growth factors for beneficial oral bacteria, fermentation substrates for beneficial oral bacteria, and selective inhibitors of harmful oral microflora. Plant-derived secondary metabolites encompass a variety of natural products, including alkaloids, polyphenols (including flavonoids and tannins), terpenes, terpenoids, steroids, saponins, quinones, coumarins, glycosides, and carotenoids.
Objectives
This review explores medicinal plant-based products for preventing and treating oral diseases, offering updated insights into the scientific basis for using herbs as active ingredients in oral health care. Hence, we focused on: (1) phenolic compounds, the most abundant and common phytochemicals and (2) terpenes and terpenoids, the most diverse and widely distributed group in the plant kingdom.
Methods
Several databases were queried to acquire peer-reviewed studies focusing on the major phytochemical compositions – phenolic compounds, terpenes, and terpenoids – and their oral health benefits.
Results
The review lists numerous medicinal herbs in various forms and applications for treating dental caries, gingivitis, and periodontitis.
Conclusion
This review explores the evidence supporting the oral health-promoting effects of specific constituents in herbs with the potential for incorporation into pharmaceutical formulations.
Graphical abstract
1 Introduction
Oral disorders, including dental caries, gingivitis, periodontitis, and oral infections, are highly prevalent diseases that affect more than 3.5 billion people worldwide [1]. These conditions not only impose significant health and economic burdens but also lead to a decline in patients’ quality of life. Dental caries, tooth loss, periodontal disease, and oral cancers are among the most common and significant oral diseases worldwide. Furthermore, due to their progressive and chronic nature, these oral diseases can become lifelong conditions. It should also be noted that periodontal tissues and teeth play a vital role in the overall functioning of the human body [2]. The oral cavity is continuously exposed to the external environment through contact with water, food, and air. This environment harbors a diverse and vast array of microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea, mycoplasmas, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Disruption of the balance and homeostasis between pathogenic and beneficial microorganisms is believed to be one of the leading causes of oral diseases [3].
Recently, there has been growing global interest in the potential of plant-derived products as therapeutic agents for the prevention and/or treatment of oral diseases. Natural antioxidants from plant sources are gaining particular attention as substitutes for synthetic antioxidants because they offer various health benefits, such as prevention, vitality, and treatment [4]. Bacterial antibiotic resistance remains a significant health challenge both in the United States [5] and globally [6]. The literature in this field is extensive. However, a recent systematic review conducted by Brooks et al. [7] examined the occurrence and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant genes in the oral cavity. Antibiotic resistance genes are widespread among bacteria found in the oral cavity, with tetracycline resistance genes (such as tet(M)) being the most common. Phytodentistry, on the other hand, involves the use of botanical drugs to prevent or treat oral diseases. Further research on novel antimicrobial agents, including antibiofilm agents for biofilm-related infections, is crucial for developing effective strategies against antibiotic-resistant bacteria, and the chemically complex nature of plant-derived antimicrobial agents offers a promising alternative [4]. Botanical antibiotics primarily function by disrupting the plasma and intracellular membranes and cell walls, causing the release of the cytoplasmic contents of microorganisms, which ultimately results in their death [8]. Phytochemical constituents also exhibit antibacterial activity by potentially inhibiting bacterial enzymes, including those involved in sortase, DNA replication, toxins, and cell lysis [4,9,10]. Another significant contribution of phytochemicals to oral health is their presence in balanced diets and food supplies. This perspective aligns with firmly established evidence, consistently suggesting that societies adhering to diets rich in phytochemicals tend to have notably improved oral health [11].
Secondary metabolites encompass a huge variety of bioactive compounds known as phytochemicals. These chemical compounds accumulate in cells to defend against a vast array of biotic (pathogens and insects) and abiotic (such as drought, frost, salt, and heat) stressors in plants [12]. They are produced from diverse primary metabolites directly or indirectly through biosynthetic intermediates. Phenolic compounds, including polyphenols and phenolic acids, constitute one of the largest and most widely distributed phytochemical groups in vascular plants [4]. However, another noteworthy category of phytochemicals comprises terpenes and terpenoids, representing the most diverse and broadly distributed group across the plant kingdom [13]. There are substantial bodies of literature focusing on phenolic compounds in edible plant parts, mainly because of the interest in the health benefits of polyphenol consumption [4]. Phenolic compounds benefit health due to their chemopreventive activities, such as anticarcinogenic, antimutagenic, and antioxidative potential [4]. Recently, dietary polyphenols have received much attention due to their therapeutic and preventive potential for many chronic diseases, including diabetes, cancer, chronic inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative diseases [14]. Dietary polyphenols are the most abundant phytochemical compounds in plants and plant-based foods and beverages, including vegetables (herbs), fruits, cereals, nuts, coffee, and tea. Polyphenols in one’s diet are also present in bee-derived products such as honey, propolis, beeswax, and bee bread. However, the amount and quality of these polyphenols predominantly rely on the pollen and nectar plants from which bees collect their resources.
In addition, plant-derived versatile products are in high demand in the cosmetics, food, and pharmaceutical industries due to their safety, lower risk, relatively low extraction cost, ease of product storage, and ease of scale-up. The emergence of plant molecular farming has revitalized global interest in producing valuable natural bioactive molecules and pharmaceutical proteins in biofactory plants used as bioreactors [15].
General health and oral health are intimately linked to each other [16]. The oral cavity acts as a window to many body systems and contains a unique oral microbiome comprising over 700 species of bacteria [17]. It is widely recognized that various oral diseases and conditions, such as dental caries and periodontal diseases, can be associated with numerous other health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, endocarditis, dementia, and cancer [1].
For example, maintaining good oral hygiene can significantly reduce the risk of pneumonia, decreasing the colonization of respiratory pathogens in the oral cavity and subsequent aspiration into the lower airway. Additionally, there is growing evidence of the health and therapeutic benefits of phytochemicals derived from herbs, specifically oral tissues [4]. These phytochemicals offer numerous advantages, serving as potential sources of nonenzymatic antioxidants such as polyphenols and vitamins (A, E, and C). These antioxidants neutralize the free radicals produced in oral mucosal lesions, thereby preventing mucosal damage. Moreover, phytochemicals have been found to modulate cellular signaling pathways, activating cellular defense mechanisms that protect normal cells against reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species. They can also induce apoptotic death in cancerous cells, thus contributing to chemoprevention by preventing, reversing, or delaying carcinogenesis [18].
A wide variety of diseases and disorders impair the hard and soft tissues of the mouth and may give rise to a range of congenital anomalies, craniofacial disorders, injuries, and various infections. However, dental caries and periodontal diseases are the key clinical conditions that prioritize global public health [1].
Dental caries occurs when acidic byproducts of bacteria ferment free sugars, causing localized destruction of the hard tissues (enamel and dentine) of the teeth [19]. As caries become more aggressive and progressive, the environment in the pathogenic microbial biofilm (plaque) becomes increasingly acidic. Aciduric bacteria then thrive at the expense of other benign bacteria. The growth of acidic bacteria is primarily characterized by their ability to dissolve tooth minerals, facilitated by bacterial acids such as lactic, formic, acetic, and propionic acids [20]. The causal bacteria are categorized into two main genera: Streptococcus (primarily Streptococcus sobrinus and Streptococcus mutans) and Lactobacillus [19,20].
Periodontitis is characterized by both proinflammatory events and infection, resulting in clinical attachment loss, gingival bleeding, the presence of periodontal pocketing, and radiographically assessed alveolar bone loss. Poor oral hygiene leads to plaque accumulation at and in the subgingival margin, which is the primary cause of periodontal disease [21]. In older adults, periodontal disease may be causally associated with aspiration pneumonia, often leading to significant morbidity and mortality [22]. Eventually, periodontitis can lead to tooth loss, negatively impacting chewing function.
It is now known that plant foods, including herbs, grains, and fruits, contain a vast variety of biologically active compounds that promote health and well-being. There should be a greater emphasis on appropriate dietary phytochemical intake, as it has several advantages. For example, a diet rich in phytochemicals can decrease periodontal diseases, dental caries, and plaque. Certain herb-based foods and beverages may deserve special attention in the diet due to their unique phytochemical composition and medicinal properties. Herbal extracts and their products could serve as alternatives to synthetic compounds for controlling oral diseases. The potential of dietary polyphenols to evoke therapeutic effects may be mediated by alterations in the gut microbiota and gut microbiome composition, leading to improvements in human health [23].
This review delves into our current understanding of the roles that polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids, which originate from medicinal plants, play in maintaining oral health. The dietary aspects of polyphenols concerning oral health [24] and general health [14,25,26] have been discussed elsewhere.
The present review synthesizes two key areas. First, we explore the key phytochemicals (polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids) present in medicinal plants and their roles in preventing and treating oral and dental diseases and conditions. Our focus is specifically on medicinal plants, rather than foods or processed foods. Second, this review provides an up-to-date overview of the health-promoting benefits of these bioactive compounds, with a special focus on their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-allergenic, antimutagenic, and anticarcinogenic properties. This dual focus sets our review apart, shedding light on the multifaceted potential of these natural compounds in oral healthcare.
2 Methods
The literature on phytochemicals and their applications in oral health and dental medicine is extensive. We utilized various international databases of online traditional media, including Science Direct, Web of Science, Scopus, Springer, PubMed, Google Scholar, Mendeley, ACS, Taylor, and Kudos, employing search terms individually or in combination. The analysis consisted of peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and authored books. However, our examination of these media discourses has some limitations, such as a focus on print media and the inclusion of only English-language articles.
To determine relevant publications, we reviewed abstracts for general suitability and critically evaluated the experimental methodology and findings of full-text articles. For each subfield, we used pertinent terms as either the search term in the title module or the entire article to retrieve documents. Initially, we tested numerous search terms to identify those that yielded articles relevant to our topic and met our inclusion criteria. Specifically, when conducting research on oral and dental-related literature pertaining to herbs and their bioactive compounds, we employed a search strategy that involved the inclusion of either “oral,” “dental,” or both as search terms. Consequently, for Section 7 of this article, the four primary search terms utilized were “herb’s English name,” “Latin name,” “oral,” and “dental.” These terms were combined with one or more of the following terms: “antibacterial,” “bioactive,” “flavonoid,” “phenolic,” “polyphenol,” “phytochemical,” “tannin,” “terpene,” or “terpenoid.” We then applied filters, including chronological values (i.e., year) and descriptive fields (i.e., title), to narrow down the number of articles found and succinctly summarize their findings in our manuscript. We preferred to cite articles published within the last 6 years (2019–2024) while also incorporating numerous significant older articles that laid the groundwork for herbs, bioactive compounds, and applied health literacy. Additionally, we referred to older articles in instances where there was limited availability of recent publications with substantial scientific evidence on the subject.
3 Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds are a diverse and large group of secondary metabolites (>8,000) that include many different families of aromatic compounds in the plant kingdom (Figure 1). As shown in Table 1, simple phenols and polyphenols are the general terms used to categorize them based on chemical nomenclature, which considers factors such as the number of carbons and the structure of the aromatic ring [27]. These compounds are primarily synthesized through the shikimic acid pathway and phenylpropanoid metabolism.
Classification of phenolic compounds most of which are known to be polyphenols.
Classification of phenolic compounds (adapted from Harborne [27])
| Structure | Phenolic class |
|---|---|
| C6 | Simple phenolics |
| C6–C1 | Phenolic acids and related compounds |
| C6–C2 | Acetophenones and phenylacetic acids |
| C6–C3 | Cinnamic acids, cinnamyl aldehydes, cinnamyl alcohols |
| C6–C3 | Coumarins, isocoumarins, and chromones |
| C15 | Chalcones, aurones, dihydrochalcones |
| C15 | Flavans |
| C15 | Flavones |
| C15 | Flavanones |
| C15 | Flavanonols |
| C15 | Anthocyanidins |
| C15 | Anthocyanins |
| C30 | Biflavonyls |
| C6–C1–C6, C6–C2–C6 | Benzophenones, xanthones, stilbenes |
| C6, C10, C14 | Quinones |
| C18 | Betacyanins |
| Lignans, neolignans | Dimers or oligomers |
| Lignin | Polymers |
| Tannins | Oligomers or polymers |
| Phlobaphenes | Polymers |
3.1 Simple phenols
Simple phenols are compounds that have one or more hydroxyl groups (OH) attached to an aromatic ring (C6). Phenol, resorcinol, pyrocatechol, and phloroglucinol are simple phenols. While these phenolic compounds are not commonly found in plant constituents, resorcinol and phloroglucinol can be combined with cinnamic acids to create various plant flavonoids. Phenol (hydroxybenzene) is rarely present in phytochemicals [27].
3.2 Polyphenols
Polyphenols are complex substances characterized by having two or more phenolic rings. Many polyphenols are found in conjugated form, covalently linked with one or more sugar moieties. This linkage can occur through O-glycosidic bonds or, less commonly, through C-glycosidic bonds. Additionally, polyphenols can form ester bonds with organic acids, such as chlorogenic acids and green tea catechins [28].
In most cases, the term “polyphenols” is used as a general term to encompass all plant-derived phenolic compounds, including both simple phenols and polyphenols, as outlined in this review. Polyphenols are broadly classified into two main groups, flavonoids, and nonflavonoids, depending on the complexity of their chemical structure, specifically, the presence or absence of the C6–C3–C6 backbone [29]. Furthermore, polyphenols are further subdivided into five major categories based on their chemical backbones: phenolic acids, lignans, stilbenes, tannins, and flavonoids, as illustrated in Figure 1.
3.2.1 Flavonoids
A phenyl benzopyran backbone (C6–C3–C6) and two benzene rings (or aromatic rings: A and B) linked via a heterocyclic pyran ring (ring C) are found in the chemical structure of flavonoids. Over 6,000 flavonoid compounds have already been identified [30], which differ in the number and position of the hydroxyl groups, as well as the extent of alkylation and/or glycosylation. These compounds can be classified into eight major groups, each differing in the pyran ring. These groups include flavones, flavanones, isoflavones, flavonols, dihydroflavonols, flavan-3-ols, chalcones, and anthocyanidins. For example, flavonols such as quercetin and kaempferol have a 3-hydroxy pyran-4-one group on the C ring, while flavanols such as catechins have only a 3-hydroxyl group on the C ring [31].
Flavonoids play important roles in preventing various diseases in humans and are generally considered health-promoting factors. They are known for their strong radical scavenging and antioxidant properties. Among flavonoids, flavonols, including quercetin, kaempferol, and myricetin, are considered some of the most important. Quercetin, in particular, is the most abundant flavonol compound in the human diet [32] and can be commonly found in fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices. Onions, leeks, broccoli, curly kale, apples, and berries are among the richest dietary sources of flavonols [33]. However, the relative importance of these food sources varies depending on the country of origin and, to a lesser extent, the environmental conditions during plant growth. For instance, apples, onions, and tea are the predominant dietary sources of flavonols in the United States, Denmark, and the Netherlands, respectively [34].
3.2.2 Nonflavonoid polyphenols
Nonflavonoids consist of one or two aromatic rings and can be categorized as phenolic acids, hydrolyzable tannins, and stilbenes, which have more complex structures. This group of polyphenols includes compounds with multiple phenol rings, such as tannins, stilbenes, lignans, and phenolic acids. Among them, tannins are the most intricate polyphenol structures due to their polymeric nature. On the other hand, catechins are considered monomeric polyphenols composed of flavan-3-ol monomers and are classified within the flavonoid class.
3.2.2.1 Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids, also known as phenol carboxylic acids, are characterized by a single phenolic ring that is conjugated to a carboxylic acid through a short hydrocarbon chain. Based on the number of carbon units in the lateral chain attached to the phenolic ring, phenolic acids can be classified into C6–C3, C6–C2, and C6–C1 compounds [35]. The two major groups of phenolic acids are hydroxybenzoic acids (C6–C1) and hydroxycinnamic acids (C6–C3), with C6–C3 being the most prevalent in plant-based foods and beverages such as herbs, vegetables, fruits, tea, and coffee. The third group of phenolic acids is referred to as hydroxyphenyl acids, which include acetic, propanoic, and pentenoic acids.
The distinction between simple phenols (C6) and polyphenols is unclear, and phenolic compounds cannot be strictly classified as simple phenols or polyphenols. Some experts consider them separate entities, while others include phenolic acids in the broad category of polyphenols. Dietitians and nutritionists often refer to phenolic acids as “dietary polyphenols.” The most commonly known hydroxycinnamic acids (C6–C3) include ρ-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and rosmarinic acid. Gallic, ρ-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic, and ellagic acids are common examples of hydroxybenzoic acids (C6–C1). Phenolic acids can also be classified into two subgroups: free (soluble) and bound (insoluble) phenolic acids [36].
3.2.2.2 Tannins
Tannins are polyphenolic compounds that constitute the most abundant phytochemicals after lignins. They are classified into two major categories: hydrolyzable and nonhydrolyzable [37,38,39]. Nonhydrolysable tannins are also called condensed tannins (CTs) or proanthocyanidins (PACs). Hydrolyzable tannins structurally contain several phenolic acid molecules and are classified based on hydrolyzed gallic acid and ellagic acid as gallotannins and ellagitannins, respectively. CTs are oligomers and polymers of flavan subunits. A crucial characteristic of tannins is their ability to interact with proteins, denaturing them in vertebrate herbivores. This interaction forms the basis of the astringent, ROS-reducing, antimutagenic, antiviral, and antimicrobial properties of tannins.
Astringency and bitterness are organoleptic characteristics widely linked to tannin compounds. The sensation of dryness, puckering, shrinking, and roughening in the mouth is known as astringency. At high concentrations, the astringency of CTs may partially mask the perception of bitterness. Astringency can occur following the consumption of plant-based foods and beverages, such as strong tea, berries, and unripened fruits. The ability of tannin compounds to bind and precipitate proteins, such as proline-rich salivary proteins and glycoproteins, is thought to be the primary driver of astringency. It reduces the coating and lubrication of oral surfaces, causing friction and, at the same time, enables some astringent compounds to interact with oral mucosal substrates [40]. Recently, there has been speculation on whether astringency might be useful for oral health [41]. These authors contend that tannins and related polyphenols directly bind to exposed oral epithelial cells, activating the Piezo2 ion channel as another probable mechanism of astringency perception. Finally, astringency may improve the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of astringent polyphenols, leading to stronger anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-aging, and anticancer effects.
4 Terpenes and terpenoids
Terpenes, the largest and most diverse class of secondary metabolites, are composed of five-carbon isoprene units that can be combined in numerous ways and often contain oxygen. They are diversely present in plants, with over 80,000 known terpenes and terpenoids found in the wild [13]. The varying levels and combinations of these compounds give each plant unique characteristics. Notably, terpenes play a role in the pleasant smell, spicy taste, and biological effects of plants. Pine trees, lemon, lavender, and peppermint are examples of plants with particularly noticeable terpene contents [42]. Terpenes are basic hydrocarbons, whereas terpenoids constitute an altered group of terpenes characterized by distinct functional groups and the relocation or elimination of oxidized methyl groups at different locations [43]. Terpenoids are typically divided into monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, sesterpenes, and triterpenes depending on their carbon units. Various plants exhibit unique terpene profiles, and certain types of terpenes are exclusive to specific species.
Terpenes and terpenoids are categorized based on the isoprene rule, determined by the number and arrangement of carbon atoms in isoprene units. The classification includes hemiterpenes (C5H8), monoterpenes (C10H16), sesquiterpenes (C15H24), diterpenes (C20H32), sesterterpenes (C25H40), triterpenes (C30H48), tetraterpenes (C40H64), and polyterpenes (>8 isoprene units). It has been demonstrated that oxygenated terpenes (phenolic terpenoids), such as carvacrol, ρ-cymene, and thymol, display stronger antimicrobial activity than hydrocarbon terpenes, such as camphene, R-(–)-limonene, terpinene, and (+)-α-pinene [44]. Each plant can contain numerous terpenes, but certain terpenes are commonly found in high quantities across multiple plant species. The following are some of the most important terpenoid compounds found in plants: artemisinin, β-carotene, β-caryophyllene, ρ-cymene, farnesol, germacrene (germacrene a and d), humulene (α-caryophyllene), limonene, linalool, lupeol, lycopene, menthol, myrcene, ocimene, α-pinene, β-pinene, squalene, taxol, and terpinolene. Table 2 presents the terpenes, their type, and the plants rich in these compounds, focusing on those relevant to our theme of oral health-benefiting plants.
The terpenes, their type, and the plants rich in these compounds
| Terpene compound | Terpene type | Medicinal herbs contain the compound |
|---|---|---|
| Artemisinin | Sesquiterpene (C15) | Mugwort, levant wormseed, sweet wormwood, tarragon, wormwood |
| β-Carotene | Tetraterpene (C40) | A natural precursor of vitamin A found in parsley, fenugreek, amaranth, coriander, dandelion, cilantro |
| β-Caryophyllene | Sesquiterpene (C15) | Cloves, cinnamon, and black pepper |
| ρ-Cymene | Monoterpene (C10) | Oregano, thyme, mint |
| Farnesol | Sesquiterpene (C15) | Chamomile, rose, lemongrass, ginger |
| Germacrene (germacrene A and D) | Sesquiterpene (C15) | Arnica and yarrow |
| Humulene (α-caryophyllene) | Sesquiterpene (C15) | Hops, sage, ginseng |
| Limonene | Monoterpene (C10) | Citrus fruits: lemon, orange, grapefruit |
| Linalool | Monoterpene (C10) | It has soothing qualities and a distinct herbal aroma, is found in lavender and rosewood |
| Lupeol | Triterpene (C30) | Aloe vera, neem, basil, ginger, turmeric |
| Lycopene | Tetraterpene (C40) | Tomato, watermelon, apricot |
| Menthol | Monoterpenes (C10) | Mint, peppermint, spearmint, thyme, eucalyptus |
| Myrcene | Monoterpene (C10) | Its name derives from Myrcia sphaerocarpa but is also present in lemongrass, hops, and mangos |
| Ocimene | Monoterpene (C10) | Mint, parsley, orchids |
| α-Pinene | Monoterpene (C10) | Pine, rosemary, eucalyptus, juniper, cumin, sage, frankincense, lavender, thyme, |
| β-Pinene | Monoterpene (C10) | Rosemary, sage, coriander, cumin, nutmeg, thyme |
| Squalene | Triterpene (C30) | Amaranth, olive oil, palm oil, avocado |
| Taxol | Diterpene (C20) | Yew (Taxus spp.) |
| Terpinolene | Monoterpene (C10) | Hemp, nutmeg, cumin, and apples |
| Tocopherols (α-, β-, γ-, and δ-tocopherol) | Diterpene (C20) | Avocados, spinach, kale, broccoli, vegetable oils (safflower, sunflower, olive, soybean, corn oils) |
5 Basis of the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds
Phenols are antioxidants found in most plant-derived products. In vitro studies have shown that polyphenols exhibit robust antioxidant activity and are capable of effectively scavenging a wide array of reactive oxygen, nitrogen, and chlorine species, including hydroxyl radicals, superoxide anions, hypochlorous acid, peroxyl radicals, and peroxynitrous acid [45]. Various mechanisms have been suggested to explain the antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds, including the suppression of free radicals through hydrogen atom donation, the reduction of these reactive molecules via electron transfer, and the chelation of transition metals. The antioxidant effectiveness of phenolic compounds greatly relies on the presence of hydroxyl (−OH) groups and the degree of methoxylation [46].
The oral mucosa is constantly exposed to oxidative stress caused by environmental and food factors. Polyphenols, when in direct contact with the oral cavity, can help prevent various oral diseases, ranging from infections to cancers, thanks to their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [47]. Polyphenols can play a role in reducing the risk of oral cancer by scavenging free radicals. They also assist in preventing oxidative stress and DNA damage, controlling the metabolism of carcinogens, and hindering the formation of DNA adducts [48].
Polyphenols are known to have greater antioxidant (antiradical) activity than simple phenols [49]. Enhanced antioxidants may be those that undergo oxidation more readily. On the other hand, certain small phenols/polyphenols that easily undergo oxidation may exhibit pro-oxidant properties, particularly at higher concentrations, rendering them more susceptible to pro-oxidant factors than larger molecular weight compounds [50].
6 Herbs and oral health care
Given the challenge of antibiotic resistance in the treatment of periodontal diseases, host immune modulation using phytocompounds represents one of the exciting new developments for treatment and prevention. It is well known that good oral hygiene and regular dental care are important practices that support both oral and general health. Medicinal plants that are rich in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial agents are good candidates for application in dentistry. Some medicinal plants with the aforementioned features include but are not limited to aloe vera, anise, black cumin, bloodroot, caraway, chamomile, cinnamon, clove, coriander, cumin, emblic, eucalyptus, fenugreek, garlic, ginger, green tea, common guava, miswak, myrrh, neem, mint (peppermint, spearmint, and cornmint), rosemary, sage, thyme, tulsi, turmeric, and yarrow (see Table 3 for a more extensive list).
The essential oils or extracts of plants derived from either roots or aboveground organs (such as stems, bark, rhizomes, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds) are frequently incorporated into mouthwash and toothpaste formulations as oral care ingredients. The extracts obtained from either infusions or decoctions are administered orally, for example, as a mouth rinse or for ingestion, to promote dental and oral health.
6.1 Herbal mouthwash and toothpaste
A variety of mouthwashes are used today for several reasons, including freshening breath, preventing dental caries, reducing plaque and gingivitis, and slowing the formation of dental calculus. Currently, herbal mouthwashes have gained popularity due to their natural origin, fewer side effects, and lower toxicity. These mouthwashes contain oral health-related ingredients, which can be categorized into three main materials: fluoride compounds, antimicrobial agents, and plant extracts. Oral hygiene solutions that consist of botanical ingredients have been proven effective in reducing tooth plaque and gingivitis and in alkalizing saliva to change its pH [24,51,52,53]. A clinical assessment of 15-day durations using 300 participants conducted by Sharma et al. [54] showed that a mouthwash containing tulsi is less effective as a mouth rinse than chlorhexidine or hydrogen peroxide. However, tulsi was found to effectively reduce plaque, halitosis, and gingivitis.
Toothbrushing is known as an oral care strategy that effectively removes dental plaque and prevents periodontal disease by inhibiting the growth of plaque and bacterial adherence to the pellicle. Dental plaque (biofilm) is now recognized as a major cause of the two most prominent dental diseases: periodontal and caries disease [55]. Laboratory and clinical research indicate that toothpaste containing botanical ingredients can reduce dental gingivitis, plaque, tooth staining, and dental calculus [56,57,58,59,60]. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials by Adam et al. [61] revealed that miswak (Salvadora persica)-based toothpaste has antigingivitis and antiplaque effects comparable to those of nonherbal toothpaste. However, few studies have explored the feasibility and efficacy of a toothpaste containing multiple botanical ingredients. Jayashankar et al. [62] conducted a double-blind randomized clinical trial using 60 participants (test n = 30, control n = 30) to study the efficacy of a toothpaste containing a mixture of herbal ingredients from nine plants (Acacia chundra (Roxb. ex Rottler) Maslin heartwood, Adhatoda vasica L. leaves, Mimusops elengi L. barks, Piper nigrum L. seeds, Pongamia pinnata (L.) Merr. roots, Quercus infectoria Oliv. galls, Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry flowers, Terminalia chebula Retz. fruits, and Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhizomes) in reducing plaque, gingivitis, and bleeding compared to a control (nonherbal toothpaste). Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume) and oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) essential oils, when incorporated into herbal toothpaste formulations, exhibited antibacterial activity against S. mutans [63].
6.2 Medicinal plants as antimicrobial agents in dental caries
Dental caries is a multifactorial disease primarily caused by cariogenic bacteria commonly found in the oral cavity. It affects the hard tissues of the tooth by promoting the development of biofilm and plaque, which leads to surface roughness, demineralization, cavitation with pulp compromise, abscess, and swelling.
The healing properties of herbs are attributed to various bioactive compounds (see Tables 3 and 4). Phenolic compounds, such as flavonoids and tannins, are abundant and phytochemically important components of botanical drugs [4,64]. In both in vivo and in vitro studies, various herbal essential oils and isolated major compounds have demonstrated antimicrobial activity against a wide range of human pathogenic microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Notably, isolated phenolic compounds such as eugenol, thymol, and carvacrol exhibit strong antimicrobial effects [4].
Medicinal plants used for oral and dental health
| Species | Common name | Preparation/uses | Oral/dental application |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aloe vera | Aloe vera | Leaf, stem extracts | Dental abscess; oral antimicrobial [70] |
| Arnica montana | Arnica | Flower heads (capitula), oil, extract | Periodontal tissue inflammation; postsurgical pain [75,76] |
| Achillea millefolium | Yarrow | Leaf oil, extract | Teeth cleaning/braces, toothache [171] |
| Allium sativum | Garlic | Bulb oil, extract | Oral antimicrobial [208] |
| Anthemis nobilis/Chamomila recutita | Chamomile | Leaf/flower heads (capitula); oil; extract; mouthwash | Treatment of mucosa, oral cavity, and skin inflammations [78,79] |
| Azadirachta indica | Neem | Chewing stick; mouthwash | Antiinflammatory/antimicrobial [209] |
| Calendula officinalis | Marigold | Flower head/oil infusion | Oral wound healing, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial [210] |
| Capsicum frutescens | Wild pepper | Fruit; fruit juice | Oral mucositis pain; secondary to chemotherapy and radiation therapy [211] |
| Chondrus crispus | Irish moss | Seeds, gum, mucilage | Antimicrobial and antibiofilm: prevent biofilm formation in dental plaque [212] |
| Camellia sinensis | Green tea | Leaf oil, extract | Dental caries, periodontal disease, and halitosis [104] |
| Carum carvi | Caraway | Dried seed and fruit oil | Antimicrobial and antibiofilm [213] |
| Chrysanthemum parthenium | Feverfew | Leaf | Toothache [214] |
| Cinnamomum zeylanicum | Cinnamon | Bark; powdered bark infusion | Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties [80] |
| Commiphora myrrha | Myrrh | Bark resin tincture application/gargle | Mouthwash: oral hygiene, antiplaque, and treating gingivitis [215] |
| Coriandrum sativum | Coriander | Leaf; seed oil, extract | Mouthwash; oral antimicrobial [216] |
| Curcuma longa | Turmeric | Rhizome, oil, extract | Various oral lesions and conditions [217] |
| Echinacea angustifolia | Coneflower | Flower | Toothache; oral anti-inflammatory [218] |
| Eucalyptus globulus | Eucalyptus | Leaf extract | Oral antimicrobial [219] |
| Foeniculum vulgare | Fennel | Seed oil; fruit ingestion | Antibacterial and antibiofilm [220] |
| Ganoderma lucidum | Reishi | Fruit body, mycelia | Antimicrobial [203] |
| Hydrastis canadensis | Goldenseal | Rhizome and root infusion | Oral antimicrobial [221] |
| Lentinus edodes | Shiitake | Fruit body, mouthwash | Antimicrobial, antiplaque [199,201] |
| Mentha piperita | Pepermint | Aerial part (leaf/flower) oil | Toothache; mouthwash, toothpaste [4] |
| Mentha spicata | Spearmint | Aerial part (leaf/flower) oil | Toothache; mouthwash, toothpaste [4] |
| Mentha arvensis | Cornmint | Aerial part (leaf/flower) oil | Toothache; mouthwash, toothpaste [4] |
| Nigella sativa | Black cummin | Seed oil, extract | Oral antimicrobial [222] |
| Ocimum sanctum | Tulsi | Leaf oil, extract | Teeth cleaning; oral antibiotic [166] |
| Origanum vulgare | Oregano | Leaf oil; leaf decoction | Oral antimicrobial; mouthwash [132] |
| Phyllanthus emblica | Emblic | Fruit | Oral antimicrobial [223] |
| Pimpinella anisum | Anise or aniseed | Seed extract | Oral antimicrobial [224] |
| Plantago major | Plantain | Leaf; seed | Oral antibacterial [225] |
| Psidium guajava | Guava | Leaf, bark, fruit oil/extract | Oral antimicrobial [226] |
| Rosmarinus officinalis | Rosemary | Leaf, oil, extract: mouthrinse | Antimicrobial, toothpaste [136] |
| Rubus fruticosus | Blackberry | Fruit extract | Mouthwash to relieve mouth ulcers and gum inflammation |
| Salvia officinalis | Sage | Leaf, oil, extract; mouthwash | Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial [139] |
| Salvadora persica | Miswak | Chewing gum; oil, extract, tooth powder: mouthwash | Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial [110,116] |
| Sanguinaria canadensis | Bloodroot | Rhizome extract | Oral antimicrobial; dentifrice [227] |
| Simmondsia chinensis | Jojoba | Flower and seed oil | Mouthrinse, dental varnish [228] |
| Stevia rebaudiana | Stevia | Leaf extract; mouthrinse | Antimicrobial, anti-plaque [146] |
| Syzygium aromaticum | Clove | Powdered clove ingestion; dried flower bud oil | Antimicrobial; toothpastes, mouthwash [84,229] |
| Thymus vulgaris | Thyme | Aerial part (leaf/flower) oil | Antimicrobial, toothpaste [4] |
| Trigonella foenum-graecum | fenugreek | Seed oil, extract | Oral antimicrobial [230] |
| Vaccinium macrocarpon | Cranberry | Fruit | Antibacterial, antibiofilm and anti-inflammatory [11] |
| Zanthoxylum americanum | Prickly ash | Bark decoction | Toothache; antimicrobial |
| Zingiber officinale | Ginger | Rhizomes oil; mouthwash | Oral anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial [94] |
Description and structure of key polyphenols significantly impacting dentistry and oral health
| Compound/description | Chemical structure (all from ChemIDplus) | Herb source (major component) |
|---|---|---|
| Eugenol, a phenylpropanoid, is extensively utilized in dentistry to manage toothaches and pulpitis [84] |
 |
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum); cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) |
| Catechin, a polyphenolic flavonoid, is beneficial to periodontal and gingival health by inhibiting bacterial biofilm formation, attenuating host inflammatory responses, and demonstrating antibacterial attributes against periodontal pathogens by inhibiting their proteolytic enzymes [11] |
 |
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) |
| Epigallocatechin-3-gallate, categorized as a catechin, is associated with improved oral health and a reduced likelihood of developing cavities when included in animal or human diet [99,100] |
 |
Green tea (Camellia sinensis) |
| Gingerol (6-gingerol), a polyphenolic compound, serves as a potent disinfectant for root canals [90] and effectively modulates the oral microbiota [91] |
 |
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) |
| Thymol serves as an antibacterial, analgesic, and oral cavity disinfectant. As a result, it is employed in the manufacturing of dental and oral care products, including hygiene items, and as a flavor-enhancing component in toothpaste, chewing gum, and pharmaceuticals [4] |
 |
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris); Oregano (Origanum vulgare) |
| Curcumin, a vibrant yellow polyphenolic pigment, possesses robust anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that could be beneficial in addressing or preventing oral health conditions [157] |
 |
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) |
The use of botanical drugs for the treatment of dental caries, gingivitis, and periodontitis has gained significant attention among dental professionals and patients in recent years. In an in vitro study conducted by Besra and Kumar [65], the antimicrobial activity of 20 medicinal plant extracts against bacterial pathogens associated with dental caries was evaluated. The findings showed that the following plants demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity against the cariogenic pathogens S. mutans, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Achyranthes aspera L. (root), Azadirachta indica A. Juss (leaves), Nigella sativa L. (seeds), Psidium guajava L. (leaves), and S. aromaticum (bud).
Moreover, an interview survey conducted among traditional healers and folk practitioners in Baghdad, Iraq, revealed that clove (S. aromaticum), green tea (Camellia sinensis), and mint (Mentha spp.) were the three most frequently employed botanical drugs for addressing toothaches, canker sores, oral ulcers, and homemade mouthwash preparations [66].
Eugenol is extensively utilized in dental procedures due to its significant antibacterial and anesthetic qualities. It serves as the primary compound found in dianthus oil. Eugenol is commonly incorporated into root canal sealers (such as Endomethasone and Caryosan), temporary fillings and pastes utilized for direct pulp capping (such as Caryosan and zinc oxide). Additionally, it can be employed for disinfecting tooth canals during the treatment of pulp necrosis or as a precipitant for dentin impregnation with silver nitrate [67].
Table 4 illustrates the structures of key phenolic compounds that play a significant role in dentistry and oral health.
7 Medicinal plants used in oral health and dentistry
7.1 Aloe vera [Aloe barbadensis Miller (Liliaceae)]
The gel extracted from the chlorenchyma and parenchyma tissues of Aloe vera leaves contains a wide variety of bioactive compounds that possess significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and angiogenic activities [68]. Namiranian and Serino [69] carried out a randomized, double-blind, intraindividual, and controlled clinical study. In this study, they examined the effectiveness of two types of dentifrice: one containing fluoride (used as a control) and the other containing aloe vera. The study involved two groups of patients and spanned a 30-day duration. Similarly, both groups showed a significant reduction in gingivitis and plaque. In another study, a toothpaste containing A. vera and Fragaria vesca L. (wild strawberry) exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. mutans, which is a member of the oral microbiome and a principal cause of dental caries [70].
The survival of S. mutans depends strictly on a dynamic biofilm ecosystem, namely, dental plaque. A. vera has been found to be effective in treating oral ulcers and oral lichen planus, as it promotes healing and immunomodulation [71]. Furthermore, an A. vera-containing mouthwash significantly reduced gingivitis and plaque, although it was still significantly less effective than a chlorhexidine-containing mouthwash [72].
7.2 Arnica [Arnica montana L. (Asteraceae)]
The flower heads (capitula) of arnica are used in herbal medicine. The essential oil of flower capitula comprises polyphenolics, such as chlorogenic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 1-methoxyoxaloyl 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, quercetin, and kaempferol, as well as terpenoids like alpha-pinene, ρ-cymene, germacrene D, β-pinene, and spathulenol. These compounds are the major bioactive phytochemicals found in the essential oil of flower capitula [73,74].
Dried arnica specimens are mainly used for their antioxidant, antiseptic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory activities. However, despite its numerous applications, the use of A. montana in dentistry has not been thoroughly explored, possibly due to the lack of evidence-based treatment guidelines for incorporating it into dental practices. Nonetheless, studies have described the potential benefits of arnica in managing and preventing periodontal tissue inflammation due to its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties [75]. In fact, topical A. montana-containing oral homeopathic solutions have been shown to significantly reduce postsurgical pain [76].
7.3 Chamomile [Matricaria chamomilla L. syn. Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert (Asteraceae)]
Flower heads (capitula) of chamomile are extensively employed in the preparation of tea, providing numerous health and medicinal benefits. The most imperative constituents relating to chamomile’s beneficial attributes are flavonoids (luteolin, apigenin, and quercetin) and terpenoids (bisabolol and chamazulene). It has antioxidant, wound healing, spasmolytic, anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, analgesic, antinociceptive, and mild sedative properties. Chamomile and external/internal infusions are used in the treatment of mucosa, oral cavity, and skin inflammation [77,78]. It is effective as a mouthwash for treating gingivitis and periodontal disease due to its anti-inflammatory properties. Chamomile-containing mouthwash effectively reduces gingivitis and dental plaque [79].
7.4 Cinnamon [C. zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae)]
Cinnamon bark is commonly used as a spice and herb with a wide range of applications in perfumery, beverages, flavoring, and medicines. Cinnamon essential oil, along with its extracts and major constituents such as cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, linalool, and β-caryophyllene, has shown significant antimicrobial properties against oral microbiota. As a result, it can be used to prevent caries and periodontal disease, as well as to treat oral candidiasis during endodontic treatment [80].
In addition to its antimicrobial properties, cinnamon also possesses antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties [81]. It has been widely incorporated into dental and oral care products such as mouthwash, toothpastes, dental gel, endodontic irrigants, and mouth fresheners found in mouth rinses [80].
7.5 Clove [S. aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry. Syn. Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb. (Myrtaceace)]
The dried aromatic flower buds of clove, an evergreen tree, are used in various ways, such as food, cosmetics, and medicine. Eugenol (4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol, C10H12O2) is the most abundant component of clove essential oil, comprising 45–90% of its composition [82]. Eugenol is known for its antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and analgesic properties. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed to explain how eugenol inhibits bacterial growth, including disrupting cell membranes by increasing nonspecific permeability and modifying adenosine triphosphate and ion transport [9]. Clove is a popular medicinal plant used for treating toothaches and inflammation in the throat and mouth [83]. Eugenol is commercially obtained from clove flower buds or essential oils. Additionally, eugenol can be synthesized from coniferyl alcohol, which is derived from lignin degradation. Both clove and eugenol can be effectively incorporated into therapeutic strategies such as toothpaste, mouthwashes, topical agents, and local drug delivery systems to attenuate or prevent periodontal diseases [84].
7.6 Cranberry [Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait. (Ericaceae)]
Cranberry fruit contains a bioactive compound called PACs or flavan-3-ols, which has been found to have beneficial effects in the treatment of periodontal diseases ([85]. Catechin and epicatechin, which are part of the subgroup of polyphenols called flavonoids, are the building blocks of PACs. These compounds exhibit antiadhesive, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory activities, as well as inhibition of collagenase and proteinase activity [86].
Cranberry’s unique CTs, also known as A-linked type PACs, have greater cariostatic effects compared to other polyphenol-rich plants like tea, which contain B-type PACs [11]. Additionally, this structural variant has been associated with other clinical attributes, such as a reduction in biofilm formation by bacteria, inhibition of proteinase activity in periodontal pathogens, collagenase activity, and associated cytotoxic reactions [87,88]. In vitro studies have shown that cranberry fruit constituents have beneficial effects on periodontal and gingival health by inhibiting bacterial biofilm formation, attenuating host inflammatory responses, and exerting antibacterial properties on periopathogens through the inhibition of proteolytic enzymes [11].
7.7 Ginger [Z. officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)]
Ginger has attracted considerable interest for its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties due to its phenolic compounds such as gingerol, hydrocarbons, oleoresin, and shogaol [89]. Additionally, it is known for its benefits in oral care and the treatment of dental and oral disorders [89]. Ginger rhizomes are rich in polyphenols, specifically gingerols and shogaols, which exhibit anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activity. These properties make ginger an effective disinfectant for root canals [90] and for controlling oral microbiota [91].
In a study conducted both in vitro and in vivo in rats by Hasan et al. [89], the methanolic extract of Z. officinale was found to be effective against the virulence attributes of S. mutans, suggesting its potential as a prophylactic therapeutic tool for combating dental caries. The key components of ginger that contribute to its antibiofilm, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and analgesic activities are polyphenols (gingerols, shogaol, proanthocyanins, and CTs) and sesquiterpenes (farnesene, zingiberene, and curcumene) [92,93]. Ginger has been extensively researched for its ability to prevent plaque buildup and freshen breath. Using ginger toothpaste and toothpowder aids in maintaining clean teeth and eliminating tartar and cavities [94].
7.8 Green tea [C. sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze (Theaceae)]
Green tea is known for its high polyphenol content, making it a very healthy beverage. It has various benefits, including antibiofilm [95], anti-gingival inflammation [96], antimicrobial [97], and antioxidant properties [98]. Tea is produced from the leaves and leaf buds of C. sinensis. Green tea, which is not fermented, has a higher concentration of catechins than black tea. It contains flavonoids such as epicatechin, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate, and epigallocatechin gallate. Among these compounds, epigallocatechin-3-gallate is the main component of green tea [98].
Green tea has been found to have beneficial effects on oral health. It can help reduce the risk of periodontal disease [99,100] by inhibiting collagenase and preventing the adherence of Porphyromonas gingivalis to oral epithelial cells [101]. Homemade mouthwash with green tea can also be used to treat aphthous stomatitis, a common form of oral ulceration. Numerous studies have demonstrated the advantages of using green tea for oral health concerns such as dental caries, periodontal disease, and halitosis. These findings suggest that green tea is effective at reducing bacterial activity in the mouth and may also lower the likelihood of developing oral cancer due to its antioxidant properties [102].
Green tea and its main component, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, have protective effects against various diseases and possess antibacterial properties. They can reduce bone loss in osteoporosis and periodontal disease by causing the death of osteoclasts and similar cells [103]. The consumption of green tea is linked to better dental health and a lower risk of cavities [104]. Moreover, it causes less tooth staining than CHX and has been reported to accelerate the healing of mouth ulcers in test groups [105]. Scientific studies indicate that the catechins found in green tea can inhibit the growth of S. mutans. The use of polyphenols found in green tea as a mouthwash could be a safe and effective additional treatment for inflammatory periodontal diseases [106]. In our diet, herbal teas provide a valuable source of phytochemicals like flavonoids and other polyphenols.
7.9 Mint [Mentha spp. L. (Lamiaceae)]
Peppermint (Mentha piperita), spearmint (Mentha spicata), and cornmint (Mentha arvensis) are the most important and commonly cultivated mint species [4]. Peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.) is an interspecific hybrid mint that is cultivated worldwide. Essential oils and menthol are the most important mint compounds used in medicine and dentistry. The essential oils of peppermint primarily contain monoterpenes such as (–)-menthol, (–)-menthone, methylacetate, menthofuran, (+)-pulegone, isomenthone, 1,8-cineole, linalool, piperitone oxide, and piperitone. Among these compounds, menthol is the most abundant. The phytochemicals and antimicrobial properties of mint (Mentha spp.) were recently reviewed by Soleimani et al. [4] and will not be further addressed here.
The steam-distilled essential oils obtained from the aerial parts of peppermint, spearmint, and cornmint are commonly utilized in the production of various food condiments, medicines, mouthwashes, toothpastes, and chewing gums [107]. Among these, commercial menthol and menthone derived from cornmint and peppermint are known as two of the most widely produced and traded herbal remedies around the world. Peppermint possesses cholagogue, spasmolytic, and antidiarrheal properties. In addition to its antimicrobial activity, the fresh and minty flavor, along with its cooling effect, contributes to the creation of a dual-purpose bioactive product. This is why peppermint is extensively used in chewing gums, mouthwashes, and toothpastes [4]. Both peppermint and spearmint are popular choices for herbal infusions, with peppermint ranking among the most widely consumed and favored herbal teas or tisanes. Mint oil has been added to oral care products such as mouthwash, toothpaste, and dental floss due to its effectiveness in eliminating bacteria that cause bad breath and gum disease [108]. Recently, an encapsulated blend of essential oils from four mint species (peppermint, spearmint, bergamot mint, and Japanese mint) was used in oral treatment, leading to a significant reduction in the abundance of several bacterial species associated with periodontal disease and halitosis, including those from the Streptococcus and Actinomyces genera [109].
7.10 Miswak (S. persica L.)
Throughout history, miswak has been employed in various ways, including as sticks, extracts, and toothpaste, owing to its powerful medicinal properties [110]. Some sticks made from the branches of the tree are used as an alternative to the common miswak obtained from its roots. Chewing miswak sticks, often called “timeless toothbrushes,” has been a longstanding practice after meals and has been observed throughout history [61,111]. The intention behind this custom was to thoroughly cleanse the teeth and remove any oral biofilms present in the mouth. By combining toothbrushing with the use of miswak chewing sticks, a randomized crossover trial demonstrated improvements in oral hygiene and gingival health, as evidenced by the quantification of S. mutans and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans [112]. The effectiveness of this plant is attributed to the presence of benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC), a key component that suppresses acid production and hampers the growth of S. mutans and Streptococcus sanguinis bacteria [113,114]. In addition to its antimicrobial properties, BITC has antibiofilm [115] and anti-inflammatory [116] effects. In this plant, other important active compounds include salvadourea, salvadorine, trimethylamine, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, sulfur, fluoride, and chloride [117,118]. Most of these compounds provide antibacterial benefits and enhance gingival health. Tannins create a safeguarding barrier on the enamel to prevent caries, and chloride offers protection against the build-up of calculus [119].
This plant species (S. persica) has been utilized in various forms, such as chewing gum, probiotic spray, dental cement, chewing sticks, toothpaste, mouthwash, dental varnish, essential oils, and extracts [110]. Studies have demonstrated that miswak exhibits several beneficial effects, including its ability to reduce gingivitis, whiten teeth, preserve orthodontic chains, be compatible with oral cells, prevent tooth decay, promote the healing of gum wounds, and prevent plaque buildup [120]. Although toothpastes and mouth rinses typically clean dentine and oral surfaces, it is possible that various parts of the S. persica plant, including its roots, leaves, bark, flowers, and seeds, can provide valuable additional support for dental cleaning and oral hygiene practices. Compared to chlorhexidine and/or placebo mouthwashes, a mouth rinse containing miswak is more effective at reducing plaque and cariogenic bacteria [113]. The extract of S. persica, most commonly in the form of mouthwash, has been extensively studied. To obtain more detailed information, we suggest consulting two recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses that explore the effects of S. persica-extracted mouthwash on its anti-plaque and anti-caries properties [61,113].
7.11 Neem [A. indica A. Juss]
The leaves, bark, and seeds of the neem tree are used for the use of herbal insecticides and medicines due to their insecticidal and medicinal properties [6]. The principal phytochemicals of this plant are terpenoid (azadirachtin, gedunin, and nimbolide) and nonterpenoid (polyphenolics) compounds [121]. The antimicrobial activity of neem against prevalent endodontic pathogens, including Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. mutans, and Staphylococcus aureus, has been well documented [122,123]. Endodontic irrigation solution obtained from neem and 3% sodium hypochlorite solution were comparably effective in eliminating E. faecalis [124]. Moreover, neem twigs are widely used as a source of chewing sticks for dental hygiene by millions of people, particularly in countries where this tree is a native species [6]. This traditional use has rendered the field deeply entrenched in the study of examined A. indica products for improving dental hygiene and treating or preventing oral diseases. Notable research advancements include the proposal that A. indica mouthwashes are effective alternatives to conventional mouthwashes containing chlorhexidine for reducing gingivitis, plaque, and pain in vivo [6,125,126] and against biofilm-forming bacteria (e.g., P. gingivalis, Streptococcus viridans, and S. aureus) as well as S. mutans and C. albicans in vitro or ex vivo [125,127]. Furthermore, the foamability, pH, and organoleptic features of toothpaste containing neem extract were found to be comparable to those of nonherbal toothpaste [123]. Neem is an herbal ingredient in toothbrushes and mouthwashes. Neem provides an effective solution for treating oral ulcers, preventing caries, and functioning as an oral deodorant and pain reliever for teeth [128].
7.12 Oak [Quercus spp. (Fagaceae)]
The medicinal uses of oak bark come from its various biological activities, such as reducing inflammation, fighting against microbes, neutralizing harmful substances, and destroying cells. These properties are attributed to the presence of compounds like tannins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, sterols, and triterpenoids in the bark. The oak species Quercus petraea L. and Quercus robur L. are the primary raw materials for obtaining oak bark. Tannins, which are abundant in oak bark, contribute to its astringent qualities. By forming long-lasting and insoluble compounds with proteins in microorganisms, tannins have bactericidal effects, interfering with bacterial growth and neutralizing toxins [38]. Additionally, oak bark affects capillaries by reducing permeability and controlling small-scale bleeding. Research suggests that an extract of oak bark, specifically Q. infectoria, may be used to combat dental caries and periodontitis because of its ability to kill bacteria like S. mutans, P. gingivalis, and Streptococcus salivarius [129].
7.13 Oregano [O. vulgare L.) (Lamiaceae)]
Oregano, an aromatic herb from the mint family, is one of the most widely traded culinary herbs. Numerous studies have investigated the potential health benefits of oregano, with particular emphasis on its phenolic compounds linked to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties [130]. Thymol (2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol) and carvacrol (5-isopropyl-2-methylphenol) are phenolic monoterpenes and represent the primary bioactive compounds in oregano [123]. Furthermore, oregano includes flavonoids such as apigenin, luteolin, and kaempferol [130]. Oregano extracts have shown potent antibacterial activity against multiple isolates of Enterococcus, Streptococcus, and Lacticaseibacillus [131,132]. A recent study by Yuan et al. [133] evaluated the in vitro antibacterial effectiveness of oregano essential oil against Streptococcus mutans. These findings suggest its potential as an antibacterial agent for preventing dental caries.
7.14 Rosemary [Rosmarinus officinalis L. syn. Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. (Lamiaceae)]
Rosemary has antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, all of which are attributed to its phenolic compound constituents, mainly rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and carnosic acid. Flavonoid-type polyphenols, including apigenin, luteolin, diosmin, and genkwanin (O-methylated flavone), are commonly present in rosemary [134]. It has demonstrated effectiveness against E. coli, Scaphirhynchus albus, S. aureus, and Vibrio cholerae [135]. Günther et al. [136] noted a strong antimicrobial impact of R. officinalis extract against both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria present in initial oral biofilms. The number of colony-forming units (CFUs) following the treatment of initial biofilms with R. officinalis extract was significantly lower than the number of CFUs in untreated biofilms. The dentifrice components included essential oils and extracts of rosemary for the formulation of mouthwashes and toothpastes. These formulations were found to be effective in preventing dental plaque, gingivitis, and bad breath [137].
7.15 Sage [Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae)]
S. officinalis L. is a member of the tribe Mentheae in the mint family and is a popular herb commonly used in kitchens. Salvia belongs to the same botanical tribe as mint (Mentha), rosemary (Rosmarinus), thyme (Thymus), basil (Ocimum), oregano (Origanum), balm (Monarda), savory (Satureja), balm (Melissa), and catnip (Nepeta) [138]. Hence, it is not surprising that they share comparable ethnomedicinal features, including their closely related bioactive constituents. Since ancient times, sage has been recognized and utilized as both a culinary and medicinal herb. Its name stems from the Latin word salveo, meaning “to be healthy.” Sage phytoconstituents comprise polyphenols such as flavonoids and tannins, as well as terpenes/terpenoids. Beneficial compounds such as α- and β-thujones, 1,8-cineol, and camphor are found as primary components of the essential oil of sage [139].
Salvia extracts and infusions possess a range of beneficial properties, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, astringent, antimycosal, antihidrotic, and antilactative effects [140]. Sage infusions are commonly used to rinse the oral cavity and throat in cases of inflammation, including purulent diseases. In cases of oral disorders such as inflammatory diseases, sage leaves are frequently employed for their anti-inflammatory properties, although the effectiveness of these treatments may vary among randomized controlled trials [141,142,143].
7.16 Stevia [Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni (Asteraceae)]
Steviol glycosides are extracted from the leaves of stevia and used as substitutes for caloric sweeteners in beverages and foods. It exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and antihypertensive properties [144]. The bioactive compounds present in the leaf extracts of stevia can be categorized into glycosides, alkaloids, polyphenols (i.e., flavonoids and tannins), saponins, quinones, and terpenoids. In addition, stevia leaf residue extract is a polyphenol-rich composition obtained from byproducts and includes caffeic acid, 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3,4-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 4,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside, and quercetin [145].
A healthy substitute for sucrose is an important step to prevent not only adverse outcomes of impaired insulin function but also dental caries. Stevia extracts showed antibacterial activity – more relevant to our current focus on dentistry – against bacteria (S. mutans, Streptococcus mitis, S. salivarius, Streptococcus rattus, Streptococcus cricetus, S. sobrinus, L. acidophilus, L. plantarum, Lacticaseibacillus casei, and Lactobacillus brevis) involved in dental caries [146]. In another in vitro study, extracts of stevia leaf showed protective actions against causing agents of dental caries including E. coli, S. mutans, Bacillus subtilis, S. aureus, and Curvularia lunata [147]. Moreover, daily consumption of snacks containing stevia in comparison to sugar-based snacks for caries-related variables in 271 elementary school children (aged 6–9) resulted in reduced plaque acidogenicity and cariogenic microflora, thus reducing the risk of further development of caries [148]. There has been a growing interest in the antimicrobial and anti-plaque activity of stevia mouthrinse and chewing gums [149]. Mouthrinse containing 0.5% stevia extract improved salivary pH and buffering capacity in patients at high risk of caries [150].
7.17 Thyme (Thymus spp.)
Thymol and carvacrol, phenolic monoterpenes, are among the most important aromatic components of thyme. Carvacrol, an isomer of thymol, is a compound commonly found in the essential oils of the Mentheae tribe, including the two genera Thymus and Mentha [4,64,107,151]. The phytochemicals and antimicrobial properties of thyme (Thymus spp.) have recently been described by Soleimani et al. [4] and are not discussed further here. The antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials of thyme are strictly linked to phenolic compounds. The same reasons could explain the strong disinfecting and analgesic properties of thyme. In a recent study, it was reported that thyme-containing mouthwash is effective in reducing bad breath and gingivitis in gingivitis patients [152]. Thymol, a major bioactive component of thyme, precipitates in the form of blank crystals with a strong thyme smell. It can be used in 1–10% alcohol solutions to disinfect root canals for the treatment of pulp necrosis [67]. In addition to the above-mentioned applications, thyme essential oils are used for the production of dental and oral care products, such as hygiene products, as flavor-enhancing agents in toothpaste, chewing gums, and pharmaceuticals [4].
7.18 Turmeric [Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae)]
The main component of the turmeric rhizome is a polyphenolic yellow pigment known as curcumin (diferuloylmethane). Curcumin is the most abundant phytoconstituent (75% of the extract), followed by dimethoxy-curcumin and bisdemethoxy-curcumin, all of which constitute 3–5% of the rhizome dry weight [153]. Turmeric is mainly used in food and has a variety of therapeutic applications for the treatment of various disorders, including dental and oral disorders. The potential therapeutic benefits of turmeric (curcumin) are broadly categorized as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, antiarthritic, hypoglycemic, or thrombosuppressive [154]. In dentistry, the therapeutic benefits of curcumin-based formulations have been revealed for various oral conditions. Studies have shown that curcumin gel can be used for treating premalignant oral disorders (oral leukoplakia) [155] and minor recurrent aphthous stomatitis [156]. The antimicrobial effect of curcumin on root canals [157] and its anti-inflammatory and antiplaque effects on gingivitis management [158] have been demonstrated. This article suggests four areas for further research to advance the understanding of the therapeutic applications of curcumin for the treatment of dental and oral disorders: the management of chronic periodontitis [159], azole-resistant oral candidiasis [160], periodontal pockets [161], and oral cavity lesions [162].
7.19 Tulsi [Ocimum tenuiflorum L. or Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae)]
Tulsi, commonly referred to as “holy basil,” is a fragrant plant that possesses various therapeutic abilities. The bioactive compounds in the leaves and seeds of tulsi are categorized in order of importance as polyphenols (i.e., flavonoids and tannins), terpenes, glycosides, and steroids. Eugenol, methyl-eugenol, carvacrol, linalool, limatrol, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, rosmrinic acid, ursolic acid, α- and β-pinenes, sterol, and caryophyllene are the main constituents of tulsi essential oil [163,164]. Each of these constituents displays a vast array of therapeutic benefits and contributes to the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant qualities of this plant. Pai et al. [164] documented the antibacterial effects of tulsi against S. mutans, Streptococcus sanguis, S. mitis, and L. acidophilus. In another study, the antibacterial activity of tulsi extracts was observed against P. gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, and A. actinomycetemcomitans, with different inhibition zones [165].
The anti-inflammatory agents of O. sanctum aid in reducing gingival inflammation, a common feature of periodontal diseases. Tulsi extracts have been tested as mouthwash, toothpaste, and gel formulations. Due to its antimicrobial properties comparable to those of chlorhexidine, it may be recommended as a viable alternative for patients who are unable to utilize chlorhexidine [166]. A separate study assessed the effectiveness of mouthwashes containing tulsi and chlorhexidine, determining that both options equally reduce gingivitis and plaque, as measured by the plaque index, and reduce gingival bleeding and inflammation [167]. Therefore, tulsi has exceptional qualities that make it an effective long-lasting mouth freshener and oral disinfectant capable of eliminating bacteria responsible for dental caries, plaque, and calculus, ultimately safeguarding dental health.
7.20 Yarrow [Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae)]
Yarrow has traditionally been used to treat patients with ulcers and hemorrhages and to improve blood clotting. Preclinical studies have shown that it may have antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, and anxiolytic properties [168,169]. The presence of polyphenols (including flavonoids and tannins) and terpene compounds in A. millefolium is responsible for its diverse pharmacological properties. The important components of yarrow include luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, benzoic acid, cineole, spathulenol, borneol, pinene, germacrene, cis-carveol, camphor, azulen, achillin, and leucosis [168,170]. Hence, polyphenols, including flavonoids, phenol carbonic acids, and tannins, are the most pharmacologically important groups of bioactive compounds in yarrow. It is utilized as a mouthwash to aid in healing for mouth cuts resulting from surgery, toothaches, dental cleanings, and braces [171]. Persica, a trademark mouthwash from Iran, contains herbal ingredients such as miswak, mint, and yarrow.
7.21 Frankincense (olibanum) Boswellia sacra Flück (Burseraceae)
The B. sacra Flück tree, called Frankincense or olibanum, contains essential oil constituents that primarily include pentacyclic triterpenoid and various α- and β-boswellic acid derivatives. These derivatives include β-boswellic acid, acetyl-β-boswellic acid, 11-ketoβ-boswellic acid, acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic acid (AKBA), acetyl-α-boswellic acid, and α-boswellic acid [172]. AKBA biological properties include antioxidant, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, anti-infective, neuroprotective, and anti-tumor effects [172]. Consistent with this notion, AKBA’s ability to regulate several signaling pathways, such as Nrf2/HO-1, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and NFκB, has been demonstrated [173,174,175]. This may have implications in approaching neurodegenerative disease therapeutics, such as incensole acetate, the main component of Frankincense, along with AKBA. Chronically administered Frankincense compounds enhanced short-term memory in an AD rat model induced with streptozotocin. AKBA also proves to be significantly effective in conferring neuroprotection to substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons after neurointoxication with 6-OHDA, a rat model of PD [176]. Searching to understand the molecular mechanism of action of active components of Boswellia, a recent study from our laboratory investigated B. sacra Gum Resin effect on neuroinflammatory damage post-traumatic brain injury, where administration of 500 mg/kg resulted in significant protection against lipid peroxidation, antioxidant imbalance, cytokines release and autophagic flux alteration induced by TBI [177].
Both the essential oils and the isolated boswellic acid of Boswellia exhibit antimicrobial properties. Out of the four major β-boswellic acids, AKBA has reliably shown the strongest antibacterial effects [178]. Therefore, it makes sense to include frankincense and its derivative boswellic acids in mouthwashes and toothpaste. Frankincense oil, known for its antimicrobial properties, is used as a mouthwash solution because the essential oil, derived from the resin of the Boswellia tree, is effective in inhibiting pathogenic oral bacteria, specifically, P. gingivalis, S. mutans, and Fusobacterium nucleatum [172].
7.22 Medical mushrooms
Mushrooms have been used in traditional medicine for thousands of years, owing to their content of phenolic compounds (caffeic acid, gallic acid, cinnamic acid, melatonin, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid, protocatechuic acid) and other antioxidant molecules, such as ergothioneine and glutathione [179]. Mushrooms are not only rich sources of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants but also contain fiber, essential amino acids, and polysaccharides. Several mushroom species, such as Hericium erinaceus, Coriolus versicolor (syn. Trametes versicolor, Polyporus versicolor), Lentinula edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, Agaricus bisporus, Grifola frondosa, Polyporus umbellatus, Phellinus linteus, and Pleurotus ostreatus, are known for their medicinal properties and a variety of applications. Medicinal mushrooms stand as a rich source of phytochemical constituents with potent benefits for oral and general health.
H. erinaceus (Bull.) Pers. (HE) contains erinacines, which cross the blood-brain barrier, and hence may exert neuroprotective functions [180]. In mouse models of AD, HE induces decreased deposition of Aβ and reduces the levels of reactive astrocytes and microglia [181]. HE increased the production of nerve growth factor (NGF) which inhibited the enzymes choline acetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase responsible for cholinergic neuron dysfunction in AD [182]. HE also suppressed apoptosis in pheochromocytoma 12 cells by inhibiting oxidative stress induced by the neurotoxin di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane potential. This cytoprotective effect is thought to be due to its ability to reduce intracellular levels of ROS, maintain respiratory complex activity, and stabilize mitochondrial membrane potential [183]. Furthermore, HE modulates the BDNF/TrkB/PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β pathway and induces antidepressant-like effects in a mouse model of anxiety and sleep disturbance. Amycenone® and HE extract derived from the fruiting body, showed antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in an open field test, tail suspension test, and forced swimming in an animal model of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation-related depression [184].
In addition to diterpenoids like erinacines, HE contains other major bioactive compounds such as erinacerins, erinaceolactones, hericerins, sterols, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides [185]. Consequently, the key phytochemicals in HE are categorized into terpenoids, polyphenols, cerebrosides, and sterols. A food-grade laccase from HE incorporated into mouthwash effectively inhibited S. mutans, S. aureus, and C. albicans, with lower cytotoxicity than chlorhexidine mouthwash on human gingival fibroblasts. The antifungal effects of HE also have also been demonstrated. For example, 2-chloro-1,3-dimethoxy-5-methyl benzene, a derivative isolated from the mycelia of Hericium spp. is effective against C. albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans [186]. The laccase mouthwash also demonstrated significant tooth-whitening effects compared to the control, suggesting it could be a safe, natural alternative to chemical mouthwashes [187]. As with HE, C. versicolor (L.) Quél. (CV) is also a well-known medicinal mushroom that has been shown to increase levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase along with the reduction of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β; the modulation of these parameters was associated with the improvement in spatial memory in AD model mouse [188]. In addition, repeated administration of CV biomass preparations was found to upregulate lipoxin A4 (LXA4) in cortical and hippocampal regions of the rat brain, resulting in increased levels of Hsp72, heme oxygenase-1, thioredoxin, and others [189]. LXA4 is a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative damage in the hypothesis that neurodegenerative diseases are caused by oxidative stress-induced neuroinflammation. In patients with Meniere’s disease, a disease characterized by oxidative stress, CV biomass showed a reduction of oxidative stress markers (protein carbonyls, hydroxynonenals, and F2-isoprostanes) in peripheral blood and an up-regulation of lymphocyte vitagine (HO-1, Hsp70, Trx, sirtuin-1, γ-glutamate–cysteine lyase), indicating a response against the pro-oxidant state in cells [190]. In addition, CV biomass caused increased β-catenin levels in the nucleus and cytoplasm in the mouse hippocampus and a significant increase in the volume, length, and branching of dendrites of immature hippocampal neurons, suggesting that it may stimulate neurogenesis [191]. The results illustrated above demonstrate HE and CV are endowed with multiple neuroprotective properties, which might counteract some molecular mechanisms underlying AD pathophysiology. A recent study suggested the role of HE mycelium in promoting oligodendrocytes (OLs) differentiation and production of myelin basic protein in vitro and in vivo. Erinacin A and erinacin S, which are found in HE mycelia and cross the brain barrier, induce maturation and myelination of dilated glial cells, and promote action potential propagation [192]. Since OL maturation, myelination, and brain connectivity were reported to be impaired in AD [193], future studies should evaluate the potential of HE to regulate such pathological mechanisms in AD. In addition, HE mycelia rich in erinacin A have been reported to enhance NGF activity and promote neurite outgrowth [194]. This is an important process in neurogenesis and is known to be impaired by environmental and genetic risk factors associated with AD. As mentioned above, CV improved the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and dendrite formation which is known to impair AD [195,196]. Thus, supplementation with HE and CV may induce beneficial synergistic effects on brain development and neurodevelopment. Finally, these mushrooms may promote resilience during brain development by increasing redox potential through neurohormesis mechanisms such as the upward regulation of vitagenes, represented by Nrf2 [194,197]. CV is a strong candidate for oral health care drugs and products because it is a rich source of bioactive ingredients. The CV extracts showed antimicrobial activities against S. aureus, Streptococcus mutans, S. sanguinis, S. sobrinus, Streptococcus ratti, S. criceti, A. actinomycetemcomitans, Actinomyces israeli, and Actinomyces viscosus. Therefore, CV could be used as a natural oral antimicrobial source against oral pathogens [198].
Lentinus edodes (Berk.), commonly known as Shiitake, is an edible mushroom renowned for its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-plaque properties [199]. L. edodes (shiitake mushroom) is the second most important fungus, following A. bisporus (button mushroom), in global production. From the oral health point of view, L. edodes extracts showed anti-caries and anti-gingivitis effects, as well as the decline of oral biofilm formation [200]. Comparing Shiitake mushroom mouthwash with chlorhexidine, the gold standard for treating moderate to severe gingivitis, reveals that while chlorhexidine remains superior, Shiitake mushroom mouthwash also demonstrates promising anti-inflammatory and anti-plaque effects [199]. A low molecular mass (LMM) fraction from an aqueous shiitake mushroom extract (L. edodes) has demonstrated antiadhesive, antimicrobial, and antiplaque activities in vitro against various oral pathogens. This LMM fraction was incorporated into a mouthrinse and tested on 30 young volunteers, yielding promising results compared to two control groups: placebo and Listerine [201].
G. lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst, called Reishi mushroom, is one of the most famous ancient medicinal mushrooms. G. lucidum contains a range of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, triterpenoids, and polysaccharides. It is known for its potential health benefits, including the anti-tumor effects by inducing apoptosis, enhancement of immune cell activity, interfering with key cancer cell signaling pathways, and inhibiting angiogenesis [202]. The antimicrobial properties of G. lucidum have been demonstrated against bacteria and fungi relevant to oral health [203].
A. bisporus JE Lange, called button mushroom, is the most widely planted and consumed mushroom globally. Additionally, this mushroom has been related to various health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant attributes, as well as potential support for the immune system. The ethanol extracts of both A. bisporus and L. edodes have demonstrated comparable antibacterial activity against S. aureus, Acinetobacter baumannii, E. faecalis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae [204].
G. frondosa (Dicks.) Gray, commonly known as the maitake mushroom, is an edible, nutritional, and medicinal fungus. The complex chemical composition of G. frondosa is attributed to its diverse bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, ergosterol, β-D-glucans, dextrin, oligofructose, lactulose, various phenolic compounds, and triterpenes, all of which contribute to its health benefits [205]. The various polysaccharide fractions extracted from G. frondosa exhibit diverse bioactive properties. β-Glucans isolated from maitake demonstrate anti-inflammatory activity induced by lipopolysaccharide in the macrophage cell line RAW264.7, mediated through interaction with toll-like receptor 2 rather than with dectin-1 or complement receptor 3 [206].
The species Polyporus, Phellinus, and Pleurotus are significant sources of therapeutic substances, demonstrating important anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. Overall, various metabolites from these mushrooms, such as polysaccharides, lipopolysaccharides, glycoproteins, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds, have been identified as effective agents for enhancing the immune system.
To summarize and answer the inquiry what are the oral health benefits of the major and most important phytochemicals? Polyphenols and terpenes offer diverse oral health benefits, including antimicrobial action to combat pathogens like S. mutans, antioxidant protection against oxidative stress, and anti-inflammatory effects to reduce gum disease. They also support wound healing, regulate cell signaling pathways and exhibit anticancer and anticariogenic attributes. Together, these compounds help prevent oral diseases, promote tissue repair, and maintain a balanced oral microbiome. It is noteworthy that, beyond their health-promoting effects, certain terpenoids serve as precursors to essential vitamins, such as β-carotene (vitamin A), tocopherols (vitamin E), and ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) [207]. Therefore, the application of polyphenols and terpenes compounds in everyday human life and oral health is widely used in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, food, and beverage products.
8 Conclusions and future perspectives
There is a growing interest in the utilization of herbal products in alternative medicine as a means to prevent and treat oral and dental issues. However, recent attention has shifted toward the question of whether medicinal plants, including fresh parts, dried parts, extracts, and essential oils, might play a pivotal role in promoting optimal oral health. This review has endeavored to bridge this knowledge gap by consolidating evidence on the potential benefits of herbal polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids in maintaining oral health. In addition, this review offers a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in the field, encompassing the pharmacological properties of these key phytochemicals, their mode of action, and their efficacy in the prevention and treatment of oral and dental diseases and conditions. Among the herbs discussed, miswak, neem, clove, peppermint, and tulsi have emerged as particularly promising options for promoting oral health. They exhibit mouth-freshening properties, act as natural disinfectants, and display antibacterial effects that can aid in the prevention of dental caries, plaque buildup, and calculus. In summary, this review underscores the potential of herbal polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids as valuable allies for improving oral health. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge in the field, offering insights into the therapeutic potential of these natural compounds in maintaining healthy teeth and oral cavities.
Further research is imperative to validate these promising findings, especially through ongoing human trials. The potential health advantages of herbs and spices have not received extensive scrutiny, leading to a lack of consistency and comparability among existing research. This variability poses challenges in developing standardized clinical protocols. To address issues of safety, appropriate dosage, bioavailability, and efficacy of herbs and spices, it is essential to conduct clinical studies employing placebo controls. One unresolved question in this field pertains to the feasibility of formulating a blend of various herbs into an effective dental healthcare remedy. In the current age of increasing antibiotic resistance, there is substantial potential for in-depth investigations into the antimicrobial properties and activities of herbal plants.
Abbreviations
- ATP
-
adenosine triphosphate
- CTs
-
condensed tannins
- E4P
-
d-erythrose-4-phosphate
- DAHP
-
3-deoxy-d-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate
- PALs
-
phenylalanine ammonia-lyases
- PEP
-
phosphoenolpyruvic acid
- ρHCA
-
ρ-hydroxycinnamic acid
- PACs
-
proanthocyanidins
- RNS
-
reactive nitrogen species
- ROS
-
reactive oxygen species
- TALs
-
tyrosine ammonia-lyases
-
Funding information: This study was supported by grants from “Piano di incentivi per la Ricerca, Linea Intervento 2 PIACERI, 2022–2024”, University of Catania, Italy, and PRIN 2022FWB4EX, Italian MUR.
-
Author contributions: V.A. and M.S. – conceptualization, writing of the original draft, investigation, review, and editing; A.A., T.F., U.J., and V.C. – writing, reviewing, editing, and supervision. All authors listed have made substantial, direct, and intellectual contributions to the work and have approved it for publication. All the data were generated in-house, and no paper mill was used. All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work, ensuring its integrity and accuracy.
-
Conflict of interest: Vittorio Calabrese serves as Editor-in-Chief of Open Medicine; however, this role did not influence the peer review process. The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
-
Data availability statement: Data sharing does not apply to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
References
[1] Peres MA, Macpherson LMD, Weyant RJ, Daly B, Venturelli R, Mathur MR, et al. Oral diseases: A global public health challenge. Lancet. 2019;394:249–60.10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31146-8Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[2] Glick M, Williams DM, Kleinman DV, Vujicic M, Watt RG, Weyant RJA. New definition for oral health developed by the FDI world dental federation opens the door to a universal definition of oral health. J Am Dent Assoc. 2016;147:915–7.10.1016/j.adaj.2016.10.001Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[3] Samaranayake L, Matsubara VH. Normal oral flora and the oral ecosystem. Dent Clin North Am. 2017;61(2):199–215. 10.1016/j.cden.2016.11.002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[4] Soleimani M, Arzani A, Arzani V, Roberts TH. Phenolic compounds and antimicrobial properties of mint and thyme (Lamiaceae, tribe Mentheae). J Herb Med. 2022;36:100604. 10.1016/j.hermed.2022.100604.Search in Google Scholar
[5] CDC. Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States. 2019; Available online at: www.cdc.gov/DrugResistance/Biggest-Threats.html.Search in Google Scholar
[6] Wylie MR, Merrell DS. The antimicrobial potential of the neem tree Azadirachta indica. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:891535.10.3389/fphar.2022.891535Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[7] Brooks L, Narvekar U, McDonald A, Mullany P. Prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes in the oral cavity and mobile genetic elements that disseminate antimicrobial resistance: A systematic review. Mol Oral Microbiol. 2022;37:133–53. 10.1111/omi.12375.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[8] Singh S, Singh SK, Chowdhury I, Singh R. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilms resistance to antimicrobial agents. Open Microbiol J. 2017;11:53–62.10.2174/1874285801711010053Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[9] Marchese A, Barbieri R, Coppo E, Orhan IE, Daglia M, Nabavi SF, et al. Antimicrobial activity of eugenol and essential oils containing eugenol: a mechanistic viewpoint. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2017;43(6):668–89.10.1080/1040841X.2017.1295225Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[10] Kernou ON, Azzouz Z, Madani K, Rijo P. Application of rosmarinic acid with its derivatives in the treatment of microbial pathogens. Molecules. 2023;28(10):4243. 10.3390/molecules28104243.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[11] Philip N, Walsh LJ. Cranberry polyphenols: Natural weapons against dental caries. Dent J. 2019;7:20.10.3390/dj7010020Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[12] Kiani R, Arzani A, Mirmohammady Maibody SAM. Polyphenols, flavonoids and antioxidant activity involved in salt tolerance in wheat, Aegilops cylindrica and their amphidiploids. Front Plant Sci. 2021;12:646221. 10.3389/fpls.2021.646221.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[13] Zhou F, Pichersky E. More is better: The diversity of terpene metabolism in plants. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2020;55:1–10.10.1016/j.pbi.2020.01.005Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[14] Li W, Chen H, Xu B, Wang Y, Zhang C, Cao Y, et al. Research progress on classification, sources and functions of dietary polyphenols for prevention and treatment of chronic diseases. J Future Foods. 2023;3(4):289–305.10.1016/j.jfutfo.2023.03.001Search in Google Scholar
[15] Mohammadinejad R, Shavandi A, Raie DS, Sangeetha J, Soleimani M, Shokrian Hajibehzad S, et al. Plant molecular farming: Production of metallic nanoparticles and therapeutic proteins using green factories. Green Chem. 2019;21:1845–65.10.1039/C9GC00335ESearch in Google Scholar
[16] Lipsky MS, Singh T, Zakeri G, Hung M. Oral health and older adults: A narrative review. Dent J. 2024;12(2):30.10.3390/dj12020030Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[17] Tendulkar M, Tendulkar R. Relation of the microflora of oral cavity and gallbladder. In: Sharma R, Rani S, Ram Prasad S, editors. Gallstone formation, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. New York: Academic Press; 2024. p. 83–106.10.1016/B978-0-443-16098-1.00011-4Search in Google Scholar
[18] Sulijaya B, Takahashi N, Yamazaki K. Host modulation therapy using anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents in periodontitis: A review to a clinical translation. Arch Oral Biol. 2019;105:72–80.10.1016/j.archoralbio.2019.07.002Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[19] Spatafora G, Li Y, He X, Cowan A, Tanner ACR. The evolving microbiome of dental caries. Microorganisms. 2024;12:121. 10.3390/microorganisms12010121.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[20] Soro AS, Lamont RJ, Egland PG, Koo H, Liu Y. Dental caries. In: Tang YW, Hindiyeh MY, Liu D, Sails A, Spearman P, Zhang JR, editors. Molecular medical microbiology. 3rd edn. New York: Academic Press; 2024. p. 915–30.10.1016/B978-0-12-818619-0.00036-8Search in Google Scholar
[21] O’Malley L, Bonetti DL, Adair P, Jervøe-Storm PM, Preshaw PM. Psychological interventions for improving adherence to oral hygiene instructions in adults with periodontal diseases. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;1:Art. No.: CD012049. 10.1002/14651858.CD012049.Search in Google Scholar
[22] Poisson P, Laffond T, Campos S, Dupuis V, Bourdel-Marchasson I. Relationships between oral health, dysphagia and undernutrition in hospitalised elderly patients. Gerodontology. 2016;33:161–8.10.1111/ger.12123Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[23] Scott MB, Styring AK, McCullagh JSO. Polyphenols: bioavailability, microbiome interactions and cellular effects on health in humans and animals. Pathogens. 2022;11:770. 10.3390/pathogens11070770.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[24] Guo Y, Li Z, Chen F, Chai Y. Polyphenols in oral health: homeostasis maintenance, disease prevention, and therapeutic applications. Nutrients. 2023;15:4384. 10.3390/nu15204384.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[25] Di Sotto A, Di Giacomo S. Plant polyphenols and human health: Novel findings for future therapeutic developments. Nutrients. 2023;15:3764. 10.3390/nu15173764.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[26] Luca SV, Macovei I, Bujor A, Miron A, Skalicka-Woźniak K, Aprotosoaie AC, et al. Bioactivity of dietary polyphenols: The role of metabolites. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2020;60(4):626–59.10.1080/10408398.2018.1546669Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[27] Harborne JB. Methods in plant biochemistry. Volume 1. Plant phenolics. London: Academic Press; 1989.10.1016/B978-0-12-461011-8.50007-XSearch in Google Scholar
[28] Williamson G. Possible effects of dietary polyphenols on sugar absorption and digestion. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2013;57:48–57.10.1002/mnfr.201200511Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[29] Vermerris W, Nicholson R. Families of phenolic compounds and means of classification. In Phenolic compound biochemistry. Berlin: Springer; 2008. 10.1007/978-1-4020-5164-7_1.Search in Google Scholar
[30] Panche AN, Diwan AD, Chandra SR. Flavonoids: An overview. J Nutr Sci. 2016;5:e47.10.1017/jns.2016.41Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[31] Tsao R. Chemistry and biochemistry of dietary polyphenols. Nutrients. 2010;2:1231–46.10.3390/nu2121231Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[32] Gervasi T, Calderaro A, Barreca D, Tellone E, Trombetta D, Ficarra S, et al. Biotechnological applications and health-promoting properties of flavonols: An updated view. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(3):1710.10.3390/ijms23031710Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[33] Erdman Jr JW, Balentine D, Arab L, Beecher G, Dwyer JT, Folts J, et al. Flavonoids and heart health. J Nutr. 2007;137:718S–37S.10.1093/jn/137.3.718SSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
[34] Aisling Aherne S, O’Brien NM. Dietary flavonols: Chemistry, food content, and metabolism. Nutrition. 2002;18:75–81.10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00695-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[35] McDougall GJ. Phenolic-enriched foods: Sources and processing for enhanced health benefits. Proc Nutr Soc. 2017;76(2):163–71. 10.1017/S0029665116000835.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[36] Shahidi F, Hossain A. Importance of insoluble-bound phenolics to the antioxidant potential is dictated by source material. Antioxidants. 2023;12(1):203. 10.3390/antiox12010203.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[37] Erb M, Kliebenstein DJ. Plant secondary metabolites as defenses, regulators, and primary metabolites: The blurred functional trichotomy. Plant Physiol. 2020;184(1):39–52.10.1104/pp.20.00433Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[38] Pizzi A. Tannins medical/pharmacological and related applications: A critical review. Sustain Chem Pharm. 2021;22:100481.10.1016/j.scp.2021.100481Search in Google Scholar
[39] de Melo LFM, Martins VG, da Silva AP, de Oliveira Rocha HA, Scortecci KC. Biological and pharmacological aspects of tannins and potential biotechnological applications. Food Chem. 2023;414:135645. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135645.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[40] Gibbins HL, Carpenter GH. Alternative mechanisms of astringency - What is the role of Saliva? J Texture Stud. 2013;44(5):364–75.10.1111/jtxs.12022Search in Google Scholar
[41] Wei F, Wang J, Luo L, Rashid MT, Zeng L. The perception and influencing factors of astringency, and health-promoting effects associated with phytochemicals: A comprehensive review. Food Res Int. 2023;170:112994.10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112994Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[42] Breitmaier E. Terpenes: Flavors, fragrances, pharmaca, pheromones. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2016.Search in Google Scholar
[43] Perveen S. Introductory chapter: Terpenes and terpenoids. In: Perveen S, Al-Taweel A, Blumenberg M, editors. Terpenes and terpenoids -recent advances. London: IntechOpen; 2021.10.5772/intechopen.98261Search in Google Scholar
[44] Guimaraes AC, Meireles LM, Lemos MF, Guimaraes MC, Endringer DC, Fronza M, et al. Antibacterial activity of terpenes and terpenoids present in essential oils. Molecules. 2019;24(13):2471. 10.3390/molecules24132471.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[45] Petti S, Scully C. Polyphenols, oral health and disease: A review. J Dent. 2009;37(6):413–23.10.1016/j.jdent.2009.02.003Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[46] Lang Y, Gao N, Zang Z, Meng X, Lin Y, Yang S, et al. Classification and antioxidant assays of polyphenols: A review. J Future Foods. 2024;4(3):193–204.10.1016/j.jfutfo.2023.07.002Search in Google Scholar
[47] Kharouf N, Haikel Y, Ball V. Polyphenols in dental applications. Bioengineering. 2020;7:72.10.3390/bioengineering7030072Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[48] Naureen Z, Medori MC, Dhuli K, Donato K, Connelly ST, Bellinato F, et al. Polyphenols and Lactobacillus reuteri in oral health. J Prev Med Hyg. 2022;63(suppl 3):E246–54. 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2022.63.2S3.2767.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[49] Brand-Williams W, Cuvelier ME, Berset CL. Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Sci Technol. 1995;28(1):25–30.10.1016/S0023-6438(95)80008-5Search in Google Scholar
[50] Khokhar S, Owusu Apenten RK. Iron Binding Characteristics of phenolic compounds: some tentative structure–activity relations. Food Chem. 2003;81:133–40.10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00394-1Search in Google Scholar
[51] Min K, Glowacki AJ, Bosma ML, McGuire JA, Tian S, McAdoo K, et al. quantitative analysis of the effects of essential oil mouthrinses on clinical plaque microbiome: A parallel-group, randomized trial. BMC Oral Health. 2024;24(1):578.10.1186/s12903-024-04365-9Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[52] Schönbächler N, Thurnheer T, Paqué PN, Attin T, Karygianni L. In vitro versus in situ biofilms for evaluating the antimicrobial effectiveness of herbal mouthrinses. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2023;13:1130255.10.3389/fcimb.2023.1130255Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[53] Gultz J, Kaim JM, De Leo J, Scherer W. An in vivo comparison of antimicrobial activities of tyree mouthrinses. J Clin Dent. 1998;9(2):43–5.Search in Google Scholar
[54] Sharma K, Acharya S, Verma E, Singhal D, Singla N. Efficacy of chlorhexidine, hydrogen peroxide and tulsi extract mouthwash in reducing halitosis using spectrophotometric analysis: A randomized controlled trial. J Clin Exp Dent. 2019;11(5):e457–63. 10.4317/jced.55523.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[55] Hasan A, Palmer RM. A clinical guide to periodontology: Pathology of periodontal disease. Br Dent J. 2014;216:457–61.10.1038/sj.bdj.2014.299Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[56] Saxer UP, Menghini G, Bohnert KJ, Ley F. The effect of two toothpastes on plaque and gingival inflammation. J Clin Dent. 1995;6(2):154–65.Search in Google Scholar
[57] Estafan D, Gultz J, Kaim JM, Khaghany K, Scherer W. Clinical Efficiency of a Herbal Toothpaste. J Clin Dent. 1998;9(2):31–3.Search in Google Scholar
[58] Mohankumar KP, Priya NK, Madhushankari GS. Anti cariogenic efficacy of herbal and conventional tooth pastes-a comparative in vitro study. J Int Oral Health. 2013;5:8–13.Search in Google Scholar
[59] Kengadaran S, Divvi A, Kumar PR, Gopinath P, Arumugham MI, Sakthi SD. Antimicrobial efficacy of herbal, homeopathic and conventional dentifrices against oral microflora: An in vitro study. Popul Med. 2020;2:14.10.18332/popmed/122529Search in Google Scholar
[60] Chandakavathe BN, Kulkarni RG, Dhadde SB. Formulation and assessment of in vitro antimicrobial activity of herbal toothpaste. Proc Natl Acad Sci, India, Sect B Biol Sci. 2023;93:317–23.10.1007/s40011-022-01424-5Search in Google Scholar
[61] Adam FA, Mohd N, Rani H, Yusof MY, Baharin B. Salvadora persica L.: An effective anti-plaque and anti-gingivitis toothpaste: A systematic review & meta-analysis of randomized control clinical trials. J Herb Med. 2023;40:100677. 10.1016/j.hermed.2023.100677.Search in Google Scholar
[62] Jayashankar S, Panagoda GJ, Amaratunga EAPD, Perera K, Rajapakse PSA. Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled study on the effects of a herbal toothpaste on gingival bleeding, oral hygiene and microbial variables. Ceylon Med J. 2011;56:5–9.10.4038/cmj.v56i1.2887Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[63] Karadaglıoglu OI, Ulusoy N, Baser KHC, Hanoglu A, Sık I. antibacterial activities of herbal toothpastes combined with essential oils against Streptococcus mutans. Pathogens. 2019;8(1):20. 10.3390/pathogens8010020.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[64] Tohidi B, Rahimmalek M, Arzani A. Essential Oil Composition, total phenolic, flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activity of Thymus species collected from different regions of Iran. Food Chem. 2017;220:153–61.10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.09.203Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[65] Besra M, Kumar V. In vitro investigation of antimicrobial activities of ethnomedicinal plants against dental caries pathogens. 3 Biotech. 2018;8:257. 10.1007/s13205-018-1283-2.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[66] Al-Somaiday HM, Al-Samaray ME, Al-Samydai A. Role of herbal medicine in oral and dental health: ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants in Iraq/Baghdad. Int J Res Pharm Sci. 2020;11(1):1–8.10.37506/v11/i1/2020/ijphrd/194105Search in Google Scholar
[67] Szyszkowska AN, Koper JO, Szczerba J, Pulawska M, Zajdel DO. The use of medicinal plants in dental treatment. Herba Pol. 2010;56(1):97–107.Search in Google Scholar
[68] Egbuna C, Gupta E, Ezzat SM, Jeevanandam J, Mishra J, Akram M, et al. Aloe species as valuable sources of Functional Bioactives. In: Egbuna C, Dable Tupas G, editors. Functional foods and nutraceuticals. New York: Springer; 2020. 10.1007/978-3-030-42319-3_18.Search in Google Scholar
[69] Namiranian H, Serino G. The effect of a toothpaste containing Aloe vera on established gingivitis. Swed Dent J. 2012;36(4):179–85.Search in Google Scholar
[70] Korkmaz F, Ozel M, Tuzuner T, Korkmaz B, Yayli N. Antimicrobial activity and volatile constituent analysis of three commercial herbal toothpastes containing Aloe vera L. and Fragaria vesca L. extracts. Niger J Clin Pract. 2019;22:718. 10.4103/njcp.njcp_557_18.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[71] Vaidya AU, Khorate MM, Chinam N, Figueiredo N. Comparative efficacy of Aloe vera and clobetasol propionate in the management of oral lichen planus: a randomized parallel clinical trial. Front Dent. 2023;20:4.10.18502/fid.v20i4.12358Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[72] Chandrahas B, Jayakumar A, Butchibabu ANK, Reddy P. A randomized, double blind clinical study to assess the antiplaque and antigingivitis efficacy of Aloe vera mouth rinse. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2012;16:543–8.10.4103/0972-124X.106905Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[73] Clauser M, Aiello N, Scartezzini F, Innocent G, Dall’Acqua S. Differences in the chemical composition of Arnica montana flowers from wild populations of North Italy. Nat Prod Commun. 2014;9(1):3–6. 10.1177/1934578X1400900102.Search in Google Scholar
[74] Sugier D, Olesińska K, Sugier P, Wójcik M. Chemical composition of essential oil from flower heads of Arnica Chamissonis Less. under a nitrogen impact. Molecules. 2019;24(24):4454. 10.3390/molecules24244454.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[75] Schonknecht K, Surdacka A, Rudenko L. Effectiveness of composed herbal extract in the treatment of gingivitis and oral and pharyngeal mucosa- Review of studies. Wiad Lek. 2021;74(7):1737–49.10.36740/WLek202107131Search in Google Scholar
[76] Iannitti T, Medina JC, Bellavite P, Palmieri B. Effectiveness and safety of Arnica montana in post-surgical setting, pain and inflammation. Am J Ther. 2016;23:e184–97.10.1097/MJT.0000000000000036Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[77] Carnat A, Carnat AP, Fraisse D, Ricoux L, Lamaison JL. The aromatic and polyphenolic composition of Roman camomile tea. Fitoterapia. 2004;75(1):32–8.10.1016/j.fitote.2003.07.007Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[78] Elhadad MA, El‐Negoumy E, Taalab MR, Ibrahim RS, Elsaka RO. The effect of topical chamomile in the prevention of chemotherapy‐induced oral mucositis: A randomized clinical trial. Oral Dis. 2022;28(1):164–72.10.1111/odi.13749Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[79] Chen Y, Wong RW, McGrath C, Hagg U, Seneviratne CJ. Natural compounds containing mouthrinses in the management of dental plaque and gingivitis: A systematic review. Clin Oral Investig. 2014;18:1–6.10.1007/s00784-013-1033-0Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[80] Yanakiev S. Effects of cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.) in dentistry: A review. Molecules. 2020;25:4184. 10.3390/molecules25184184.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[81] Pagliari S, Forcella M, Lonati E, Sacco G, Romaniello F, Rovellini P, et al. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect of cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) bark extract after in vitro digestion simulation. Foods. 2023;12(3):452.10.3390/foods12030452Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[82] Kiki MJ. In vitro antiviral potential, antioxidant, and chemical composition of clove (Syzygium aromaticum) essential oil. Molecules. 2023;28(6):2421. 10.3390/molecules28062421.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[83] Esmaeili F, Zahmatkeshan M, Yousefpoor Y, Alipanah H, Safari E, Osanloo M. Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of cinnamon and clove essential oils nanogels: An in vivo study. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2022;22:143. 10.1186/s12906-022-03619-9.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[84] Pulikottil SJ, Nath S. Potential of clove of Syzygium aromaticum in development of a therapeutic agent for periodontal disease: A review. South Afr Dent J. 2015;70(3):108–15.Search in Google Scholar
[85] Nawrot-Hadzik I, Matkowski A, Hadzik J, Dobrowolska-Czopor B, Olchowy C, Dominiak M, et al. Proanthocyanidins and flavan-3-ols in the prevention and treatment of periodontitis – antibacterial effects. Nutrients. 2021;13:165. 10.3390/nu13010165.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[86] Mucha P, Skoczyńska A, Małecka M, Hikisz P, Budzisz E. Overview of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of selected plant compounds and their metal ions complexes. Molecules. 2021;26(16):4886. 10.3390/molecules26164886.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[87] Ben Lagha A, Howell A, Grenier D. Cranberry proanthocyanidins neutralize the effects of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans leukotoxin. Toxins. 2019;11:662.10.3390/toxins11110662Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[88] Gosciniak A, Paczkowska-Walendowska M, Skotnicka A, Ruchała MA, Cielecka-Piontek J. Can plant materials be valuable in the treatment of periodontal diseases? Practical review. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13:2185. 10.3390/pharmaceutics13122185.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[89] Hasan S, Danishuddin M, Khan AU. Inhibitory effect of Zingiber officinale towards Streptococcus mutans virulence and caries development: in vitro and in vivo studies. BMC Microbiol. 2015;15(1):1–14.10.1186/s12866-014-0320-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[90] Valera MC, Oliveira SAC, Maekawa LE, Cardoso FGR, Chung A, Silva SFP, et al. Action of chlorhexidine, Zingiber officinale on Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and endotoxin in the root canals. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2016;17(2):114–8.10.5005/jp-journals-10024-1812Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[91] Gregio AM, Fotes ES, Rosa EA, Simeoni RB, Rosa RT. Antimicrobial action of Zingiber officinal front of oral microbiota. Rev Est Biol. 2006;28:61–6.10.7213/reb.v28i62.22719Search in Google Scholar
[92] Gunasena MT, Rafi A, Mohd Zobir SA, Hussein MZ, Ali A, Kutawa AB, et al. Phytochemicals profiling, antimicrobial activity and mechanism of action of essential oil extracted from ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe cv. Bentong) against Burkholderia glumae causative agent of bacterial panicle blight disease of rice. Plants. 2022;11(11):1466. 10.3390/plants11111466.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[93] Akbari S, Didar Z, Vazifedoost M, Hajirostamloo B, Mohtashami M. Antibiofilm activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extracts in vitro and food model. J Food Process Preserv. 2023;2023:5134332. 10.1155/2023/5134332.Search in Google Scholar
[94] Babaeekhou L, Ghane M. Antimicrobial activity of ginger on cariogenic bacteria: molecular networking and molecular docking analyses. J Biomol Struct Dyn. 2021;39(6):2164–75.10.1080/07391102.2020.1745283Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[95] Cabrera C, Artacho R, Giménez R. Beneficial effects of green tea – A review. J Am Coll Nutr. 2006;25:79–99.10.1080/07315724.2006.10719518Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[96] Kushiyama M, Shimazaki Y, Murakami M, Yamashita Y. Relationship between intake of green tea and periodontal disease. J Periodontol. 2009;80:372–7.10.1902/jop.2009.080510Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[97] Ghorbani A, Sadrzadeh A, Habibi E, Dadgar K, Akbari J, Moosazadeh M, et al. Efficacy of Camellia sinensis extract against Candida species in patients with denture stomatitis. Curr Med Mycol. 2018;4(3):15–8.10.18502/cmm.4.3.174Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[98] Murokore BJ, Wacoo AP, Wangalwa R, Ajayi CO, Gumisiriza H, Masawi AN. Effect of extraction period on total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity of Ugandan Camellia sinensis (L) Kuntze, black primary grades and green tea. J Food Qual. 2023;2023:3504280. 10.1155/2023/3504280.Search in Google Scholar
[99] Hrishi TS, Kundapur PP, Naha A, Thomas BS, Kamath S, Bhat GS. Effect of Adjunctive use of green tea dentifrice in periodontitis patients–A randomized controlled pilot study. Int J Dent Hyg. 2016;14(3):178–83.10.1111/idh.12131Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[100] Melo JG, Sousa JP, Firmino RT, Matins CC, Granville‐Garcia AF, Nonaka CF, et al. Different applications forms of green tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze) for the treatment of periodontitis: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. J Periodontal Res. 2021;56(3):443–53.10.1111/jre.12871Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[101] Sakanaka S, Aiwaza M, Kim M, Yamamoto T. Inhibitory effects of green tea polyphenols on growth and cellular adherence of an oral bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 1996;60(5):745–9.10.1271/bbb.60.745Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[102] Sultan Z, Zafar M, Shahab S, Najeeb S, Naseem M. Green tea (Camellia sinensis): Chemistry and oral health. Open Dent J. 2016;10:3–10.10.2174/1874210601610010166Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[103] Venkateswara B, Sirisha K, Chava VK. Green tea extract for periodontal health. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2011;15(1):18.10.4103/0972-124X.82258Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[104] Mazur M, Ndokaj A, Jedlinski M, Ardan R, Bietolini S, Ottolenghi L. Impact of green tea (Camellia sinensis) on periodontitis and caries. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Jpn Dent Sci Rev. 2021;57:1–11.10.1016/j.jdsr.2020.11.003Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[105] Radafshar G, Ghotbizadeh M, Saadat F, Mirfarhadi N. Effects of green tea (Camellia sinensis) mouthwash containing 1% tannin on dental plaque and chronic gingivitis: A double-blinded, randomized, controlled trial. J Investig Clin Dent. 2017;8(1):e12184.10.1111/jicd.12184Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[106] Deshpande A, Deshpande N, Raol R, Patel K, Jaiswal V, Wadhwa M. Effect of green tea, ginger plus green tea, and chlorhexidine mouthwash on plaque-induced gingivitis: A randomized clinical trial. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2021;25(4):307.10.4103/jisp.jisp_449_20Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[107] Zeinali H, Arzani A, Razmjo K, Rezaee MB. Essential oil composition of iranian mints (Mentha spp.). J Essent Oil Res. 2005;17:156–9.10.1080/10412905.2005.9698863Search in Google Scholar
[108] Haghgoo R, Abbasi F. Evaluation of the use of a peppermint mouth rinse for halitosis by girls studying in Tehran high schools. J Int Soc Prev Commun Dent. 2013;3:29.10.4103/2231-0762.115702Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[109] Abdelrahman SM, El Samak M, El-Baz LMF, Hanora AMS, Satyal P, Dosoky NS. Effects of mint oils on the human oral microbiome: A pilot study. Microorganisms. 2024;12:1538. 10.3390/microorganisms12081538.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[110] Aljarbou F, Almobarak A, Binrayes A, Alamri HM. Salvadora persica’s biological properties and applications in different dental specialties: A narrative review. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2022;2022:8667687. 10.1155/2022/8667687.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[111] Wu CD, Darout IA, Skaug N. Chewing sticks: timeless natural toothbrushes for oral cleansing. J Periodontal Res. 2001;36(5):275–84.10.1034/j.1600-0765.2001.360502.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
[112] Rifaey N, AlAdwani M, Karched M, Baskaradoss JK. A clinical investigation into the efficacy of miswak chewing sticks as an oral hygiene aid: A crossover randomized trial. Int J Dent Hyg. 2021;19(2):223–30.10.1111/idh.12484Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[113] Jassoma E, Baeesa L, Sabbagh H. The antiplaque/anticariogenic efficacy of Salvadora persica (miswak) mouthrinse in comparison to that of chlorhexidine: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Oral Health. 2019;19:64. 10.1186/s12903-019-0741-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[114] Sabbagh HJ, AlGhamdi KS, Mujalled HT, Bagher SM. The effect of brushing with Salvadora persica (miswak) sticks on salivary Streptococcus mutans and plaque levels in children: A clinical trial. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2020;20:53. 10.1186/s12906-020-2847-3.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[115] Hawraa A, Esraa A, Bhardwaj GR, Areej AK, Maribasappa K. The effect of benzyl isothiocyanate on the expression of genes encoding NADH oxidase and fibronectin-binding protein in oral streptococcal biofilms. Front Oral Health. 2022;3:1–9. 10.3389/froh.2022.863723.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[116] Park WS, Lee J, Na G, Park S, Seo SK, Choi JS, et al. Benzyl isothiocyanate attenuates inflammasome activation in Pseudomonas aeruginosa LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells and exerts regulation through the MAPKs/NF-κB pathway. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:1228. 10.3390/ijms23031228.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[117] Mariod AA, Matthäus B, Hussein IH. Chemical characterization of the seed and antioxidant activity of various parts of Salvadora persica. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2009;86:857–65.10.1007/s11746-009-1422-3Search in Google Scholar
[118] Farag M, Abdel-Mageed WM, Basudan O, El-Gamal A. Persicaline, a new antioxidant sulphur-containing imidazoline alkaloid from Salvadora persica roots. Molecules. 2018;23:483. 10.3390/molecules23020483.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[119] Bismelah NA, Kassim ZHM, Ahmad R, Ismail NH. Herbs in Dentistry. J Med Plant Stud. 2016;4(2):18–23.Search in Google Scholar
[120] Nordin A, Saim AB, Ramli R, Hamid AA, Nasri NWM, Idrus RBH. Miswak and oral health: An evidence-based review. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2020;27:1801–10.10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.05.020Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[121] Saleem S, Muhammad G, Hussain MA, Bukhari SNA. A comprehensive review of phytochemical profile, bioactives for pharmaceuticals, and pharmacological attributes of Azadirachta indica. Phytother Res. 2018;32(7):1241–72.10.1002/ptr.6076Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[122] Mistry KS, Sanghvi Z, Parmar G, Shah S. The antimicrobial activity of Azadirachta indica, Mimusops elengi, Tinospora cardifolia, Ocimum sanctum and 2% chlorhexidine gluconate on common endodontic pathogens: An in vitro study. Eur J Dent. 2014;8(2):172–7. 10.4103/1305-7456.130591.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[123] Oluwasina OO, Idris SO, Ogidi CO, Igbe FO. Production of herbal toothpaste: physical, organoleptic, phyto-compound, and antimicrobial properties. Heliyon. 2023;9(3):e13892. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13892.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[124] Panchal V, Gurunathan D, Muralidharan NP. Comparison of antibacterial efficacy of cinnamon extract, neem extract as irrigant and sodium hypochlorite against Enterococcus fecalis: An in vitro study. Indian J Dental Res. 2020;31(1):124–8.10.4103/ijdr.IJDR_177_18Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[125] Dandekar NV, Winnier JJ. Assessment of antiplaque and anti-gingivitis efficacy of mouthwashes prepared from neem and mango extracts. Front Dent. 2020;17:11. http://doi.org/10.18502/fid.v17i11.4128.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[126] Hosny NS, El Khodary SA, El Boghdadi RM, Shaker OG. Effect of neem (Azadirachta indica) versus 2.5% sodium hypochlorite as root canal irrigants on the intensity of post-operative pain and the amount of endotoxins in mandibular molars with necrotic pulps: A randomized controlled trial. Int Endod J. 2021;54(9):1434–47. 10.1111/iej.13532.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[127] Tasanarong T, Patntirapong S, Aupaphong V. The Inhibitory Effect of a Novel Neem Paste Against Cariogenic Bacteria. J Clin Exp Dent. 2021;13(11):e1083–8. 10.4317/jced.58781.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[128] Lakshmi T, Krishnan V, Rajendran R, Madhusudhanan N. Azadirachta indica: A herbal panacea in dentistry - An update. Pharmacogn Rev. 2015;9(17):41–4. 10.4103/0973-7847.156337.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[129] Basri DF, Tan LS, Shafiei Z, Zin NM. In vitro antibacterial activity of galls of Quercus infectoria Olivier against oral pathogens. Evid.-Based Complement Altern Med. 2012;2012:632796.10.1155/2012/632796Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[130] Michalaki A, Karantonis HC, Kritikou A, Thomaidis NS, Dasenaki ME. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity evaluation from oregano (Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum) using response surface methodology and identification of specific phenolic compounds with HPLC-PDA and Q-TOF-MS/MS. Molecules. 2023;28:2023. 10.3390/molecules28052033.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[131] Idir F, Van Ginneken S, Coppola GA, Grenier D, Steenackers HP, Bendali F. Origanum vulgare ethanolic extracts as a promising source of compounds with antimicrobial, anti-biofilm, and anti-virulence activity against dental plaque bacteria. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:999839. 10.3389/fmicb.2022.999839.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[132] El Abdali Y, Mahraz AM, Beniaich G, Mssillou I, Chebaibi M, Bin Jardan YA, et al. Essential oils of Origanum compactum Benth: Chemical characterization, in vitro, in silico, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities. Open Chem. 2023;21(1):20220282. 10.1515/chem-2022-0282.Search in Google Scholar
[133] Yuan Y, Sun J, Song Y, Raka RN, Xiang J, Wu H, et al. Antibacterial activity of oregano essential oils against Streptococcus mutans in vitro and analysis of active components. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2023;23:61. 10.1186/s12906-023-03890-4.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[134] Andrade JM, Faustino C, Garcia C, Ladeiras D, Reis CP, Rijo P. Rosmarinus officinalis L.: An update review of its phytochemistry and biological activity. Future Sci. 2018;4(4):FSO283. 10.4155/fsoa-2017-0124.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[135] Taheri JB, Azimi S, Rafieian N, Zanjani HA. Herbs in dentistry. Int Dent J. 2011;61(6):287–96. 10.1111/j.1875-595X.2011.00064.x.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[136] Günther M, Karygianni L, Argyropoulou A, Anderson AC, Hellwig E, Skaltsounis AL, et al. The antimicrobial effect of Rosmarinus officinalis extracts on oral initial adhesion ex vivo. Clin Oral Invest. 2022;26:4369–80. 10.1007/s00784-022-04400-5.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[137] El Boukhari R, Fatimi AA. Review of the patentability of rosemary-derived drugs and bioactive compounds. Drug Drug Candid. 2023;2:172–88. 10.3390/ddc2010011.Search in Google Scholar
[138] Walker JB, Sytsma KJ, Treutlein J, Wink M. Salvia (Lamiaceae) is not monophyletic: implications for the systematics, radiation, and ecological specializations of Salvia and Tribe Mentheae. Am J Bot. 2004;91(7):1115–25.10.3732/ajb.91.7.1115Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[139] Raal A, Orav A, Arak E. Composition of the essential oil of Salvia officinalis L. from various European countries. Nat Prod Res. 2007;21:406–11.10.1080/14786410500528478Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[140] Mendes FS, Garcia LM, da Silva Moraes T, Casemiro LA, de Alcantara CB, Ambrósio SR, et al. Antibacterial activity of Salvia officinalis L. against periodontopathogens: An in vitro study. Anaerobe. 2020;63:102194. 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2020.102194.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[141] Kostic M, Kitic D, Petrovic MB, Jevtovic-Stoimenov T, Jovic M, Petrovic A, et al. Anti-inflammatory effect of the Salvia sclarea L. ethanolic extract on lipopolysaccharide-induced periodontitis in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2017;199:52–9.10.1016/j.jep.2017.01.020Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[142] Aljuboori IW, Mahmood MS. The effects of Salvia officinalis gel as an adjunct to scaling and root planning in patients with periodontitis (clinical and immunological study). Int J Drug Deliv Technol. 2020;10:232–7.10.25258/ijddt.10.2.8Search in Google Scholar
[143] Junger H, Jaun-Ventrice A, Guldener K, Ramseier CA, Reissmann DR, Schimmel M. Anti-inflammatory potential of an essential oil-containing mouthwash in elderly subjects enrolled in supportive periodontal therapy: A 6-week randomised controlled clinical trial. Clin Oral Investig. 2020;24:3203–11.10.1007/s00784-019-03194-3Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[144] Orellana-Paucar AM. Steviol glycosides from Stevia rebaudiana: An updated overview of their sweetening activity, pharmacological properties, and safety aspects. Molecules. 2023;28:1258. 10.3390/molecules28031258.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[145] Zhao L, Yang H, Xu M, Wang X, Wang C, Lian Y, et al. Stevia residue extract ameliorates oxidative stress in d-galactose-induced aging mice via Akt/Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. J Funct Foods. 2019;52:587–95.10.1016/j.jff.2018.11.044Search in Google Scholar
[146] Gamboa F, Chaves M. Antimicrobial potential of extracts from Stevia rebaudiana leaves against bacteria of importance in dental caries. Acta Odontol Latinoam. 2012;25:171–5.Search in Google Scholar
[147] Mehta R, Kumar Pundir R, Sakhare DK, Sharma A. Herbal formulation against dental caries causing microorganisms using extracts of Stevia rebaudiana leaves (a natural sweetener). Nat Prod J. 2016;6(2):126–33.10.2174/2210315506666160218231648Search in Google Scholar
[148] Cocco F, Cagetti MG, Livesu R, Camoni N, Pinna R, Lingström P, et al. Effect of a daily dose of snacks containing maltitol or Stevia rebaudiana as sweeteners in high caries risk schoolchildren. A double-blind RCT study. Oral Health Prev Dent. 2019;17(6):1–8.Search in Google Scholar
[149] Shinde MR, Winnier J. Health benefits and application of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni in dentistry. J Drug Deliv Ther. 2020;10(4-s):271–4.10.22270/jddt.v10i4-s.4285Search in Google Scholar
[150] Usha C, Ramarao S, John BM, Babu ME. Anticariogenicity of Stevia rebaudiana extract when used as a mouthwash in high caries risk patients: Randomized controlled clinical trial. World. 2017;8(5):364–49.10.5005/jp-journals-10015-1466Search in Google Scholar
[151] Bahreininejad B, Mirza M, Arzani A. Essential oil variation in Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis Cleak populations. J Essent Oil Res. 2010;22:48–52.10.1080/10412905.2010.9700263Search in Google Scholar
[152] Altındal D, Deveci KC, Öner Talmaç AG, Talmaç AC, Çalışır M. Effects of thyme on halitosis in gingivitis patients: can thyme mouthwash prevent halitosis – A randomized trial. Int J Dent Hyg. 2023;21(2):426–32.10.1111/idh.12672Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[153] Jiang T, Ghosh R, Charcosset C. Extraction, purification and applications of curcumin from plant materials-A comprehensive review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2021;112:419–30.10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.015Search in Google Scholar
[154] Goel A, Kunnumakkara AB, Aggarwal BB. Curcumin as “curecumin”: from kitchen to clinic. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008;75(4):787–809.10.1016/j.bcp.2007.08.016Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[155] Fathima AIS, Manoharan G. Comparison of efficacy of topical application of bleomycin with adjuvant antioxidants vs. topical curcumin oral gel with adjuvant antioxidants in the treatment of oral leukoplakia. J Indian Acad Oral Med Radiol. 2022;34:409–13.10.4103/jiaomr.jiaomr_201_22Search in Google Scholar
[156] Deshmukh RA, Bagewadi AS. Comparison of effectiveness of curcumin with triamcinolone acetonide in the gel form in treatment of minor recurrent aphthous stomatitis: A randomized clinical trial. Int J Pharm Investig. 2014;4:138–41.10.4103/2230-973X.138346Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[157] Oda DF, Duarte MAH, Andrade FB, Moriyama LT, Bagnato VS, de Moraes IG. Antimicrobial action of photodynamic therapy in root canals using LED curing light, curcumin and carbopol gel. Int Endod J. 2019;52:1010–9.10.1111/iej.13092Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[158] Pandey V, Kumar D, Nisha S, Gupta AK, Verma T, Kumari A. Evaluation of anti-plaque and anti-inflammatory effects of oral curcumin gel as adjunct to scaling and root planing: A clinical study. Int J Appl Basic Med Res. 2021;11:90–4.10.4103/ijabmr.IJABMR_391_19Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[159] Farhood HT, Ali BG. Clinical and anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin oral gel as adjuncts in treatment of periodontal pocket. J Res Med Dent Sci. 2020;8:83–90.Search in Google Scholar
[160] Fonseca-Santos B, Bonifacio BV, Baub TM, Gremiao MPD, Chorilli M. In situ gelling liquid crystal mucoadhesive vehicle for curcumin buccal administration and its potential application in the treatment of oral candidiasis. J Biomed Nanotechnol. 2019;15:1334–44.10.1166/jbn.2019.2758Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[161] Nasra MMA, Khiri HM, Hazzah HA, Abdallah OY. Formulation, In vitro characterization and clinical evaluation of curcumin in situ gel for treatment of periodontitis. Drug Deliv. 2017;24:133–42.10.1080/10717544.2016.1233591Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[162] Correa MG, Pires PR, Ribeiro FV, Pimentel SZ, Casarin RC, Cirano FR, et al. Systemic treatment with resveratrol and/or curcumin reduces the progression of experimental periodontitis in rats. J Periodontal Res. 2017;52(2):201–19.10.1111/jre.12382Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[163] Mishra A, Kumar V, Singh A. Deciphering the anti-filarial potential of bioactive compounds from Ocimum sanctum: A combined experimental and computational study. Pharma. Biol. 2022;60(1):2237–52. 10.1080/13880209.2022.2132030.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[164] Pai KR, Pallavi LK, Bhat SS, Hegde SK. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of aqueous extract of “Ocimum sanctum-queen of herb” on dental caries microorganisms: An In vitro study. Int J Clin Pediatric Dent. 2022;15(Suppl 2):S176. 10.5005/jp-journals-10005-2147.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[165] Mallikarjun S, Rao A, Rajesh G, Shenoy R, Pai M. Antimicrobial efficacy of tulsi leaf (Ocimum sanctum) extract on periodontal pathogens: An in vitro study. J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2016;20(2):145–50. 10.4103/0972-124X.175177.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[166] Ahmed SV, Reddy CS, Kudlure SM, Gomasani S. Effect of tulsi extract and honey mouthrinses on salivary Streptococcus mutans count in comparison with 0.2% of chlorhexidine: A randomized controlled trial. J Indian Assoc Public Health Dent. 2017;15(4):306–11. 10.4103/jiaphd.jiaphd_55_17.Search in Google Scholar
[167] Gupta D, Bhaskar DJ, Gupta RK, Karim B, Jain A, Singh R, et al. Randomized controlled clinical trial of Ocimum sanctum and chlorhexidine mouthwash on dental plaque and gingival inflammation. J Ayurveda Integr Med. 2014;5(2):109–16.10.4103/0975-9476.131727Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[168] Rahimmalek M, Sayed Tabatabaei BE, Etemadi N, Goli SAH, Arzani A, Zeinali H. Essential oil variation among and within six Achillea species transferred from different ecological regions in iran to the field conditions. Ind Crop Prod. 2009;29:348–55.10.1016/j.indcrop.2008.07.001Search in Google Scholar
[169] Applequist WL, Moerman DE. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.): A neglected panacea? A review of ethnobotany, bioactivity, and biomedical research. Econ Bot. 2011;65:209–25. 10.1007/s12231-011-9154-3.Search in Google Scholar
[170] Barda C, Grafakou ME, Tomou EM, Skaltsa H. Phytochemistry and evidence-based traditional uses of the genus Achillea L.: An update (2011–2021). Sci Pharm. 2021;89(4):50. 10.3390/scipharm89040050.Search in Google Scholar
[171] Vrani E, La-Evi A, Mehmedagi A, Uzunovi A. Formulation ingredients for toothpastes and mouthwashes. Bosn J Basic Med Sci. 2004;4(4):51–8.10.17305/bjbms.2004.3362Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[172] Almeida-da-Silva CLC, Sivakumar N, Asadi H, Chang-Chien A, Qoronfleh MW, Ojcius DM, et al. Effects of Frankincense compounds on infection, inflammation, and oral health. Molecules. 2022;27:4174. 10.3390/molecules27134174.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[173] Ding Y, Chen M, Wang M, Wang M, Zhang T, Park J, et al. Neuroprotection by acetyl-11-keto-β-Boswellic acid, in ischemic brain injury involves the Nrf2/HO-1 defense pathway. Sci Rep. 2014;4:7002. 10.1038/srep07002.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[174] Rajabian A, Farzanehfar M, Hosseini H, Arab FL, Nikkhah A. Boswellic acids as promising agents for the management of brain diseases. Life Sci. 2023;312:121196. 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.121196. Epub 2022 Nov 16.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[175] Shadfar S, Khanal S, Bohara G, Kim G, Sadigh-Eteghad S, Ghavami S, et al. Methanolic extract of Boswellia serrata gum protects the nigral dopaminergic neurons from rotenone-induced neurotoxicity. Mol Neurobiol. 2022;59:5874–90. 10.1007/s12035-022-02943-y.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[176] Ameen AM, Elkazaz AY, Mohammad HMF, Barakat BM. Anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective activity of boswellic acids in rotenone parkinsonian rats. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2017;95:819–29. 10.1139/cjpp-2016-0158.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[177] Interdonato L, Marino Y, Impellizzeri D, D’Amico R, Siracusa R, Fusco R, et al. Autophagy machinery plays an essential role in traumatic brain injury-induced apoptosis and its related behavioral abnormalities in mice: focus on Boswellia sacra gum resin. Front Physiol. 2024;14:1320960. 10.3389/fphys.2023.1320960.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[178] Raja AF, Ali F, Khan IA, Shawl AS, Arora DS. Acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic acid (AKBA); targeting oral cavity pathogens. BMC Res Notes. 2011;4:406.10.1186/1756-0500-4-406Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[179] Liuzzi GM, Petraglia T, Latronico T, Crescenzi A, Rossano R. Antioxidant compounds from edible mushrooms as potential candidates for treating age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Nutrients. 2023;15(8):1913.10.3390/nu15081913Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[180] Szucko-Kociuba I, Trzeciak-Ryczek A, Kupnicka P, Chlubek D. Neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects of Hericium erinaceus. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(21):15960.10.3390/ijms242115960Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[181] Tong Z, Chu G, Wan C, Wang Q, Yang J, Meng Z, et al. Multiple metabolites derived from mushrooms and their beneficial effect on Alzheimer’s diseases. Nutrients. 2023;15(12):2758.10.3390/nu15122758Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[182] Brandalise F, Roda E, Ratto D, Goppa L, Gargano ML, Cirlincione F, et al. Hericium erinaceus in neurodegenerative diseases: From bench to bedside and beyond, how far from the shoreline? J Fungi (Basel). 2023;9(5):551.10.3390/jof9050551Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[183] Amara I, Scuto M, Zappala A, Ontario ML, Petralia A, Abid-Essefi S, et al. Hericium erinaceus prevents DEHP-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in PC12 cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(6):2138.10.3390/ijms21062138Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[184] Chong PS, Fung ML, Wong KH, Lim LW. Therapeutic potential of Hericium erinaceus for depressive disorder. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;21(1):163.10.3390/ijms21010163Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[185] Xie G, Tang L, Xie Y, Xie L. Secondary metabolites from Hericium erinaceus and their anti-inflammatory activities. Molecules. 2022;27:2157. 10.3390/molecules27072157.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[186] Song X, Gaascht F, Schmidt-Dannert C, Salomon CE. Discovery of antifungal and biofilm preventative compounds from mycelial cultures of a unique north american Hericium sp. Fungus. Molecules. 2020;25:963. 10.3390/molecules25040963.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[187] Mojtabavi S, Khoshayand MR, Torshabi M, Gilani K, Fazeli MR, Mohammad Faramarzi A, et al. Formulation, characterization, and bioactivity assessments of a laccase-based mouthwash. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2022;69:103128. 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103128.Search in Google Scholar
[188] Jing Y, Zhang S, Li M, Ma Y, Zheng Y, Zhang D, et al. Research progress on the extraction, structure, and bioactivities of polysaccharides from Coriolus versicolor. Foods. 2022;11(14):2126.10.3390/foods11142126Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[189] Trovato A, Siracusa R, Di Paola R, Scuto M, Fronte V, Koverech G, et al. Redox modulation of cellular stress response and lipoxin A4 expression by Coriolus versicolor in rat brain: Relevance to Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis. Neurotoxicology. 2016;53:350–8.10.1016/j.neuro.2015.09.012Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[190] Paola RD, Siracusa R, Fusco R, Ontario M, Cammilleri G, Pantano L, et al. Redox modulation of Meniere disease by Coriolus versicolor treatment, a nutritional mushroom approach with neuroprotective potential. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2023;22(12):2079–98.10.2174/1570159X22666231206153936Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[191] Ferreiro E, Pita IR, Mota SI, Valero J, Ferreira NR, Fernandes T, et al. Coriolus versicolor biomass increases dendritic arborization of newly-generated neurons in mouse hippocampal dentate gyrus. Oncotarget. 2018;9(68):32929–42.10.18632/oncotarget.25978Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[192] Huang HT, Ho CH, Sung HY, Lee LY, Chen WP, Chen YW, et al. Hericium erinaceus mycelium and its small bioactive compounds promote oligodendrocyte maturation with an increase in myelin basic protein. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):6551.10.1038/s41598-021-85972-2Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[193] Galvez-Contreras AY, Zarate-Lopez D, Torres-Chavez AL, Gonzalez-Perez O. Role of oligodendrocytes and myelin in the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder. Brain Sci. 2020;10(12):951.10.3390/brainsci10120951Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[194] Osakabe N, Anfuso CD, Jacob UM, Sidenkova A, Fritsch T, Abdelhameed AS, et al. Phytochemicals and vitagenes for a healthy brain. In: Kaur G, Rattan SIS, editors. Brain and mental health in ageing. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland; 2024. p. 215–53.10.1007/978-3-031-68513-2_11Search in Google Scholar
[195] Caracci MO, Avila ME, Espinoza-Cavieres FA, Lopez HR, Ugarte GD, De Ferrari GV. Wnt/beta-catenin-dependent transcription in autism spectrum disorders. Front Mol Neurosci. 2021;14:764756.10.3389/fnmol.2021.764756Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[196] Blagodatski A, Klimenko A, Jia L, Katanaev VL. Small molecule Wnt pathway modulators from natural sources: History, state of the art and perspectives. Cells. 2020;9(3):589.10.3390/cells9030589Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[197] Trovato Salinaro A, Pennisi M, Di Paola R, Scuto M, Crupi R, Cambria MT, et al. Neuroinflammation and neurohormesis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease and Alzheimer-linked pathologies: modulation by nutritional mushrooms. Immun Ageing. 2018;15:8.10.1186/s12979-017-0108-1Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[198] Kim BL, Lim KO, Han SR, Kim KH, Oh TJ. Antimicrobial activities of various extracts of Coriolus versicolor against oral bacteria. J Korean Soc Dent Hyg. 2017;17(1):111–22.10.13065/jksdh.2017.17.01.111Search in Google Scholar
[199] Pillai S, Shetty N, Mathur A, Bali A, Pal PC, Taki M. Evaluation of Lentinula edodes (Shiitake mushroom) mouthwash in patients with gingivitis. J Oral Hyg Health. 2021;9:292.Search in Google Scholar
[200] Avinash J, Vinay S, Jha K, Das D, Goutham BS, Kumar G. The unexplored anticaries potential of shiitake mushroom. Pharmacogn Rev. 2016;10:100–4.10.4103/0973-7847.194039Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[201] Signoretto C, Burlacchini G, Marchi A, Grillenzoni M, Cavalleri G, Ciric L, et al. Testing a low molecular mass fraction of a mushroom (Lentinus edodes) extract formulated as an oral rinse in a cohort of volunteers. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2011;2011:857987.10.1155/2011/857987Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[202] Karunarathna SC, Ediriweera A, Prasannath K, Mingfei Y, Hapuarachchi KK. Exploring the health benefits of Ganoderma: bioactive compounds and mechanisms of action; immunomodulatory, and anti-tumour activities. N Zealand J Bot. 2024;25:1–85.10.1080/0028825X.2024.2375996Search in Google Scholar
[203] Sułkowska-Ziaja K, Trepa M, Olechowska-Jarz A, Nowak P, Ziaja M, Kała K, et al. Natural compounds of fungal origin with antimicrobial activity – Potential cosmetics applications. Pharmaceuticals. 2023;16:1200. 10.3390/ph16091200.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[204] Erdoğan Eliuz EA. Antibacterial activity and antibacterial mechanism of ethanol extracts of Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) and Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom). Int J Env Health Res. 2022;32(8):1828–41.10.1080/09603123.2021.1919292Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[205] Camilleria E, Renald Blundella B, Bikash Baralc B, Karpińskid TM, Arucie E, Atrooz OM. Unveiling the full spectrum of maitake mushrooms: A comprehensive review of their medicinal, therapeutic, nutraceutical, and cosmetic potential. Heliyon. 2024;10(9):e30254.10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30254Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[206] Su CH, Lu MK, Lu TJ, Lai MN, Ng LT. A (1 → 6)-Branched (1 → 4)-β-D-glucan from Grifola frondosa inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokine production in RAW264.7 macrophages by binding to TLR2 rather than dectin-1 or CR3 receptors. J Nat Prod. 2020;83:231–42.10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00584Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[207] Haghpanah M, Hashemipetroudi S, Arzani A, Araniti F. Drought tolerance in plants: Physiological and Molecular Responses. Plants. 2024;13(21):2962. 10.3390/plants13212962.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[208] Sasi M, Kumar S, Kumar M, Thapa S, Prajapati U, Tak Y, et al. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) bioactives and its role in alleviating oral pathologies. Antioxidants. 2021;10(11):1847. 10.3390/antiox10111847.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[209] Gupta A, Verma U, Lal N, Ojha S. Evolution and exploration of Azadirachta indica in dentistry: An update. Br J Med Med Res. 2017;21(8):1–5.10.9734/BJMMR/2017/33538Search in Google Scholar
[210] Belal A, Elanany MA, Raafat M, Hamza HT, Mehany ABM. Calendula officinalis phytochemicals for the treatment of wounds through matrix metalloproteinases-8 and 9 (MMP-8 and MMP-9): In silico approach. Nat Prod Commun. 2022;17(5):1–16. 10.1177/1934578X221098848.Search in Google Scholar
[211] Catalfamo LM, Marrone G, Basilicata M, Vivarini I, Paolino V, Della-Morte D, et al. The utility of Capsicum annuum L. in internal medicine and in dentistry: A comprehensive review. Int J Env Res Public Health. 2022;19:11187. 10.3390/ijerph191811187.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[212] Jun JY, Jung MJ, Jeong IH, Yamazaki K, Kawai Y, Kim BM. Antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities of sulfated polysaccharides from marine algae against dental plaque bacteria. Mar Drug. 2018;16(9):301. 10.3390/md16090301.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[213] Ghannay S, Aouadi K, Kadri A, Snoussi M. GC‒MS profiling, vibriocidal, antioxidant, antibiofilm, and anti-quorum sensing properties of Carum carvi L. essential oil: In Vitro and in silico approaches. Plants. 2022;11:1072. 10.3390/plants11081072.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[214] Yousofvand N, Moloodi B. An overview of the effect of medicinal herbs on pain. Phytother Res. 2023;37(3):1057–81. 10.1002/ptr.7697.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[215] Alfotawi RA. Myrrha and oral health. In: Chauhan DN, Singh PR, Chauhan NS, Kamal S, editors. Pharmacological studies in natural oral care. London: Wiley; 2023. p. 485–98. 10.1002/9781394167197.ch25.Search in Google Scholar
[216] Hanashiro CT, González AHM. Coriandrum sativum (Coriander) in oral health: Literature review. J Health Sci. 2021;23(3):195–8. 10.17921/2447-8938.2021v22n3p195-198.Search in Google Scholar
[217] Ranjitha GE, Vinothini G. Curcumin as a herbal remedy for oral maladies-An updated review. J Adv Med Dent Sci Res. 2018;6(3):19–23.Search in Google Scholar
[218] Samuel DS, Priyadarshoni SP. Echinacea purpurea-A potent medicinal herb. Drug Invent Today. 2019;11(2):448–52.Search in Google Scholar
[219] Bankur PK, Mathew M, Almalki SA, Jalaluddin M, Jayanti I, Durgaraju M. An in vitro evaluation of antibacterial efficacy of various concentration of Eucalyptus globulus leaf extract on periodontal pathogens. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2019;20(9):1041–4.10.5005/jp-journals-10024-2639Search in Google Scholar
[220] Rashid AH, Gul SS, Azeez HA, Azeez SH. Extraction of Cuminum cyminum and Foeniculum vulgare essential oils and their antibacterial andnd antibiofilm activity against clinically isolated Porphyromonas gingivalis and Prevotella intermedia: An in vitro study. Appl Sci. 2023;13:7996. 10.3390/app13147996.Search in Google Scholar
[221] Hwang BY, Roberts SK, Chadwick LR, Wu CD, Kinghorn AD. Antimicrobial constituents from goldenseal (the rhizomes of Hydrastis canadensis) against selected oral pathogens. Plant Med. 2003;69(7):623–7. 10.1055/s-2003-41115.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[222] Al-Attass SA, Zahran FM, Turkistany SA. Nigella sativa and its active constituent thymoquinone in oral health. Saudi Med J. 2016;37(3):235–44. 10.15537/smj.2016.3.13006.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[223] Li G, Yu Q, Li M, Zhang D, Yu J, Yu X, et al. Phyllanthus emblica fruits: A polyphenol-rich fruit with potential benefits for oral management. Food Funct. 2023;14(17):7738–59. 10.1039/D3FO01671D.Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[224] Lavaee F, Moqadas A, Modarresi F, Nowrouzi M. The effect of Pimpinella anisum and Origanum vulgare extracts against Streptococcus sanguinis, Streptococcus mutans, and Streptococcus salivarius. J Dent (Shiraz). 2022;23(2):113–20. 10.30476/dentjods.2021.85691.1145.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
[225] Mozafar S, Majidi E, Bakhtiari R, Norouzi M, Kameli S. Antimicrobial effects of ethanol and acetone extracts of plantago major seed on Streptococcus mutans. J Res Dent Maxillofac Sci. 2023;8(2):88–94.10.52547/jrdms.8.2.88Search in Google Scholar
[226] Abdelrahim SI, Almagboul AZ, Omer ME. Elegami, antimicrobial activity of Psidium guajava. Fitoterapia. 2002;73:713–5.10.1016/S0367-326X(02)00243-5Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[227] Harper DS, Mueller LJ, Fine JB, Gordon J, Laster LL. Clinical efficacy of a dentifrice and oral rinse containing sanguinaria extract and zinc chloride during 6 months of use. J Periodontol. 1990;61(6):352–8.10.1902/jop.1990.61.6.352Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[228] Mazur M, Ndokaj A, Bietolini S, Nissi V, Duś-Ilnicka I, Ottolenghi L. Green dentistry: organic toothpaste formulations. A literature review. Dent Med Probl. 2022;59(3):461–74.10.17219/dmp/146133Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[229] Fu Y, Zu Y, Chen L, Shi X, Wang Z, Sun Z, et al. Antimicrobial activity of clove and rosemary essential oils alone and in combination. Phytother Res. 2007;21:989–94.10.1002/ptr.2179Search in Google Scholar PubMed
[230] Sindhusha VB, Rajasekar A. Preparation and evaluation of antimicrobial property and anti-inflammatory activity of fenugreek gel against oral microbes: An in vitro study. Cureus. 2023;15(10):e47659. 10.7759/cureus.47659.Search in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central
© 2025 the author(s), published by De Gruyter
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Network pharmacological analysis and in vitro testing of the rutin effects on triple-negative breast cancer
- Impact of diabetes on long-term survival in elderly liver cancer patients: A retrospective study
- Knockdown of CCNB1 alleviates high glucose-triggered trophoblast dysfunction during gestational diabetes via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway
- Risk factors for severe adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients
- Analysis of the effect of ALA-PDT on macrophages in footpad model of mice infected with Fonsecaea monophora based on single-cell sequencing
- Development and validation of headspace gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector method for the determination of ethanol in the vitreous humor
- CMSP exerts anti-tumor effects on small cell lung cancer cells by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis
- Predictive value of plasma sB7-H3 and YKL-40 in pediatric refractory Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia
- Antiangiogenic potential of Elaeagnus umbellata extracts and molecular docking study by targeting VEGFR-2 pathway
- Comparison of the effectiveness of nurse-led preoperative counseling and postoperative follow-up care vs standard care for patients with gastric cancer
- Comparing the therapeutic efficacy of endoscopic minimally invasive surgery and traditional surgery for early-stage breast cancer: A meta-analysis
- Adhered macrophages as an additional marker of cardiomyocyte injury in biopsies of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy
- Association between statin administration and outcome in patients with sepsis: A retrospective study
- Exploration of the association between estimated glucose disposal rate and osteoarthritis in middle-aged and older adults: An analysis of NHANES data from 2011 to 2018
- A comparative analysis of the binary and multiclass classified chest X-ray images of pneumonia and COVID-19 with ML and DL models
- Lysophosphatidic acid 2 alleviates deep vein thrombosis via protective endothelial barrier function
- Transcription factor A, mitochondrial promotes lymph node metastasis and lymphangiogenesis in epithelial ovarian carcinoma
- Serum PM20D1 levels are associated with nutritional status and inflammatory factors in gastric cancer patients undergoing early enteral nutrition
- Hydromorphone reduced the incidence of emergence agitation after adenotonsillectomy in children with obstructive sleep apnea: A randomized, double-blind study
- Vitamin D replacement therapy may regulate sleep habits in patients with restless leg syndrome
- The first-line antihypertensive nitrendipine potentiated the therapeutic effect of oxaliplatin by downregulating CACNA1D in colorectal cancer
- Health literacy and health-related quality of life: The mediating role of irrational happiness
- Modulatory effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide on bone cell dynamics in osteoporosis
- Mechanism research on inhibition of gastric cancer in vitro by the extract of Pinellia ternata based on network pharmacology and cellular metabolomics
- Examination of the causal role of immune cells in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study
- Clinical analysis of ten cases of HIV infection combined with acute leukemia
- Investigating the cardioprotective potential of quercetin against tacrolimus-induced cardiotoxicity in Wistar rats: A mechanistic insights
- Clinical observation of probiotics combined with mesalazine and Yiyi Baitouweng Decoction retention enema in treating mild-to-moderate ulcerative colitis
- Diagnostic value of ratio of blood inflammation to coagulation markers in periprosthetic joint infection
- Sex-specific associations of sex hormone binding globulin and risk of bladder cancer
- Core muscle strength and stability-oriented breathing training reduces inter-recti distance in postpartum women
- The ERAS nursing care strategy for patients undergoing transsphenoidal endoscopic pituitary tumor resection: A randomized blinded controlled trial
- The serum IL-17A levels in patients with traumatic bowel rupture post-surgery and its predictive value for patient prognosis
- Impact of Kolb’s experiential learning theory-based nursing on caregiver burden and psychological state of caregivers of dementia patients
- Analysis of serum NLR combined with intraoperative margin condition to predict the prognosis of cervical HSIL patients undergoing LEEP surgery
- Commiphora gileadensis ameliorate infertility and erectile dysfunction in diabetic male mice
- The correlation between epithelial–mesenchymal transition classification and MMP2 expression of circulating tumor cells and prognosis of advanced or metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma
- Tetrahydropalmatine improves mitochondrial function in vascular smooth muscle cells of atherosclerosis in vitro by inhibiting Ras homolog gene family A/Rho-associated protein kinase-1 signaling pathway
- A cross-sectional study: Relationship between serum oxidative stress levels and arteriovenous fistula maturation in maintenance dialysis patients
- A comparative analysis of the impact of repeated administration of flavan 3-ol on brown, subcutaneous, and visceral adipose tissue
- Identifying early screening factors for depression in middle-aged and older adults: A cohort study
- Perform tumor-specific survival analysis for Merkel cell carcinoma patients undergoing surgical resection based on the SEER database by constructing a nomogram chart
- Unveiling the role of CXCL10 in pancreatic cancer progression: A novel prognostic indicator
- High-dose preoperative intraperitoneal erythropoietin and intravenous methylprednisolone in acute traumatic spinal cord injuries following decompression surgeries
- RAB39B: A novel biomarker for acute myeloid leukemia identified via multi-omics and functional validation
- Impact of peripheral conditioning on reperfusion injury following primary percutaneous coronary intervention in diabetic and non-diabetic STEMI patients
- Clinical efficacy of azacitidine in the treatment of middle- and high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome in middle-aged and elderly patients: A retrospective study
- The effect of ambulatory blood pressure load on mitral regurgitation in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients
- Expression and clinical significance of ITGA3 in breast cancer
- Single-nucleus RNA sequencing reveals ARHGAP28 expression of podocytes as a biomarker in human diabetic nephropathy
- rSIG combined with NLR in the prognostic assessment of patients with multiple injuries
- Toxic metals and metalloids in collagen supplements of fish and jellyfish origin: Risk assessment for daily intake
- Exploring causal relationship between 41 inflammatory cytokines and marginal zone lymphoma: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study
- Gender beliefs and legitimization of dating violence in adolescents
- Effect of serum IL-6, CRP, and MMP-9 levels on the efficacy of modified preperitoneal Kugel repair in patients with inguinal hernia
- Effect of smoking and smoking cessation on hematological parameters in polycythemic patients
- Pathogen surveillance and risk factors for pulmonary infection in patients with lung cancer: A retrospective single-center study
- Necroptosis of hippocampal neurons in paclitaxel chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment mediates microglial activation via TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway
- Celastrol suppresses neovascularization in rat aortic vascular endothelial cells stimulated by inflammatory tenocytes via modulating the NLRP3 pathway
- Cord-lamina angle and foraminal diameter as key predictors of C5 palsy after anterior cervical decompression and fusion surgery
- GATA1: A key biomarker for predicting the prognosis of patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
- Influencing factors of false lumen thrombosis in type B aortic dissection: A single-center retrospective study
- MZB1 regulates the immune microenvironment and inhibits ovarian cancer cell migration
- Integrating experimental and network pharmacology to explore the pharmacological mechanisms of Dioscin against glioblastoma
- Trends in research on preterm birth in twin pregnancy based on bibliometrics
- Four-week IgE/baseline IgE ratio combined with tryptase predicts clinical outcome in omalizumab-treated children with moderate-to-severe asthma
- Single-cell transcriptomic analysis identifies a stress response Schwann cell subtype
- Acute pancreatitis risk in the diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease: A critical focus
- Effect of subclinical esketamine on NLRP3 and cognitive dysfunction in elderly ischemic stroke patients
- Interleukin-37 mediates the anti-oral tumor activity in oral cancer through STAT3
- CA199 and CEA expression levels, and minimally invasive postoperative prognosis analysis in esophageal squamous carcinoma patients
- Efficacy of a novel drainage catheter in the treatment of CSF leak after posterior spine surgery: A retrospective cohort study
- Comprehensive biomedicine assessment of Apteranthes tuberculata extracts: Phytochemical analysis and multifaceted pharmacological evaluation in animal models
- Relation of time in range to severity of coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional study
- Dopamine attenuates ethanol-induced neuronal apoptosis by stimulating electrical activity in the developing rat retina
- Correlation between albumin levels during the third trimester and the risk of postpartum levator ani muscle rupture
- Factors associated with maternal attention and distraction during breastfeeding and childcare: A cross-sectional study in the west of Iran
- Mechanisms of hesperetin in treating metabolic dysfunction-associated steatosis liver disease via network pharmacology and in vitro experiments
- The law on oncological oblivion in the Italian and European context: How to best uphold the cancer patients’ rights to privacy and self-determination?
- The prognostic value of the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, and prognostic nutritional index for survival in patients with colorectal cancer
- Factors affecting the measurements of peripheral oxygen saturation values in healthy young adults
- Comparison and correlations between findings of hysteroscopy and vaginal color Doppler ultrasonography for detection of uterine abnormalities in patients with recurrent implantation failure
- The effects of different types of RAGT on balance function in stroke patients with low levels of independent walking in a convalescent rehabilitation hospital
- Causal relationship between asthma and ankylosing spondylitis: A bidirectional two-sample univariable and multivariable Mendelian randomization study
- Correlations of health literacy with individuals’ understanding and use of medications in Southern Taiwan
- Correlation of serum calprotectin with outcome of acute cerebral infarction
- Comparison of computed tomography and guided bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of pulmonary nodules: A systematic review and meta-analysis
- Curdione protects vascular endothelial cells and atherosclerosis via the regulation of DNMT1-mediated ERBB4 promoter methylation
- The identification of novel missense variant in ChAT gene in a patient with gestational diabetes denotes plausible genetic association
- Molecular genotyping of multi-system rare blood types in foreign blood donors based on DNA sequencing and its clinical significance
- Exploring the role of succinyl carnitine in the association between CD39⁺ CD4⁺ T cell and ulcerative colitis: A Mendelian randomization study
- Dexmedetomidine suppresses microglial activation in postoperative cognitive dysfunction via the mmu-miRNA-125/TRAF6 signaling axis
- Analysis of serum metabolomics in patients with different types of chronic heart failure
- Diagnostic value of hematological parameters in the early diagnosis of acute cholecystitis
- Pachymaran alleviates fat accumulation, hepatocyte degeneration, and injury in mice with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
- Decrease in CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes are predictors of severe clinical picture and unfavorable outcome of the disease in patients with COVID-19
- METTL3 blocked the progression of diabetic retinopathy through m6A-modified SOX2
- The predictive significance of anti-RO-52 antibody in patients with interstitial pneumonia after treatment of malignant tumors
- Exploring cerebrospinal fluid metabolites, cognitive function, and brain atrophy: Insights from Mendelian randomization
- Development and validation of potential molecular subtypes and signatures of ocular sarcoidosis based on autophagy-related gene analysis
- Widespread venous thrombosis: Unveiling a complex case of Behçet’s disease with a literature perspective
- Uterine fibroid embolization: An analysis of clinical outcomes and impact on patients’ quality of life
- Discovery of lipid metabolism-related diagnostic biomarkers and construction of diagnostic model in steroid-induced osteonecrosis of femoral head
- Serum-derived exomiR-188-3p is a promising novel biomarker for early-stage ovarian cancer
- Enhancing chronic back pain management: A comparative study of ultrasound–MRI fusion guidance for paravertebral nerve block
- Peptide CCAT1-70aa promotes hepatocellular carcinoma proliferation and invasion via the MAPK/ERK pathway
- Electroacupuncture-induced reduction of myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury via FTO-dependent m6A methylation modulation
- Hemorrhoids and cardiovascular disease: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study
- Cell-free adipose extract inhibits hypertrophic scar formation through collagen remodeling and antiangiogenesis
- HALP score in Demodex blepharitis: A case–control study
- Assessment of SOX2 performance as a marker for circulating cancer stem-like cells (CCSCs) identification in advanced breast cancer patients using CytoTrack system
- Risk and prognosis for brain metastasis in primary metastatic cervical cancer patients: A population-based study
- Comparison of the two intestinal anastomosis methods in pediatric patients
- Factors influencing hematological toxicity and adverse effects of perioperative hyperthermic intraperitoneal vs intraperitoneal chemotherapy in gastrointestinal cancer
- Endotoxin tolerance inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages of septic mice by restoring autophagic flux through TRIM26
- Lateral transperitoneal laparoscopic adrenalectomy: A single-centre experience of 21 procedures
- Petunidin attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced retinal microglia inflammatory response in diabetic retinopathy by targeting OGT/NF-κB/LCN2 axis
- Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as biomarkers for diagnosing and assessing the severity of acute cholecystitis
- Factors determining the number of sessions in successful extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy patients
- Development of a nomogram for predicting cancer-specific survival in patients with renal pelvic cancer following surgery
- Inhibition of ATG7 promotes orthodontic tooth movement by regulating the RANKL/OPG ratio under compression force
- A machine learning-based prognostic model integrating mRNA stemness index, hypoxia, and glycolysis‑related biomarkers for colorectal cancer
- Glutathione attenuates sepsis-associated encephalopathy via dual modulation of NF-κB and PKA/CREB pathways
- FAHD1 prevents neuronal ferroptosis by modulating R-loop and the cGAS–STING pathway
- Association of placenta weight and morphology with term low birth weight: A case–control study
- Investigation of the pathogenic variants induced Sjogren’s syndrome in Turkish population
- Nucleotide metabolic abnormalities in post-COVID-19 condition and type 2 diabetes mellitus patients and their association with endocrine dysfunction
- TGF-β–Smad2/3 signaling in high-altitude pulmonary hypertension in rats: Role and mechanisms via macrophage M2 polarization
- Ultrasound-guided unilateral versus bilateral erector spinae plane block for postoperative analgesia of patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy
- Profiling gut microbiome dynamics in subacute thyroiditis: Implications for pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment
- Delta neutrophil index, CRP/albumin ratio, procalcitonin, immature granulocytes, and HALP score in acute appendicitis: Best performing biomarker?
- Anticancer activity mechanism of novelly synthesized and characterized benzofuran ring-linked 3-nitrophenyl chalcone derivative on colon cancer cells
- H2valdien3 arrests the cell cycle and induces apoptosis of gastric cancer
- Prognostic relevance of PRSS2 and its immune correlates in papillary thyroid carcinoma
- Association of SGLT2 inhibition with psychiatric disorders: A Mendelian randomization study
- Motivational interviewing for alcohol use reduction in Thai patients
- Luteolin alleviates oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced neuron injury by regulating NLRP3/IL-1β signaling
- Polyphyllin II inhibits thyroid cancer cell growth by simultaneously inhibiting glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation
- Relationship between the expression of copper death promoting factor SLC31A1 in papillary thyroid carcinoma and clinicopathological indicators and prognosis
- CSF2 polarized neutrophils and invaded renal cancer cells in vitro influence
- Proton pump inhibitors-induced thrombocytopenia: A systematic literature analysis of case reports
- The current status and influence factors of research ability among community nurses: A sequential qualitative–quantitative study
- OKAIN: A comprehensive oncology knowledge base for the interpretation of clinically actionable alterations
- The relationship between serum CA50, CA242, and SAA levels and clinical pathological characteristics and prognosis in patients with pancreatic cancer
- Identification and external validation of a prognostic signature based on hypoxia–glycolysis-related genes for kidney renal clear cell carcinoma
- Engineered RBC-derived nanovesicles functionalized with tumor-targeting ligands: A comparative study on breast cancer targeting efficiency and biocompatibility
- Relationship of resting echocardiography combined with serum micronutrients to the severity of low-gradient severe aortic stenosis
- Effect of vibration on pain during subcutaneous heparin injection: A randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled trial
- The diagnostic performance of machine learning-based FFRCT for coronary artery disease: A meta-analysis
- Comparing biofeedback device vs diaphragmatic breathing for bloating relief: A randomized controlled trial
- Serum uric acid to albumin ratio and C-reactive protein as predictive biomarkers for chronic total occlusion and coronary collateral circulation quality
- Multiple organ scoring systems for predicting in-hospital mortality of sepsis patients in the intensive care unit
- Single-cell RNA sequencing data analysis of the inner ear in gentamicin-treated mice via intraperitoneal injection
- Suppression of cathepsin B attenuates myocardial injury via limiting cardiomyocyte apoptosis
- Influence of sevoflurane combined with propofol anesthesia on the anesthesia effect and adverse reactions in children with acute appendicitis
- Identification of hub genes related to acute kidney injury caused by sevoflurane anesthesia and endoplasmic reticulum stress
- Efficacy and safety of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
- The value of diagnostic experience in O-RADS MRI score for ovarian-adnexal lesions
- Health education pathway for individuals with temporary enterostomies using patient journey mapping
- Serum TLR8 as a potential diagnostic biomarker of coronary heart disease
- Intraoperative temperature management and its effect on surgical outcomes in elderly patients undergoing lichtenstein unilateral inguinal hernia repair
- Immunohistochemical profiling and neuroepithelial heterogeneity in immature ovarian teratomas: a retrospective digital pathology-based study
- Associated risk factors and prevalence of human papillomavirus infection among females visiting tertiary care hospital: a cross-sectional study from Nepal
- Comparative evaluation of various disc elution methods for the detection of colistin-resistant gram-negative bacteria
- Effect of timing of cholecystectomy on weight loss after sleeve gastrectomy in morbidly obese individuals with cholelithiasis: a retrospective cohort study
- Causal association between ceramide levels and central precocious puberty: a mendelian randomization study
- Novel predictive model for colorectal liver metastases recurrence: a radiomics and clinical data approach
- Relationship between resident physicians’ perceived professional value and exposure to violence
- Multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes: a Mendelian randomization study of European ancestry
- Rapid pathogen identification in peritoneal dialysis effluent by MALDI-TOF MS following blood culture enrichment
- Comparison of open and percutaneous A1 pulley release in pediatric trigger thumb: a retrospective cohort study
- Impact of combined diaphragm-lung ultrasound assessment on postoperative respiratory function in patients under general anesthesia recovery
- Development and internal validation of a nomogram for predicting short-term prognosis in ICU patients with acute pyelonephritis
- The association between hypoxic burden and blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea
- Promotion of asthenozoospermia by C9orf72 through suppression of spermatogonia activity via fructose metabolism and mitophagy
- Review Articles
- The effects of enhanced external counter-pulsation on post-acute sequelae of COVID-19: A narrative review
- Diabetes-related cognitive impairment: Mechanisms, symptoms, and treatments
- Microscopic changes and gross morphology of placenta in women affected by gestational diabetes mellitus in dietary treatment: A systematic review
- Review of mechanisms and frontier applications in IL-17A-induced hypertension
- Research progress on the correlation between islet amyloid peptides and type 2 diabetes mellitus
- The safety and efficacy of BCG combined with mitomycin C compared with BCG monotherapy in patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
- The application of augmented reality in robotic general surgery: A mini-review
- The effect of Greek mountain tea extract and wheat germ extract on peripheral blood flow and eicosanoid metabolism in mammals
- Neurogasobiology of migraine: Carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and nitric oxide as emerging pathophysiological trinacrium relevant to nociception regulation
- Plant polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids in oral health
- Laboratory medicine between technological innovation, rights safeguarding, and patient safety: A bioethical perspective
- End-of-life in cancer patients: Medicolegal implications and ethical challenges in Europe
- The maternal factors during pregnancy for intrauterine growth retardation: An umbrella review
- Intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome of pediatric patients in critical care settings
- PI3K/Akt pathway and neuroinflammation in sepsis-associated encephalopathy
- Screening of Group B Streptococcus in pregnancy: A systematic review for the laboratory detection
- Giant borderline ovarian tumours – review of the literature
- Leveraging artificial intelligence for collaborative care planning: Innovations and impacts in shared decision-making – A systematic review
- Cholera epidemiology analysis through the experience of the 1973 Naples epidemic
- Risk factors of frailty/sarcopenia in community older adults: Meta-analysis
- Supplement strategies for infertility in overweight women: Evidence and legal insights
- Scurvy, a not obsolete disorder: Clinical report in eight young children and literature review
- A meta-analysis of the effects of DBS on cognitive function in patients with advanced PD
- Protective role of selenium in sepsis: Mechanisms and potential therapeutic strategies
- Strategies for hyperkalemia management in dialysis patients: A systematic review
- C-reactive protein-to-albumin ratio in peripheral artery disease
- Research progress on autophagy and its roles in sepsis induced organ injury
- Neuronutrition in autism spectrum disorders
- Pumilio 2 in neural development, function, and specific neurological disorders
- Antibiotic prescribing patterns in general dental practice- a scoping review
- Clinical and medico-legal reflections on non-invasive prenatal testing
- Smartphone use and back pain: a narrative review of postural pathologies
- Targeting endothelial oxidative stress in hypertension
- Exploring links between acne and metabolic syndrome: a narrative review
- Case Reports
- Delayed graft function after renal transplantation
- Semaglutide treatment for type 2 diabetes in a patient with chronic myeloid leukemia: A case report and review of the literature
- Diverse electrophysiological demyelinating features in a late-onset glycogen storage disease type IIIa case
- Giant right atrial hemangioma presenting with ascites: A case report
- Laser excision of a large granular cell tumor of the vocal cord with subglottic extension: A case report
- EsoFLIP-assisted dilation for dysphagia in systemic sclerosis: Highlighting the role of multimodal esophageal evaluation
- Molecular hydrogen-rhodiola as an adjuvant therapy for ischemic stroke in internal carotid artery occlusion: A case report
- Coronary artery anomalies: A case of the “malignant” left coronary artery and its surgical management
- Combined VAT and retroperitoneoscopy for pleural empyema due to nephro-pleuric fistula in xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis
- A rare case of Opalski syndrome with a suspected multiple sclerosis etiology
- Newly diagnosed B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia demonstrating localized bone marrow infiltration exclusively in the lower extremities
- Rapid Communication
- Biological properties of valve materials using RGD and EC
-
A single oral administration of flavanols enhances short
-term memory in mice along with increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor - Repeat influenza incidence across two consecutive influenza seasons
- Letter to the Editor
- Role of enhanced external counterpulsation in long COVID
- Expression of Concern
- Expression of concern “A ceRNA network mediated by LINC00475 in papillary thyroid carcinoma”
- Expression of concern “Notoginsenoside R1 alleviates spinal cord injury through the miR-301a/KLF7 axis to activate Wnt/β-catenin pathway”
- Expression of concern “circ_0020123 promotes cell proliferation and migration in lung adenocarcinoma via PDZD8”
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to “Empagliflozin improves aortic injury in obese mice by regulating fatty acid metabolism”
- Corrigendum to “Comparing the therapeutic efficacy of endoscopic minimally invasive surgery and traditional surgery for early-stage breast cancer: A meta-analysis”
- Corrigendum to “The progress of autoimmune hepatitis research and future challenges”
- Retraction
- Retraction of “miR-654-5p promotes gastric cancer progression via the GPRIN1/NF-κB pathway”
- Retraction of: “LncRNA CASC15 inhibition relieves renal fibrosis in diabetic nephropathy through downregulating SP-A by sponging to miR-424”
- Retraction of: “SCARA5 inhibits oral squamous cell carcinoma via inactivating the STAT3 and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways”
- Special Issue Advancements in oncology: bridging clinical and experimental research - Part II
- Unveiling novel biomarkers for platinum chemoresistance in ovarian cancer
- Lathyrol affects the expression of AR and PSA and inhibits the malignant behavior of RCC cells
- The era of increasing cancer survivorship: Trends in fertility preservation, medico-legal implications, and ethical challenges
- Bone scintigraphy and positron emission tomography in the early diagnosis of MRONJ
- Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy and safety of immunotherapy combined with chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer
- Special Issue Computational Intelligence Methodologies Meets Recurrent Cancers - Part IV
- Exploration of mRNA-modifying METTL3 oncogene as momentous prognostic biomarker responsible for colorectal cancer development
- Special Issue The evolving saga of RNAs from bench to bedside - Part III
- Interaction and verification of ferroptosis-related RNAs Rela and Stat3 in promoting sepsis-associated acute kidney injury
- The mRNA MOXD1: Link to oxidative stress and prognostic significance in gastric cancer
- Special Issue Exploring the biological mechanism of human diseases based on MultiOmics Technology - Part II
- Dynamic changes in lactate-related genes in microglia and their role in immune cell interactions after ischemic stroke
- A prognostic model correlated with fatty acid metabolism in Ewing’s sarcoma based on bioinformatics analysis
- Red cell distribution width predicts early kidney injury: A NHANES cross-sectional study
- Special Issue Diabetes mellitus: pathophysiology, complications & treatment
- Nutritional risk assessment and nutritional support in children with congenital diabetes during surgery
- Correlation of the differential expressions of RANK, RANKL, and OPG with obesity in the elderly population in Xinjiang
- A discussion on the application of fluorescence micro-optical sectioning tomography in the research of cognitive dysfunction in diabetes
- A review of brain research on T2DM-related cognitive dysfunction
- Metformin and estrogen modulation in LABC with T2DM: A 36-month randomized trial
- Special Issue Innovative Biomarker Discovery and Precision Medicine in Cancer Diagnostics
- CircASH1L-mediated tumor progression in triple-negative breast cancer: PI3K/AKT pathway mechanisms
Articles in the same Issue
- Research Articles
- Network pharmacological analysis and in vitro testing of the rutin effects on triple-negative breast cancer
- Impact of diabetes on long-term survival in elderly liver cancer patients: A retrospective study
- Knockdown of CCNB1 alleviates high glucose-triggered trophoblast dysfunction during gestational diabetes via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway
- Risk factors for severe adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients
- Analysis of the effect of ALA-PDT on macrophages in footpad model of mice infected with Fonsecaea monophora based on single-cell sequencing
- Development and validation of headspace gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector method for the determination of ethanol in the vitreous humor
- CMSP exerts anti-tumor effects on small cell lung cancer cells by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and ferroptosis
- Predictive value of plasma sB7-H3 and YKL-40 in pediatric refractory Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia
- Antiangiogenic potential of Elaeagnus umbellata extracts and molecular docking study by targeting VEGFR-2 pathway
- Comparison of the effectiveness of nurse-led preoperative counseling and postoperative follow-up care vs standard care for patients with gastric cancer
- Comparing the therapeutic efficacy of endoscopic minimally invasive surgery and traditional surgery for early-stage breast cancer: A meta-analysis
- Adhered macrophages as an additional marker of cardiomyocyte injury in biopsies of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy
- Association between statin administration and outcome in patients with sepsis: A retrospective study
- Exploration of the association between estimated glucose disposal rate and osteoarthritis in middle-aged and older adults: An analysis of NHANES data from 2011 to 2018
- A comparative analysis of the binary and multiclass classified chest X-ray images of pneumonia and COVID-19 with ML and DL models
- Lysophosphatidic acid 2 alleviates deep vein thrombosis via protective endothelial barrier function
- Transcription factor A, mitochondrial promotes lymph node metastasis and lymphangiogenesis in epithelial ovarian carcinoma
- Serum PM20D1 levels are associated with nutritional status and inflammatory factors in gastric cancer patients undergoing early enteral nutrition
- Hydromorphone reduced the incidence of emergence agitation after adenotonsillectomy in children with obstructive sleep apnea: A randomized, double-blind study
- Vitamin D replacement therapy may regulate sleep habits in patients with restless leg syndrome
- The first-line antihypertensive nitrendipine potentiated the therapeutic effect of oxaliplatin by downregulating CACNA1D in colorectal cancer
- Health literacy and health-related quality of life: The mediating role of irrational happiness
- Modulatory effects of Lycium barbarum polysaccharide on bone cell dynamics in osteoporosis
- Mechanism research on inhibition of gastric cancer in vitro by the extract of Pinellia ternata based on network pharmacology and cellular metabolomics
- Examination of the causal role of immune cells in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study
- Clinical analysis of ten cases of HIV infection combined with acute leukemia
- Investigating the cardioprotective potential of quercetin against tacrolimus-induced cardiotoxicity in Wistar rats: A mechanistic insights
- Clinical observation of probiotics combined with mesalazine and Yiyi Baitouweng Decoction retention enema in treating mild-to-moderate ulcerative colitis
- Diagnostic value of ratio of blood inflammation to coagulation markers in periprosthetic joint infection
- Sex-specific associations of sex hormone binding globulin and risk of bladder cancer
- Core muscle strength and stability-oriented breathing training reduces inter-recti distance in postpartum women
- The ERAS nursing care strategy for patients undergoing transsphenoidal endoscopic pituitary tumor resection: A randomized blinded controlled trial
- The serum IL-17A levels in patients with traumatic bowel rupture post-surgery and its predictive value for patient prognosis
- Impact of Kolb’s experiential learning theory-based nursing on caregiver burden and psychological state of caregivers of dementia patients
- Analysis of serum NLR combined with intraoperative margin condition to predict the prognosis of cervical HSIL patients undergoing LEEP surgery
- Commiphora gileadensis ameliorate infertility and erectile dysfunction in diabetic male mice
- The correlation between epithelial–mesenchymal transition classification and MMP2 expression of circulating tumor cells and prognosis of advanced or metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma
- Tetrahydropalmatine improves mitochondrial function in vascular smooth muscle cells of atherosclerosis in vitro by inhibiting Ras homolog gene family A/Rho-associated protein kinase-1 signaling pathway
- A cross-sectional study: Relationship between serum oxidative stress levels and arteriovenous fistula maturation in maintenance dialysis patients
- A comparative analysis of the impact of repeated administration of flavan 3-ol on brown, subcutaneous, and visceral adipose tissue
- Identifying early screening factors for depression in middle-aged and older adults: A cohort study
- Perform tumor-specific survival analysis for Merkel cell carcinoma patients undergoing surgical resection based on the SEER database by constructing a nomogram chart
- Unveiling the role of CXCL10 in pancreatic cancer progression: A novel prognostic indicator
- High-dose preoperative intraperitoneal erythropoietin and intravenous methylprednisolone in acute traumatic spinal cord injuries following decompression surgeries
- RAB39B: A novel biomarker for acute myeloid leukemia identified via multi-omics and functional validation
- Impact of peripheral conditioning on reperfusion injury following primary percutaneous coronary intervention in diabetic and non-diabetic STEMI patients
- Clinical efficacy of azacitidine in the treatment of middle- and high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome in middle-aged and elderly patients: A retrospective study
- The effect of ambulatory blood pressure load on mitral regurgitation in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients
- Expression and clinical significance of ITGA3 in breast cancer
- Single-nucleus RNA sequencing reveals ARHGAP28 expression of podocytes as a biomarker in human diabetic nephropathy
- rSIG combined with NLR in the prognostic assessment of patients with multiple injuries
- Toxic metals and metalloids in collagen supplements of fish and jellyfish origin: Risk assessment for daily intake
- Exploring causal relationship between 41 inflammatory cytokines and marginal zone lymphoma: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study
- Gender beliefs and legitimization of dating violence in adolescents
- Effect of serum IL-6, CRP, and MMP-9 levels on the efficacy of modified preperitoneal Kugel repair in patients with inguinal hernia
- Effect of smoking and smoking cessation on hematological parameters in polycythemic patients
- Pathogen surveillance and risk factors for pulmonary infection in patients with lung cancer: A retrospective single-center study
- Necroptosis of hippocampal neurons in paclitaxel chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment mediates microglial activation via TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway
- Celastrol suppresses neovascularization in rat aortic vascular endothelial cells stimulated by inflammatory tenocytes via modulating the NLRP3 pathway
- Cord-lamina angle and foraminal diameter as key predictors of C5 palsy after anterior cervical decompression and fusion surgery
- GATA1: A key biomarker for predicting the prognosis of patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma
- Influencing factors of false lumen thrombosis in type B aortic dissection: A single-center retrospective study
- MZB1 regulates the immune microenvironment and inhibits ovarian cancer cell migration
- Integrating experimental and network pharmacology to explore the pharmacological mechanisms of Dioscin against glioblastoma
- Trends in research on preterm birth in twin pregnancy based on bibliometrics
- Four-week IgE/baseline IgE ratio combined with tryptase predicts clinical outcome in omalizumab-treated children with moderate-to-severe asthma
- Single-cell transcriptomic analysis identifies a stress response Schwann cell subtype
- Acute pancreatitis risk in the diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease: A critical focus
- Effect of subclinical esketamine on NLRP3 and cognitive dysfunction in elderly ischemic stroke patients
- Interleukin-37 mediates the anti-oral tumor activity in oral cancer through STAT3
- CA199 and CEA expression levels, and minimally invasive postoperative prognosis analysis in esophageal squamous carcinoma patients
- Efficacy of a novel drainage catheter in the treatment of CSF leak after posterior spine surgery: A retrospective cohort study
- Comprehensive biomedicine assessment of Apteranthes tuberculata extracts: Phytochemical analysis and multifaceted pharmacological evaluation in animal models
- Relation of time in range to severity of coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional study
- Dopamine attenuates ethanol-induced neuronal apoptosis by stimulating electrical activity in the developing rat retina
- Correlation between albumin levels during the third trimester and the risk of postpartum levator ani muscle rupture
- Factors associated with maternal attention and distraction during breastfeeding and childcare: A cross-sectional study in the west of Iran
- Mechanisms of hesperetin in treating metabolic dysfunction-associated steatosis liver disease via network pharmacology and in vitro experiments
- The law on oncological oblivion in the Italian and European context: How to best uphold the cancer patients’ rights to privacy and self-determination?
- The prognostic value of the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, and prognostic nutritional index for survival in patients with colorectal cancer
- Factors affecting the measurements of peripheral oxygen saturation values in healthy young adults
- Comparison and correlations between findings of hysteroscopy and vaginal color Doppler ultrasonography for detection of uterine abnormalities in patients with recurrent implantation failure
- The effects of different types of RAGT on balance function in stroke patients with low levels of independent walking in a convalescent rehabilitation hospital
- Causal relationship between asthma and ankylosing spondylitis: A bidirectional two-sample univariable and multivariable Mendelian randomization study
- Correlations of health literacy with individuals’ understanding and use of medications in Southern Taiwan
- Correlation of serum calprotectin with outcome of acute cerebral infarction
- Comparison of computed tomography and guided bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of pulmonary nodules: A systematic review and meta-analysis
- Curdione protects vascular endothelial cells and atherosclerosis via the regulation of DNMT1-mediated ERBB4 promoter methylation
- The identification of novel missense variant in ChAT gene in a patient with gestational diabetes denotes plausible genetic association
- Molecular genotyping of multi-system rare blood types in foreign blood donors based on DNA sequencing and its clinical significance
- Exploring the role of succinyl carnitine in the association between CD39⁺ CD4⁺ T cell and ulcerative colitis: A Mendelian randomization study
- Dexmedetomidine suppresses microglial activation in postoperative cognitive dysfunction via the mmu-miRNA-125/TRAF6 signaling axis
- Analysis of serum metabolomics in patients with different types of chronic heart failure
- Diagnostic value of hematological parameters in the early diagnosis of acute cholecystitis
- Pachymaran alleviates fat accumulation, hepatocyte degeneration, and injury in mice with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
- Decrease in CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes are predictors of severe clinical picture and unfavorable outcome of the disease in patients with COVID-19
- METTL3 blocked the progression of diabetic retinopathy through m6A-modified SOX2
- The predictive significance of anti-RO-52 antibody in patients with interstitial pneumonia after treatment of malignant tumors
- Exploring cerebrospinal fluid metabolites, cognitive function, and brain atrophy: Insights from Mendelian randomization
- Development and validation of potential molecular subtypes and signatures of ocular sarcoidosis based on autophagy-related gene analysis
- Widespread venous thrombosis: Unveiling a complex case of Behçet’s disease with a literature perspective
- Uterine fibroid embolization: An analysis of clinical outcomes and impact on patients’ quality of life
- Discovery of lipid metabolism-related diagnostic biomarkers and construction of diagnostic model in steroid-induced osteonecrosis of femoral head
- Serum-derived exomiR-188-3p is a promising novel biomarker for early-stage ovarian cancer
- Enhancing chronic back pain management: A comparative study of ultrasound–MRI fusion guidance for paravertebral nerve block
- Peptide CCAT1-70aa promotes hepatocellular carcinoma proliferation and invasion via the MAPK/ERK pathway
- Electroacupuncture-induced reduction of myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury via FTO-dependent m6A methylation modulation
- Hemorrhoids and cardiovascular disease: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study
- Cell-free adipose extract inhibits hypertrophic scar formation through collagen remodeling and antiangiogenesis
- HALP score in Demodex blepharitis: A case–control study
- Assessment of SOX2 performance as a marker for circulating cancer stem-like cells (CCSCs) identification in advanced breast cancer patients using CytoTrack system
- Risk and prognosis for brain metastasis in primary metastatic cervical cancer patients: A population-based study
- Comparison of the two intestinal anastomosis methods in pediatric patients
- Factors influencing hematological toxicity and adverse effects of perioperative hyperthermic intraperitoneal vs intraperitoneal chemotherapy in gastrointestinal cancer
- Endotoxin tolerance inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages of septic mice by restoring autophagic flux through TRIM26
- Lateral transperitoneal laparoscopic adrenalectomy: A single-centre experience of 21 procedures
- Petunidin attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced retinal microglia inflammatory response in diabetic retinopathy by targeting OGT/NF-κB/LCN2 axis
- Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as biomarkers for diagnosing and assessing the severity of acute cholecystitis
- Factors determining the number of sessions in successful extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy patients
- Development of a nomogram for predicting cancer-specific survival in patients with renal pelvic cancer following surgery
- Inhibition of ATG7 promotes orthodontic tooth movement by regulating the RANKL/OPG ratio under compression force
- A machine learning-based prognostic model integrating mRNA stemness index, hypoxia, and glycolysis‑related biomarkers for colorectal cancer
- Glutathione attenuates sepsis-associated encephalopathy via dual modulation of NF-κB and PKA/CREB pathways
- FAHD1 prevents neuronal ferroptosis by modulating R-loop and the cGAS–STING pathway
- Association of placenta weight and morphology with term low birth weight: A case–control study
- Investigation of the pathogenic variants induced Sjogren’s syndrome in Turkish population
- Nucleotide metabolic abnormalities in post-COVID-19 condition and type 2 diabetes mellitus patients and their association with endocrine dysfunction
- TGF-β–Smad2/3 signaling in high-altitude pulmonary hypertension in rats: Role and mechanisms via macrophage M2 polarization
- Ultrasound-guided unilateral versus bilateral erector spinae plane block for postoperative analgesia of patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy
- Profiling gut microbiome dynamics in subacute thyroiditis: Implications for pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment
- Delta neutrophil index, CRP/albumin ratio, procalcitonin, immature granulocytes, and HALP score in acute appendicitis: Best performing biomarker?
- Anticancer activity mechanism of novelly synthesized and characterized benzofuran ring-linked 3-nitrophenyl chalcone derivative on colon cancer cells
- H2valdien3 arrests the cell cycle and induces apoptosis of gastric cancer
- Prognostic relevance of PRSS2 and its immune correlates in papillary thyroid carcinoma
- Association of SGLT2 inhibition with psychiatric disorders: A Mendelian randomization study
- Motivational interviewing for alcohol use reduction in Thai patients
- Luteolin alleviates oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced neuron injury by regulating NLRP3/IL-1β signaling
- Polyphyllin II inhibits thyroid cancer cell growth by simultaneously inhibiting glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation
- Relationship between the expression of copper death promoting factor SLC31A1 in papillary thyroid carcinoma and clinicopathological indicators and prognosis
- CSF2 polarized neutrophils and invaded renal cancer cells in vitro influence
- Proton pump inhibitors-induced thrombocytopenia: A systematic literature analysis of case reports
- The current status and influence factors of research ability among community nurses: A sequential qualitative–quantitative study
- OKAIN: A comprehensive oncology knowledge base for the interpretation of clinically actionable alterations
- The relationship between serum CA50, CA242, and SAA levels and clinical pathological characteristics and prognosis in patients with pancreatic cancer
- Identification and external validation of a prognostic signature based on hypoxia–glycolysis-related genes for kidney renal clear cell carcinoma
- Engineered RBC-derived nanovesicles functionalized with tumor-targeting ligands: A comparative study on breast cancer targeting efficiency and biocompatibility
- Relationship of resting echocardiography combined with serum micronutrients to the severity of low-gradient severe aortic stenosis
- Effect of vibration on pain during subcutaneous heparin injection: A randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled trial
- The diagnostic performance of machine learning-based FFRCT for coronary artery disease: A meta-analysis
- Comparing biofeedback device vs diaphragmatic breathing for bloating relief: A randomized controlled trial
- Serum uric acid to albumin ratio and C-reactive protein as predictive biomarkers for chronic total occlusion and coronary collateral circulation quality
- Multiple organ scoring systems for predicting in-hospital mortality of sepsis patients in the intensive care unit
- Single-cell RNA sequencing data analysis of the inner ear in gentamicin-treated mice via intraperitoneal injection
- Suppression of cathepsin B attenuates myocardial injury via limiting cardiomyocyte apoptosis
- Influence of sevoflurane combined with propofol anesthesia on the anesthesia effect and adverse reactions in children with acute appendicitis
- Identification of hub genes related to acute kidney injury caused by sevoflurane anesthesia and endoplasmic reticulum stress
- Efficacy and safety of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
- The value of diagnostic experience in O-RADS MRI score for ovarian-adnexal lesions
- Health education pathway for individuals with temporary enterostomies using patient journey mapping
- Serum TLR8 as a potential diagnostic biomarker of coronary heart disease
- Intraoperative temperature management and its effect on surgical outcomes in elderly patients undergoing lichtenstein unilateral inguinal hernia repair
- Immunohistochemical profiling and neuroepithelial heterogeneity in immature ovarian teratomas: a retrospective digital pathology-based study
- Associated risk factors and prevalence of human papillomavirus infection among females visiting tertiary care hospital: a cross-sectional study from Nepal
- Comparative evaluation of various disc elution methods for the detection of colistin-resistant gram-negative bacteria
- Effect of timing of cholecystectomy on weight loss after sleeve gastrectomy in morbidly obese individuals with cholelithiasis: a retrospective cohort study
- Causal association between ceramide levels and central precocious puberty: a mendelian randomization study
- Novel predictive model for colorectal liver metastases recurrence: a radiomics and clinical data approach
- Relationship between resident physicians’ perceived professional value and exposure to violence
- Multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes: a Mendelian randomization study of European ancestry
- Rapid pathogen identification in peritoneal dialysis effluent by MALDI-TOF MS following blood culture enrichment
- Comparison of open and percutaneous A1 pulley release in pediatric trigger thumb: a retrospective cohort study
- Impact of combined diaphragm-lung ultrasound assessment on postoperative respiratory function in patients under general anesthesia recovery
- Development and internal validation of a nomogram for predicting short-term prognosis in ICU patients with acute pyelonephritis
- The association between hypoxic burden and blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea
- Promotion of asthenozoospermia by C9orf72 through suppression of spermatogonia activity via fructose metabolism and mitophagy
- Review Articles
- The effects of enhanced external counter-pulsation on post-acute sequelae of COVID-19: A narrative review
- Diabetes-related cognitive impairment: Mechanisms, symptoms, and treatments
- Microscopic changes and gross morphology of placenta in women affected by gestational diabetes mellitus in dietary treatment: A systematic review
- Review of mechanisms and frontier applications in IL-17A-induced hypertension
- Research progress on the correlation between islet amyloid peptides and type 2 diabetes mellitus
- The safety and efficacy of BCG combined with mitomycin C compared with BCG monotherapy in patients with non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
- The application of augmented reality in robotic general surgery: A mini-review
- The effect of Greek mountain tea extract and wheat germ extract on peripheral blood flow and eicosanoid metabolism in mammals
- Neurogasobiology of migraine: Carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, and nitric oxide as emerging pathophysiological trinacrium relevant to nociception regulation
- Plant polyphenols, terpenes, and terpenoids in oral health
- Laboratory medicine between technological innovation, rights safeguarding, and patient safety: A bioethical perspective
- End-of-life in cancer patients: Medicolegal implications and ethical challenges in Europe
- The maternal factors during pregnancy for intrauterine growth retardation: An umbrella review
- Intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome of pediatric patients in critical care settings
- PI3K/Akt pathway and neuroinflammation in sepsis-associated encephalopathy
- Screening of Group B Streptococcus in pregnancy: A systematic review for the laboratory detection
- Giant borderline ovarian tumours – review of the literature
- Leveraging artificial intelligence for collaborative care planning: Innovations and impacts in shared decision-making – A systematic review
- Cholera epidemiology analysis through the experience of the 1973 Naples epidemic
- Risk factors of frailty/sarcopenia in community older adults: Meta-analysis
- Supplement strategies for infertility in overweight women: Evidence and legal insights
- Scurvy, a not obsolete disorder: Clinical report in eight young children and literature review
- A meta-analysis of the effects of DBS on cognitive function in patients with advanced PD
- Protective role of selenium in sepsis: Mechanisms and potential therapeutic strategies
- Strategies for hyperkalemia management in dialysis patients: A systematic review
- C-reactive protein-to-albumin ratio in peripheral artery disease
- Research progress on autophagy and its roles in sepsis induced organ injury
- Neuronutrition in autism spectrum disorders
- Pumilio 2 in neural development, function, and specific neurological disorders
- Antibiotic prescribing patterns in general dental practice- a scoping review
- Clinical and medico-legal reflections on non-invasive prenatal testing
- Smartphone use and back pain: a narrative review of postural pathologies
- Targeting endothelial oxidative stress in hypertension
- Exploring links between acne and metabolic syndrome: a narrative review
- Case Reports
- Delayed graft function after renal transplantation
- Semaglutide treatment for type 2 diabetes in a patient with chronic myeloid leukemia: A case report and review of the literature
- Diverse electrophysiological demyelinating features in a late-onset glycogen storage disease type IIIa case
- Giant right atrial hemangioma presenting with ascites: A case report
- Laser excision of a large granular cell tumor of the vocal cord with subglottic extension: A case report
- EsoFLIP-assisted dilation for dysphagia in systemic sclerosis: Highlighting the role of multimodal esophageal evaluation
- Molecular hydrogen-rhodiola as an adjuvant therapy for ischemic stroke in internal carotid artery occlusion: A case report
- Coronary artery anomalies: A case of the “malignant” left coronary artery and its surgical management
- Combined VAT and retroperitoneoscopy for pleural empyema due to nephro-pleuric fistula in xanthogranulomatous pyelonephritis
- A rare case of Opalski syndrome with a suspected multiple sclerosis etiology
- Newly diagnosed B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia demonstrating localized bone marrow infiltration exclusively in the lower extremities
- Rapid Communication
- Biological properties of valve materials using RGD and EC
-
A single oral administration of flavanols enhances short
-term memory in mice along with increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor - Repeat influenza incidence across two consecutive influenza seasons
- Letter to the Editor
- Role of enhanced external counterpulsation in long COVID
- Expression of Concern
- Expression of concern “A ceRNA network mediated by LINC00475 in papillary thyroid carcinoma”
- Expression of concern “Notoginsenoside R1 alleviates spinal cord injury through the miR-301a/KLF7 axis to activate Wnt/β-catenin pathway”
- Expression of concern “circ_0020123 promotes cell proliferation and migration in lung adenocarcinoma via PDZD8”
- Corrigendum
- Corrigendum to “Empagliflozin improves aortic injury in obese mice by regulating fatty acid metabolism”
- Corrigendum to “Comparing the therapeutic efficacy of endoscopic minimally invasive surgery and traditional surgery for early-stage breast cancer: A meta-analysis”
- Corrigendum to “The progress of autoimmune hepatitis research and future challenges”
- Retraction
- Retraction of “miR-654-5p promotes gastric cancer progression via the GPRIN1/NF-κB pathway”
- Retraction of: “LncRNA CASC15 inhibition relieves renal fibrosis in diabetic nephropathy through downregulating SP-A by sponging to miR-424”
- Retraction of: “SCARA5 inhibits oral squamous cell carcinoma via inactivating the STAT3 and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways”
- Special Issue Advancements in oncology: bridging clinical and experimental research - Part II
- Unveiling novel biomarkers for platinum chemoresistance in ovarian cancer
- Lathyrol affects the expression of AR and PSA and inhibits the malignant behavior of RCC cells
- The era of increasing cancer survivorship: Trends in fertility preservation, medico-legal implications, and ethical challenges
- Bone scintigraphy and positron emission tomography in the early diagnosis of MRONJ
- Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy and safety of immunotherapy combined with chemotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer
- Special Issue Computational Intelligence Methodologies Meets Recurrent Cancers - Part IV
- Exploration of mRNA-modifying METTL3 oncogene as momentous prognostic biomarker responsible for colorectal cancer development
- Special Issue The evolving saga of RNAs from bench to bedside - Part III
- Interaction and verification of ferroptosis-related RNAs Rela and Stat3 in promoting sepsis-associated acute kidney injury
- The mRNA MOXD1: Link to oxidative stress and prognostic significance in gastric cancer
- Special Issue Exploring the biological mechanism of human diseases based on MultiOmics Technology - Part II
- Dynamic changes in lactate-related genes in microglia and their role in immune cell interactions after ischemic stroke
- A prognostic model correlated with fatty acid metabolism in Ewing’s sarcoma based on bioinformatics analysis
- Red cell distribution width predicts early kidney injury: A NHANES cross-sectional study
- Special Issue Diabetes mellitus: pathophysiology, complications & treatment
- Nutritional risk assessment and nutritional support in children with congenital diabetes during surgery
- Correlation of the differential expressions of RANK, RANKL, and OPG with obesity in the elderly population in Xinjiang
- A discussion on the application of fluorescence micro-optical sectioning tomography in the research of cognitive dysfunction in diabetes
- A review of brain research on T2DM-related cognitive dysfunction
- Metformin and estrogen modulation in LABC with T2DM: A 36-month randomized trial
- Special Issue Innovative Biomarker Discovery and Precision Medicine in Cancer Diagnostics
- CircASH1L-mediated tumor progression in triple-negative breast cancer: PI3K/AKT pathway mechanisms
