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Antibacterial, antifungal, and phytochemical properties of Salsola kali ethanolic extract

  • Shimaa Bashir , Said Behiry EMAIL logo , Abdulaziz A. Al-Askar , Przemysław Łukasz Kowalczewski , Haitham H. Emaish and Ahmed Abdelkhalek EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 3, 2024
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Open Life Sciences
From the journal Open Life Sciences Volume 19 Issue 1

Abstract

The research into the use of plants as plentiful reservoirs of bioactive chemicals shows significant potential for agricultural uses. This study focused on analyzing the chemical composition and potency of an ethanolic extract obtained from the aerial parts (leaves and stems) of Salsola kali against potato pathogenic fungal and bacterial pathogens. The isolated fungal isolates were unequivocally identified as Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani based on morphological characteristics and internal transcribed spacer genetic sequencing data. The antifungal activity of the extract revealed good inhibition efficacy against R. solani (60.4%) and weak activity against F. oxysporum (11.1%) at a concentration of 5,000 µg/mL. The S. kali extract exhibited strong antibacterial activity, as evidenced by the significant inhibition zone diameter (mm) observed in all three strains of bacteria that were tested: Pectobacterium carotovorum (13.33), Pectobacterium atrosepticum (9.00), and Ralstonia solanacearum (9.33), at a concentration of 10,000 µg/mL. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed the presence of several polyphenolic compounds (μg/g), with gallic acid (2942.8), caffeic acid (2110.2), cinnamic acid (1943.1), and chlorogenic acid (858.4) being the predominant ones. Quercetin and hesperetin were the predominant flavonoid components, with concentrations of 1110.3 and 1059.3 μg/g, respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of many bioactive compounds, such as saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, diterpenes, and phytosterols. The most abundant compound detected was n-hexadecanoic acid, which accounted for 28.1%. The results emphasize the potential of S. kali extract as a valuable source of bioactive substances that possess good antifungal and antibacterial effects, which highlights its potential for many agricultural uses.

Keywords: Salsola kali ; antifungal activity; antibacterial activity; phytochemical; HPLC; GC-MS

1 Introduction

Plants are continually exposed to a wide range of pests and microbial pathogens in their environment. Plant diseases significantly reduce crop quality and yield or limit production, causing severe agricultural losses [1,2]. In tropical and subtropical regions, fungi are the primary cause of many plant diseases, which leads to a substantial reduction in agricultural output [3]. Pathogenic fungi may cause serious diseases in a wide variety of flowering plants. Some fungal species have a wide host range, while others are extremely host-specific [4]. Based on their relationship with the host, fungal pathogens are divided into three categories: biotrophic, which feeds on living cells; necrotrophic, which kills and feeds on dead cells; and hemibiotrophic, which follows a biphasic strategy [5]. There is evidence that necrotrophic fungi are more economically harmful than biotrophic ones. Both Rhizoctonia solani and Botrytis cinerea are typical examples of necrotrophic pathogens that infect a wide range of dicot plants, and they are linked closely to symptoms of gray mold and root or rot disease [6,7,8]. On the contrary, Fusarium oxysporum is a host-specific hemibiotrophic pathogen that infects plant vascular tissue, causing Fusarium wilt disease [9].

Although bacterial diseases of plants are less common than fungal ones, the economic loss caused by these diseases is massive [10]. Bacterial plant pathogens are worldwide in disruption and have wide host ranges. The majority of agriculturally important crops, such as potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, peppers, etc., are susceptible to a variety of bacterial infections [11]. There are over 150 bacterial species that cause various plant diseases, and they have been divided into the following three families: Xantomonadaceae, Pseudomonaceae, and Enterobacteriaceae [12]. Dickeya, Pectobacterium, Ralstonia, and Xanthomonas are the most common genera that cause blackleg, bacterial soft rot, brown rot, and spot diseases, respectively [13,14]. Pathogenic bacteria penetrate plant tissue and cause cell death by secreting lytic enzymes that degrade and destroy cellular structure. In addition to these enzymes, bacteria also produce exopolysaccharides, toxins, and phytohormones, which are all virulence factors that help them cause disease [15].

Chemical pesticides are the primary method for controlling plant diseases [16]. The continued use of pesticides has a negative influence on the surrounding environment and public health. These harmful effects are a result of the high toxicity and lack of biodegradability of pesticides [17,18]. Therefore, using natural materials as a form of disease management is a novel approach to agricultural development. Biopesticides are a term that refers to pesticides made from natural sources. In comparison to synthetic pesticides, biopesticides have a shorter half-life in the environment, thus reducing possible environmental effects and delaying pathogen resistance development [19].

The Salsola genus, from the Amaranthaceae family (previously Chenopodiaceae), is an annual and perennial herb, shrub, and semi-shrub plant that grows in places with low annual rainfall and saline soils [20]. The genus names originate from the Latin words “salsus” or “sallere,” which means “to salt.” This genus, which consists of about 100–150 species, is common along seashores, in grasslands, and in semiarid and arid regions. Salsola species are resistant to pH, heat, water, and salt stresses, and they represent approximately 45% of desert plants [21]. Several plants belonging to the genus Salsola are used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries to treat cough, influenza, and skin diseases, as well as traditional medicine. The aqueous ethanolic extract of Salsola cyclophylla exhibited the most significant analgesic effect, reducing pain by 89.86, 87.50, and 99.66% after 60, 90, and 120 min, respectively. Additionally, this extract showed the highest anti-inflammatory activity, with reductions of 41.07, 34.51, and 24.82% after 2, 3, and 6 h of administration, respectively. Because of its relatively high crude protein content, the plant is also utilized as animal feed during times of difficulty and drought [22,23]. Additionally, some species of the genus Salsola have been described as having industrial benefits. For example, Salsola soda and Salsola kali were used to make sodium carbonate, linin, cotton bleaching, glass, and soap [20,24]. The Salsola genus contains an abundance of different types of phytoconstituents, the majority of which are flavonoids, phenolic compounds, nitrogenous compounds, saponins, triterpenes, sterols, fatty acids, and volatile constituents [21,25,26]. Plants in the genus Salsola have antimicrobial and antioxidant effects that are generally attributed to secondary metabolic products. The plant extracts of Salsola vermiculata and Salsola cyclophylla, which contain a high concentration of flavonoids, steroids, and alkaloids, showed significant antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Candida albicans [27,28]. Oueslati et al. [26] stated that the chloroform fractions of Salsola villosa displayed promising activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Recently, nine organic compounds were detected as major constituents of the aerial part of S. kali, which is shown to have antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Candida kefyr [29]. The utilization of extracts derived from Salsola plants as biocontrol agents for plant diseases is now in its nascent phase. This investigation aims to analyze the phytochemical composition of Salsola kali extract utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques, with the objective of assessing its potential efficacy against three bacterial and two fungal plant pathogens.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Collection and plant identification

The S. kali plant was collected from Borg El-Arab City, Alexandria, Egypt, at coordinates 30°54′25.9ʺN 29°32′41.3ʺE. The plant material was taxonomically identified at the Plant Production Department, Faculty of Agriculture (Saba Basha), Alexandria University, Egypt. We also performed a molecular identification to confirm the plant taxonomy’s identity. Fresh plant tissue was collected, and genomic DNA was extracted using the cetyltrimethylammonium-bromide method [30]. The tissue was ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen, and an extraction buffer was added to facilitate DNA extraction. Following extraction, DNA purification was performed using phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol, and the DNA was precipitated with isopropanol. The DNA pellet was washed with ethanol, air-dried, and resuspended in tris-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) buffer (10 mM Tris–HCl, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8.0). DNA quality and quantity were assessed using agarose gel electrophoresis and a spectrophotometer. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomal DNA was amplified using the primers ITS1 (5′-TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG-3′) and ITS4 (5′-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3′). A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) mix was prepared containing genomic DNA, 10× Taq buffer, 25 mM MgCl2, 2.5 mM dNTP mix, 10 µM of each primer, and Taq DNA polymerase. The PCR conditions included an initial denaturation at 95°C for 2 min, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 95°C for 1 min, annealing at 55°C for 45 s, and extension at 72°C for 1 min. The amplification was completed with a final extension step at 72°C for 5 min. The PCR product size was confirmed by running it on a 1% agarose gel stained with redsafe stain. For the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase large subunit (rbcL) gene, the primers rbcL1 (5′-ATGTCACCACAAACAGAAAC-3′) and rbcL724R (5′-TCGCATGTACCTGCAGTAGC-3′) were used. A PCR reaction mix similar to that used for the ITS region was prepared. The thermal cycling conditions were: initial denaturation at 94°C for 3 min, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 30 s, annealing at 55°C for 30 s, and extension at 72°C for 1 min. A final extension at 72°C for 10 min was performed. Gel electrophoresis was used to validate amplification. Purification of the PCR products was carried out using a PCR purification kit from QIAquick (Cat. No.28104, Hilden, Germany). The purified products were sequenced using the Sanger sequencing method, with the same primers used for PCR amplification. The sequencing results were analyzed using bioinformatic tools. BLAST was used to find matches between sequences and GenBank reference databases in order to identify plant species based on the ITS region and rbcL gene sequences.

2.2 Crude extract preparation

Before the extraction process, the aerial parts of the plant (leaves and stems) were washed with water to remove soil particles and air-dried at room temperature. The dried plant materials were then powdered using a blender and sieved through a 100-mesh stainless steel sieve. The maceration procedure extracted approximately 50 g of powdered aerial portions of the S. kali plant with 150 mL of absolute ethanol as a solvent [31]. The combination was allowed to soak for 3 days under laboratory conditions and darkness. To eliminate any plant debris, the extract was filtered through Whatman filter paper No. 1, and the solvent was evaporated with a rotary evaporator to yield the S. kali extract. The crude extract was generated in different concentrations and emulsified using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).

2.3 Source of the phytopathogenic microorganisms and their identification

Bacterial strains used in this study are listed in Table 1. Meanwhile, the fungal isolates were isolated from potato plants and tubers that showed dry rot or black scurf. The infected potato tissues were washed with tap water to eliminate soil particles. We subjected decaying tuber fragments to a 2% sodium hypochlorite solution for a duration of 5 min. Subsequently, we rinsed the samples three times with sterile distilled water, each rinse lasting 5 min. Finally, we dried the samples using sterile filter paper. About 0.5-cm fragments that had been disinfected were placed on potato dextrose agar (PDA) media. Each plate contained four pieces, which were then cultivated at a temperature of 25°C for 5–7 days. Multiple fungal colonies were identified on the PDA medium; however, only colonies resembling Fusarium or Rhizoctonia-like were selected. For Fusarium, the fungal isolate was initially identified based on its physical characteristics using the morphological criteria outlined by Leslie and Summerell [32]. Following the steps outlined by Stefańczyk and Sobkowiak [33], the subcultures that came from the outermost part of the colony were separated by letting the conidia germinate on water agar at 16°C for 1–2 days. Rhizoctonia-like colonies were identified based on their morphological characteristics, as outlined by Rliizoctonja and Solan [34]. The ITS amplification region was used to confirm the species molecular characterization of the fungal isolates that were collected [35]. These were then sequenced at Macrogen Company in Seoul, Korea. The sequences were submitted to the GenBank website and aligned with the most related strains. To obtain the accession numbers, the identified isolates were deposited at the NCBI.

Table 1

List of phytopathogenic microorganisms used in this study

Classification Strain Accession number References
Phytopathogenic fungi F. oxysporum This study —
R. solani This study
Phytopathogenic bacteria Pectobacterium carotovorum HF674984 [36]
Pectobacterium atrosepticum MG706146
Ralstonia solanacearum GH425351

2.4 Antifungal assay of the plant extract

The mycelia growth rate method was employed to investigate the antifungal efficacy of S. kali extract against three phytopathogenic fungi [37]. The fungal strains were grown on PDA medium for 7 days at 25°C. After this, 5 mm plugs of fungus cut from the edge of the fungus colony were put in the middle of the PDA plates, which have a gradient of plant extract concentrations from 1,000 to 5,000 µg/mL. There are three replicates for each treatment. One set of the plates was used as negative controls, in which DMSO was used instead of the plant extract, while the fungicide carbendazim 50 WP (250 µg/mL) was used in another set as a positive control. In the dark, the cultures were incubated at 25°C for 7 days. For each replicate, the average of two perpendicular mycelia-growth diameters was used to calculate radial mycelial growth. The following formula was used to convert the radial growth rate to a percentage of inhibition. Growth inhibition (%) = [(C − T)/C] × 100, where C is the radial growth in the control (mm) and T is the radial growth in the presence of plant extract (mm).

2.5 Antibacterial assay of the plant extract

The plant extract was screened for antibacterial activity using the well agar method as described by Balouiri et al. [38]. The bacterial strains were pre-cultured in Luria–Bertani broth overnight in a shaking incubator at 30°C. Then, a 0.5 McFarland standard was used to dilute each strain to a concentration of 108 cells/mL. Using a cotton swab, sterile Luria–Bertani agar plates were streaked uniformly with the standardized bacterial broth culture. Wells of equal size (6 mm in diameter) were made into each plate using a sterile cork borer and filled with 50 µL of 3,000, 5,000, 7,000, and 10,000 µg/mL of S. kali extract. The positive and negative controls consisted of vancomycin (30 μg/mL) and DMSO (50 µL/well), respectively. All the plates were kept in the refrigerator for 2 h to allow the extracts to diffuse into the agar and then incubated at 30°C overnight. By measuring the diameters of inhibitory zones (including well diameter) on the agar surface around the wells, the sensitivity of the bacterial strains to the plant extracts was calculated.

2.6 HPLC analysis of phenolic and flavonoid compounds of the plant extract

The HPLC profile of phenolics and flavonoids in S. kali extract was performed using an Agilent 1260 Infinity HPLC Series system with a quaternary pump. The separation was achieved using a Zorbax Eclipse Plus C18 column, 100 mm in length and 4.6 mm in width. A 20 µL of plant extract was filtered through a 0.2 µm syringe filter and then injected into the system. A gradient of 0.2% (v/v) phosphoric acid in HPLC-grade water (mobile phase A), methanol (mobile phase B), and acetonitrile (mobile phase C) was used to separate the substances. The flow rate was kept at 0.7 ml/min, and the absorbance of detection was 273 nm at 30°C [39]. In order to measure the amount of phenolic and flavonoid compounds, the following standards were used: methyl gallate, caffeic acid, syringic acid, pyrocatechol, rutin, ellagic acid, coumaric acid, vanillin, ferulic acid, naringenin, daidzein, quercetin, cinnamic acid, apigenin, kaempferol, and hesperetin.

2.7 GC-MS analysis

The chemical composition of the extract from S. kali was analyzed using a GC-MS instrument with an Agilent 7000D instrument from Technologies in Santa Clara, CA, USA. The GC-MS instrument was equipped with a column composed of a combination of 5% diphenyl and 95% dimethylpolysiloxane, as well as an HP-5MS capillary column. The carrier gas, composed of 99.99% helium, was controlled to flow at a rate of 1 mL per minute. The scanning duration for ionization energy was set to 70 eV, with a rate of 0.2 s. The fragment detection ranged from 40 to 600 m/z. The sample was injected into 1 μL aliquots and split in a 10:1 ratio at 250°C. The starting oven temperatures of the column were set at 50°C with a rate of increase of 3 min. They were then gradually increased by 10°C per minute until reaching 280°C. Finally, the temperatures were raised to 300°C with a rate of growth of 10 min. The phytochemical components that were identified were compared to the authentic chemicals found in the Wiley Registry 8E, Replib, and Mainlib libraries [40].

2.8 Statistical analysis

The antimicrobial inhibition % and diameter of the inhibition zone were tested three times, and the average was calculated. The data were then examined statistically with a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in the CoStat program, substantially distinguishing the means at the LSD 0.05 level.

3 Results

3.1 Identification of S. kali plant

The examined plant sample was recognized based on its morphology as S. kali (Figure 1) and has been stored in the repository of Alexandria University with the assigned number 7709. The genomic DNA extracted from the plant sample was successfully amplified using PCR for both the ITS region and the rbcL gene. Gel electrophoresis confirmed the presence of PCR products of expected sizes for both markers. Sequencing of the PCR products yielded high-quality sequences for the ITS region and rbcL gene. The sequences were analyzed using bioinformatics tools and compared to reference sequences in GenBank. Based on sequence similarity, the plant sample was identified as S. kali and accessioned with numbers PP948524 and PP955420 for ITS region and rbcL, respectively.

Figure 1 Overview of the S. kali whole plant.
Figure 1

Overview of the S. kali whole plant.

3.2 Fusarium and Rhizoctonia isolates identification

The morphological characteristics of the isolated fungi were investigated by observing their growth attributes on PDA and using a light microscope (Figure 2). The isolated Fusarium had fast-growing colonies on PDA that were initially white but turned pink to violet with age, presenting a cottony or woolly appearance. Its conidiophores were simple or branched, bearing both monophialides and polyphialides. The macroconidia were fusiform to sickle-shaped, typically 3–5 septate, and slightly curved with pointed ends (Figure 2). The microconidia were ellipsoid to cylindrical, mostly single-celled (Figure 2). All these features correspond to the fungal species F. oxysporum. Rhizoctonia, in other words, formed light brown to dark brown colonies on PDA with dense, crust-like growth and a smooth, slightly shiny texture. In its hyphae, there were right-angle branching with septa close to the branching point, cells with more than one nucleus, and no clamp connections (Figure 2). All these phenotypic characters indicated that the fungal isolate was R. solani. Following this, these isolates were molecularly identified using Sanger sequencing’s ITS region recognition. After alignment in the GenBank database, the fungal isolates were definitively identified as F. oxysporum and R. solani, and they were deposited under accession numbers OR116509 and OR116529, respectively.

Figure 2 (a) Upper view of hyphal growth of R. solani on PDA medium contained black sclerotia. (b) Microscopic features of R. solani, showing angle branching of septate hyphae. (c) Upper view hyphal growth of F. oxysporum on PDA medium. (d) Microscopic traits of F. oxysporum, showing macroconidia and microconidia. (e) Microscopic view of F. oxysporum, showing chlamydospores.
Figure 2

(a) Upper view of hyphal growth of R. solani on PDA medium contained black sclerotia. (b) Microscopic features of R. solani, showing angle branching of septate hyphae. (c) Upper view hyphal growth of F. oxysporum on PDA medium. (d) Microscopic traits of F. oxysporum, showing macroconidia and microconidia. (e) Microscopic view of F. oxysporum, showing chlamydospores.

3.3 The yield of the S. kali extract and its antifungal activity

The aerial parts of S. kali were extracted with ethanol, resulting in 87.4 mg/g of dry matter. The plant extract’s in vitro antifungal activity was assessed by measuring its inhibitory effects on F. oxysporum and R. solani (Figure 3). Table 2 compares the growth inhibition percentage of fungal strains when exposed to various amounts of the extract with an untreated control for comparison. Out of the fungal strains that were examined, R. solani was shown to be the most susceptible to the S. kali extract. At a concentration of 5,000 µg/mL, the extract inhibited R. solani growth by 60.4%.

Figure 3 Antifungal activity of the S. kali extract against F. oxysporum and R. solani at 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, and 5,000 µg/mL concentrations compared to the positive and negative controls.
Figure 3

Antifungal activity of the S. kali extract against F. oxysporum and R. solani at 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, and 5,000 µg/mL concentrations compared to the positive and negative controls.

Table 2

Effect of the S. kali extract on fungal growth

Concentration (µg/mL) Growth inhibition (%)
F. oxysporum R. solani
1,000 5.6 ± 0.22e 32.9 ± 0.56e
2,000 6.9 ± 0.32d* 47.8 ± 0.72d
3,000 8.2 ± 0.42c 55.5 ± 0.39c
4,000 11.1 ± 0.53b 56.2 ± 0.72c
5,000 11.1 ± 0.49b 60.4 ± 0.86b
Negative control 0.0 ± 0.00f 0.0 ± 0.00f
Positive control** 53.1 ± 0.89a 89.8 ± 0.97a

*Averages followed by the same letter in each column mean no significant differences. **Carbendazim 50 Wp (250 µg/mL).

3.4 Antibacterial activity of S. kali extract

The antibacterial activity of plant extract was assessed by measuring its inhibitory effects on Pectobacterium carotovorum, Pectobacterium atrosepticum, and Ralstonia solanacearum (Figure 4). Table 3 demonstrates that the S. kali extract, at different doses, had significant efficacy against all the bacterial strains tested, surpassing the positive control. The plant extract had an inhibitory effect on a range of 6.00–13.33 mm, and at a concentration of 10,000 µg/mL, it had the strongest effect on the bacterial strain P. carotovorum (13.33 mm). In general, the findings indicated that there was a statistically significant distinction observed when comparing the impacts of S. kali extract at concentrations of 7,000 and 10,000 µg/mL.

Figure 4 Antibacterial activity of the S. kali extract against P. carotovorum, P. atrosepticum, and R. solanacearum at 3,000, 5,000, 7,000, and 10,000 µg/mL concentrations compared to the positive and two negative controls.
Figure 4

Antibacterial activity of the S. kali extract against P. carotovorum, P. atrosepticum, and R. solanacearum at 3,000, 5,000, 7,000, and 10,000 µg/mL concentrations compared to the positive and two negative controls.

Table 3

Antibacterial activity of S. kali extracts against plant pathogenic bacteria

Concentration (µg/mL) Inhibition zone diameter (mm) ± standard deviation
P. carotovorum P. atrosepticum R. solanacearum
3,000 8.33 ± 0.47d* 7.67 ± 0.47c 0.00 ± 0.00c
5,000 9.00 ± 0.00cd 8.33 ± 0.47bc 9.00 ± 0.00b
7,000 9.33 ± 0.47c 9.00 ± 0.00b 9.00 ± 0.00b
10,000 13.33 ± 0.47b 9.00 ± 0.00b 9.33 ± 0.47b
Negative control 0.00 ± 0.00e 0.00 ± 0.00d 0.00 ± 0.00c
Positive control** 14.33 ± 0.47a 18.67 ± 0.47a 12.67 ± 0.47a

*Averages followed by the same letter in each column mean no significant differences. **Vancomycin (30 μg/mL).

3.5 HPLC analysis of S. kali extract

An HPLC analysis was conducted on the fractions of S. kali to determine the presence of 10 phenolic compounds. These compounds include gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, methyl gallate, caffeic acid, syringic acid, pyrocatechol, ellagic acid, coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and cinnamic acid. According to the data presented in Figure 5 and Table 4, gallic acid had the highest concentration at 2942.8 μg/g, followed by caffeic acid at 2110.2 μg/g, cinnamic acid at 1943.1 μg/g, chlorogenic acid at 858.4 μg/g, and coumaric acid at 517.5 μg/g. Conversely, ferulic acid had a lower concentration at 84.2 μg/g, and pyrocatechol had the lowest concentration at 34.2 μg/g. Table 4 shows the results of our analysis of nine flavonoid compounds in the plant extract. The detected flavonoid compounds were quercetin (1110.3 μg/g), hesperetin (1059.3 μg/g), daidzein (314.3 μg/g), vanillin (163.3 μg/g), naringenin (104.1 μg/g), and rutin (14.1 μg/g). However, catechin, apigenin, and kaempferol were not identified.

Figure 5 HPLC chromatogram of S. kali extract.
Figure 5

HPLC chromatogram of S. kali extract.

Table 4

Retention times (RT, min) and concentrations (μg/g) of phenolic and flavonoid compounds present in S. kali extract using the HPLC system

Phenolic compounds Flavonoid compounds
Compound RT* (μg/g) Compound RT (μg/g)
Gallic acid 3.380 2942.845 Catechin 4.549 ND**
Chlorogenic acid 4.238 858.4283 Rutin 7.961 14.1286
Methyl gallate 5.509 266.4428 Vanillin 9.611 163.2905
Caffeic acid 5.855 2110.179 Naringenin 10.290 104.0414
Syringic acid 6.571 435.6735 Daidzein 12.345 314.3267
Pyrocatechol 6.865 34.23431 Quercetin 12.817 1110.315
Ellagic acid 8.542 405.438 Apigenin 14.469 ND
Coumaric acid 9.218 517.4836 Kaempferol 14.948 ND
Ferulic acid 10.077 84.15188 Hesperetin 15.265 1059.257
Cinnamic acid 14.131 1943.147

*RT = retention time, **ND = not detected.

3.6 GC-MS analysis of S. kali extract

GC-MS was used to find the bioactive compounds in S. kali extract. The compounds were matched chemically by looking at their retention time, peak areas, molecular weight, and molecular formula against known compounds from various mass spectral libraries. The mass spectra of the phytochemicals identified in S. kali extract are shown in Figure 6 and listed in Table 5 in more detail. The identified phytochemicals fell into various classes, including saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, fatty acid esters, dialkyl ethers, diterpenes, triterpenoid derivatives, and phytosterol. Of the 23 compounds identified, the major compound identified was n-hexadecanoic acid, which represents 28.03% of the total area, followed by ursolic acid methyl ester (13.22%), 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (12.31%), á-sitosterol (11.14%), and trans-13-octadecenoic acid (5.86%).

Figure 6 Chromatograms of GC-MS analysis of S. kali extract.
Figure 6

Chromatograms of GC-MS analysis of S. kali extract.

Table 5

Phytochemical constituents identified in the extract of S. kali using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

RT Area % Compound Molecular formula Compound class
16.65 0.64 Phenol, 2,4-bis(1,1-bimethylethyl) C14H22O Phenol
22.31 1.12 Tetradecanoic acid C14H28O2 Saturate FA*
24.16 1.31 Ethanol, 2-(9-octadecenyloxy)-, (Z)- C20H40O2 Dialkyl ethers
25.61 1.26 Palmitic acid methyl ester C17H34O2 FA ester
26.34 28.03 n-Hexadecanoic acid C16H32O2 Saturated FA
26.52 0.54 Vitamin A palmitate C36H60O2 Retinyl esters
28.15 0.84 Hexadecanoic acid C19H38O4 Saturated FA
28.79 0.60 Methyl 9,9-dideutero octadecanoate C19H36D2O2 FA
29.11 0.98 Tetraneurin-A-diol C15H20O5 Sesquiterpene lactone
29.31 12.31 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid C18H32O2 Unsaturated FA
29.47 5.86 trans-13-Octadecenoic acid C18H34O2 Unsaturated FA
29.56 1.96 cis-Vaccenic acid C18H34O2 Unsaturated FA
29.96 3.49 Octadecanoic acid C18H36O2 Saturated FA
31.30 0.53 Tributyl acetylcitrate C20H34O8 citric acid esters
36.88 3.28 Phorbol C20H28O6 Diterpenes
37.96 0.74 4-Hexyl-1-(7-methoxycarbonylheptyl) bicyclo[4.4.0]deca-2,5,7-triene C25H40O2 FA methyl ester
41.06 13.22 Ursolic acid methyl ester C31H50O3 Triterpenoids
42.24 0.54 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)- C27H54O4Si2 Unsaturated FA
42.47 0.67 5-Fluoro ADB metabolite 7 C19H26FN3O3 Cannabinoid
42.88 3.26 Oleanolic acid C30H48O3 Triterpenoid
43.94 4.71 Betulin C30H50O2 Triterpenoid
44.32 2.98 Stigmasterol C29H48O Phytosterol
45.17 11.14 á-Sitosterol C29H50O Phytosterol

*FA = fatty acid.

4 Discussion

Traditional pesticides have proven to be effective in reducing pest damage in agricultural areas. However, they come with a number of serious dangers to human health and the environment [41]. Pesticide overuse has the potential to have devastating effects on biodiversity due to the toxicity it may cause in non-target organisms. Residues from pesticides can transfer to groundwater or accumulate in plant tissue, causing gastrointestinal, neurological, and carcinogenic issues in humans [42,43]. As a result, the production and use of biopesticides have increased, gradually replacing some synthetic chemical pesticides. S. kali is an annual halophytic plant that grows naturally in environments with high salt concentrations, such as coasts and desert areas. Some species of the genus Salsola, including S. kali, have a long history of use in traditional Chinese and North African medicine to treat hypertension, inflammation, and gastrointestinal diseases [22,44]. Recent studies have looked at the antimicrobial effects of Salsola species extracts on clinically important pathogenic bacterial and fungal strains. However, as far as we know, no studies have been done on the effect of S. kali extracts on phytopathogenic microorganisms.

The current study conducted an in vitro experiment, which demonstrated that Gram-negative bacteria, P. carotovorum, P. atrosepticum, and R. solanacearum exhibited greater sensitivity compared to the control. Differences in sensitivity between the two bacterial groups, Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, have been observed in several studies. Elisha et al. [45] discovered that leaf extracts from nine distinct plant species were more effective against E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa than S. aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, and Bacillus cereus. Makhafola et al. [46] also said that the Ochna pretoriensis crude extract had higher average minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values against Gram-negative bacteria than against Gram-positive bacteria in their study. However, other previous investigations obtained opposite results [47,48]. This may be attributed to the fact that the efficacy of the plant extract against bacterial pathogens depends on several factors, such as the polarity of the solvent used in the extraction process, the nature of bioactive components, and the variation in cell wall structure between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria [45,49]. Regarding the antifungal study, our findings show that the S. kali extract works better against R. solani than the other tested F. oxysporum fungus. Zhao et al. [50] showed that the Moutan cortex extract had a higher inhibitory effect against R. solani and Fusarium spp. than Alternaria spp. and B. cinerea. The fungicidal activity of the plant extract depended on the type and concentration of the bioactive compounds, as found by Alotibi et al. [51], who evaluated the antifungal activity of Rumex vesicarius L. and Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. aqueous extracts at 1, 10, and 50 mg/mL and found that the increase in concentrations of plant extract had a positive relationship with the growth of fungi such as F. oxysporum and Alternaria spp. and a negative relationship with R. solani. The species-specific differences in the composition of the cell wall and/or membrane might also be responsible for these variations in antifungal efficacy.

There are several secondary metabolites produced by plants that have the potential to act as antibacterial agents. Polyphenols are one of the most abundant secondary metabolites in the class and are classified into four main groups: phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, and lignans [52,53]. Our research showed the presence of several bioactive phenolic and flavonoid components in the S. kali extract using HPLC analysis. Gallic acid was identified as the major phenolic compound in the plant extract, followed by caffeic acid and cinnamic acid. The antimicrobial capability of numerous bioactive substances is typically closely related to the presence of phenolic compounds. Gallic acid has been proven to possess potent bactericidal properties against multi-drug-resistant E. coli and effectively hinder the production of bacterial biofilm [54]. Pinho et al. [55] found that gallic acid and caffeic acid from various wild plants can stop the growth of three types of bacteria: S. epidermidis, S. aureus, and K. pneumoniae. Wang et al. [56] demonstrated that the antifungal properties of cinnamic acid against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum extend to preventing sclerotia formation as well as mycelial growth. The phenolic acids caused the bacterial cell to explode due to hyperacidification of the plasma membrane and the efflux pump. In the present study, we also observed a significant number of flavonoid compounds in the S. kali extract. These bioactive components in the plant extract may be responsible for its antibacterial properties. Flavonoids have the potential to influence protein and RNA production by reducing energy consumption and DNA synthesis. Flavonoids may also inhibit various cellular enzyme synthases involving nucleic acid synthesis, the bacterial respiratory chain, or cell envelope synthesis [57,58].

GC-MS is a proven method for identifying and quantifying bioactive chemicals in plants. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of S. kali extract revealed the presence of numerous compounds belonging to different organic classes. Fatty acids, saturated and unsaturated, were the most abundant hydrocarbon compounds identified in this extract. Numerous plant species use fatty acids as a defense mechanism against pathogenic bacteria. Fatty acids’ primary goal is to interfere with the electron transport chain. Furthermore, they decrease nutrition absorption and inhibit enzyme function [59]. The most abundant phytochemical compound found in the GC-MS analysis was the fatty acid n-hexadecanoic acid, which has antioxidant and antifungal properties against Alternaria alternata [31,60]. The n-hexadecanoic acid exhibited considerable antimicrobial properties against S. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli, and K. pneumoniae, with inhibition zones of 7.96, 10.96, 11.10, and 11.93 mm, respectively, at a maximum concentration of 50 µg/mL [61]. The presence of n-hexadecanoic acid has been detected in plant extracts of Benincasa hispida, Carissa congesta, Allium nigrum, Kielmeyera coriacea, Cyrtocarpa procera, Labisia pumila, and Rosa indica. It has been claimed that this compound has antibacterial properties [62]. Furthermore, the in silico technology has been employed to utilize n-hexadecanoic acid in the development of phospholipase A (2) inhibitors that are specifically designed. This was achieved by comparing it with other established inhibitors that function as anti-inflammatory medicines [63,64]. The primary target of its activity is the bacterial cell membranes. Furthermore, it impedes cellular energy production, hinders enzyme function, and ultimately leads to bacterial cell destruction. Due to its high level of safety and effectiveness, this antibacterial therapeutic drug has enormous promise [65].

Ursolic acid methyl ester, also known as urs-12-en-28-oic acid or 3-hydroxy-methyl ester, is the second most bioactive compound in our extract. It is a natural triterpenoid compound that has been suggested to have antioxidant properties [66]. Terpenoids have antioxidant properties because they eliminate free radicals. They also have antibacterial or bactericidal properties because they can inhibit oxygen uptake and oxidative phosphorylation [67]. In a study by dos Santos et al. [68], they looked at the antibacterial activity of ursolic acid or its combination with other tripenoid such as oleanolic acid. They found that the mix of ursolic and oleanolic acids (1 + 2) was the most effective against Bacteroides fragilis, with an MIC value of 20 μg/mL. The combination had higher activity than ursolic acid alone (MIC = 80 μg/mL), suggesting a potential synergistic effect. The 1 + 2 combination was potent against Actinomyces naeslundii and Porphyromonas gingivalis, with MIC values of 20 and 40 μg/mL, respectively. Andrade et al. [69] found that ursolic acid was effective against most bacteria tested, with MIC values of 20 μg/mL for A. naeslundii and P. gingivalis, 80 μg/mL for B. fragilis, and 90 μg/mL for Prevotella nigrescens. Oleanolic acid successfully inhibited A. naeslundii and P. gingivalis strains, with MIC values of 20 and 40 μg/mL, respectively [70].

Mallavadhani et al. [71] have demonstrated that lipophilicity plays a crucial role in the development of biological agents. The scientists stated that molecules with carbon chains exceeding C-10 are highly lipophilic and so well-suited for pharmacological testing. Based on these discoveries, two lipophilic derivatives of ursolic acid with 3-O-fatty acid ester chains (1b and 1c) were synthesized [68]. The 3β-dodecanoate (1b) and 3β-octadecanoate (1c) derivatives of ursolic acid did not result in decreased MIC values against the tested bacteria, while the C-28 methyl ester derivative (1d) improved the activity against B. fragilis only, with an MIC value of 20 μg/mL. The discrepancies in results could be attributed to the varied bacteria species used in the experiments and to the processes involved in the action. 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid was the third most common compound in our ethanolic extract. It was found in large amounts in many parts of plants, like the n-hexane extract of B. hispida and Cucurbita moschata seeds, which had two main components in large amounts. The most abundant ingredient was 9, 12-octadecadienoic acid (ZZ) with a concentration of 79.88 and 59.71%, respectively. The second major molecule was n-hexadecanoic acid, which accounted for 16.95 and 37.38% of the two plant extracts, respectively [72]. Krishnaveni et al. [73] reported that Gossypium seed powder GCMS contained 9,12-octadecadienoic acid as an abundant phytochemical compound, and the authors evaluated the ethanolic extract of the Gossypium seed powder against fungal and bacterial strains and found that Gossypium seed powder has fungicidal properties against Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus. In addition, it exhibits activity against Escherichia coli and S. aureus. The seed powder exhibits antifungal and antibacterial properties at concentrations of 50 and 100 μg. It was discovered to have a higher level of bactericidal activity. The suggested antibacterial action seen in Gossypium seed powder is attributed to the presence of phytochemicals in it. Additionally, á-sitosterol and stigmasterol, phytosterol compounds that are present in high concentrations in the studied plant extract, have been shown to exhibit antimicrobial effects. Prior research has shown that stigmasterol and β-sitosterol, which were extracted from the stems of Neocarya macrophylla and Punica granatum, possess antibacterial properties [74,75]. Because of their similarity to the sterols naturally present in bacterial cells, phytosterols can be used to kill bacteria by replacing the regular sterols in the bacterial cell membrane. Disruption of the cell membrane is one of the potential processes that might explain the activity of sterols on microorganisms [76].

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, the ethanolic extract from the S. kali aerial parts effectively fought against the tested bacterial and fungal strains, as well as inhibiting their growth. Because of its high phenolic and flavonoid content, the extract had a significant inhibitory effect on R. solani, as well as other bacterial strains such as P. carotovorum, P. atrosepticum, and Ralstonia solanacearum. The findings highlight the value of S. kali extract as a bioactive chemical reservoir for agricultural applications, particularly in plant disease management and crop protection.

tel: +20-10-0755-6883

Acknowledgments

The authors express their sincere thanks to the City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City) and the Faculty of Agriculture (Saba Basha), Alexandria University, Egypt, for providing the necessary research facilities. The authors would like to extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R505), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: The research was financially supported by Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSP2024R505), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Sh.B., A.A., and A.Al. devised the project, the main conceptual ideas, and proof outline. S.B. worked out almost all of the technical details and performed the numerical statical calculations with help from P.K. and H.H.A. verified the results. Sh.B., S.B., and A.A. proposed the experiments in discussions. All the authors wrote the manuscript.

  3. Conflict of interest: Przemysław Kowalczewski is a current Editor of Open Life Sciences. This fact did not affect the peer-review process.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-04-24
Revised: 2024-07-25
Accepted: 2024-08-19
Published Online: 2024-09-03

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  208. Retraction
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https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2022-0962
Keywords for this article
Salsola kali; antifungal activity; antibacterial activity; phytochemical; HPLC; GC-MS
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Biomedical Sciences
  2. Constitutive and evoked release of ATP in adult mouse olfactory epithelium
  3. LARP1 knockdown inhibits cultured gastric carcinoma cell cycle progression and metastatic behavior
  4. PEGylated porcine–human recombinant uricase: A novel fusion protein with improved efficacy and safety for the treatment of hyperuricemia and renal complications
  5. Research progress on ocular complications caused by type 2 diabetes mellitus and the function of tears and blepharons
  6. The role and mechanism of esketamine in preventing and treating remifentanil-induced hyperalgesia based on the NMDA receptor–CaMKII pathway
  7. Brucella infection combined with Nocardia infection: A case report and literature review
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  9. Ang-1, Ang-2, and Tie2 are diagnostic biomarkers for Henoch-Schönlein purpura and pediatric-onset systemic lupus erythematous
  10. PTTG1 induces pancreatic cancer cell proliferation and promotes aerobic glycolysis by regulating c-myc
  11. Role of serum B-cell-activating factor and interleukin-17 as biomarkers in the classification of interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features
  12. Effectiveness and safety of a mumps containing vaccine in preventing laboratory-confirmed mumps cases from 2002 to 2017: A meta-analysis
  13. Low levels of sex hormone-binding globulin predict an increased breast cancer risk and its underlying molecular mechanisms
  14. A case of Trousseau syndrome: Screening, detection and complication
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  16. Preparation of Cu2+/TA/HAP composite coating with anti-bacterial and osteogenic potential on 3D-printed porous Ti alloy scaffolds for orthopedic applications
  17. Aquaporin-8 promotes human dermal fibroblasts to counteract hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative damage: A novel target for management of skin aging
  18. Current research and evidence gaps on placental development in iron deficiency anemia
  19. Single-nucleotide polymorphism rs2910829 in PDE4D is related to stroke susceptibility in Chinese populations: The results of a meta-analysis
  20. Pheochromocytoma-induced myocardial infarction: A case report
  21. Kaempferol regulates apoptosis and migration of neural stem cells to attenuate cerebral infarction by O‐GlcNAcylation of β-catenin
  22. Sirtuin 5 regulates acute myeloid leukemia cell viability and apoptosis by succinylation modification of glycine decarboxylase
  23. Apigenin 7-glucoside impedes hypoxia-induced malignant phenotypes of cervical cancer cells in a p16-dependent manner
  24. KAT2A changes the function of endometrial stromal cells via regulating the succinylation of ENO1
  25. Current state of research on copper complexes in the treatment of breast cancer
  26. Exploring antioxidant strategies in the pathogenesis of ALS
  27. Helicobacter pylori causes gastric dysbacteriosis in chronic gastritis patients
  28. IL-33/soluble ST2 axis is associated with radiation-induced cardiac injury
  29. The predictive value of serum NLR, SII, and OPNI for lymph node metastasis in breast cancer patients with internal mammary lymph nodes after thoracoscopic surgery
  30. Carrying SNP rs17506395 (T > G) in TP63 gene and CCR5Δ32 mutation associated with the occurrence of breast cancer in Burkina Faso
  31. P2X7 receptor: A receptor closely linked with sepsis-associated encephalopathy
  32. Probiotics for inflammatory bowel disease: Is there sufficient evidence?
  33. Identification of KDM4C as a gene conferring drug resistance in multiple myeloma
  34. Microbial perspective on the skin–gut axis and atopic dermatitis
  35. Thymosin α1 combined with XELOX improves immune function and reduces serum tumor markers in colorectal cancer patients after radical surgery
  36. Highly specific vaginal microbiome signature for gynecological cancers
  37. Sample size estimation for AQP4-IgG seropositive optic neuritis: Retinal damage detection by optical coherence tomography
  38. The effects of SDF-1 combined application with VEGF on femoral distraction osteogenesis in rats
  39. Fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles using alginate: In vitro and in vivo assessment of its administration effects with swimming exercise on diabetic rats
  40. Mitigating digestive disorders: Action mechanisms of Mediterranean herbal active compounds
  41. Distribution of CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 gene polymorphisms in Han and Uygur populations with breast cancer in Xinjiang, China
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  43. Factors influencing spontaneous hypothermia after emergency trauma and the construction of a predictive model
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  45. Application of metagenomic next-generation sequencing technology in the etiological diagnosis of peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis
  46. Clinical diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of neurodyspepsia syndrome using intelligent medicine
  47. Case report: Successful bronchoscopic interventional treatment of endobronchial leiomyomas
  48. Preliminary investigation into the genetic etiology of short stature in children through whole exon sequencing of the core family
  49. Cystic adenomyoma of the uterus: Case report and literature review
  50. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles as a drug delivery mechanism
  51. Dynamic changes in autophagy activity in different degrees of pulmonary fibrosis in mice
  52. Vitamin D deficiency and inflammatory markers in type 2 diabetes: Big data insights
  53. Lactate-induced IGF1R protein lactylation promotes proliferation and metabolic reprogramming of lung cancer cells
  54. Meta-analysis on the efficacy of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation to treat malignant lymphoma
  55. Mitochondrial DNA drives neuroinflammation through the cGAS-IFN signaling pathway in the spinal cord of neuropathic pain mice
  56. Application value of artificial intelligence algorithm-based magnetic resonance multi-sequence imaging in staging diagnosis of cervical cancer
  57. Embedded monitoring system and teaching of artificial intelligence online drug component recognition
  58. Investigation into the association of FNDC1 and ADAMTS12 gene expression with plumage coloration in Muscovy ducks
  59. Yak meat content in feed and its impact on the growth of rats
  60. A rare case of Richter transformation with breast involvement: A case report and literature review
  61. First report of Nocardia wallacei infection in an immunocompetent patient in Zhejiang province
  62. Rhodococcus equi and Brucella pulmonary mass in immunocompetent: A case report and literature review
  63. Downregulation of RIP3 ameliorates the left ventricular mechanics and function after myocardial infarction via modulating NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway
  64. Evaluation of the role of some non-enzymatic antioxidants among Iraqi patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
  65. The role of Phafin proteins in cell signaling pathways and diseases
  66. Ten-year anemia as initial manifestation of Castleman disease in the abdominal cavity: A case report
  67. Coexistence of hereditary spherocytosis with SPTB P.Trp1150 gene variant and Gilbert syndrome: A case report and literature review
  68. Utilization of convolutional neural networks to analyze microscopic images for high-throughput screening of mesenchymal stem cells
  69. Exploratory evaluation supported by experimental and modeling approaches of Inula viscosa root extract as a potent corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in a 1 M HCl solution
  70. Imaging manifestations of ductal adenoma of the breast: A case report
  71. Gut microbiota and sleep: Interaction mechanisms and therapeutic prospects
  72. Isomangiferin promotes the migration and osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells
  73. Prognostic value and microenvironmental crosstalk of exosome-related signatures in human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive breast cancer
  74. Circular RNAs as potential biomarkers for male severe sepsis
  75. Knockdown of Stanniocalcin-1 inhibits growth and glycolysis in oral squamous cell carcinoma cells
  76. The expression and biological role of complement C1s in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  77. A novel GNAS mutation in pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a with articular flexion deformity: A case report
  78. Predictive value of serum magnesium levels for prognosis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer undergoing EGFR-TKI therapy
  79. HSPB1 alleviates acute-on-chronic liver failure via the P53/Bax pathway
  80. IgG4-related disease complicated by PLA2R-associated membranous nephropathy: A case report
  81. Baculovirus-mediated endostatin and angiostatin activation of autophagy through the AMPK/AKT/mTOR pathway inhibits angiogenesis in hepatocellular carcinoma
  82. Metformin mitigates osteoarthritis progression by modulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and enhancing chondrocyte autophagy
  83. Evaluation of the activity of antimicrobial peptides against bacterial vaginosis
  84. Atypical presentation of γ/δ mycosis fungoides with an unusual phenotype and SOCS1 mutation
  85. Analysis of the microecological mechanism of diabetic kidney disease based on the theory of “gut–kidney axis”: A systematic review
  86. Omega-3 fatty acids prevent gestational diabetes mellitus via modulation of lipid metabolism
  87. Refractory hypertension complicated with Turner syndrome: A case report
  88. Interaction of ncRNAs and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway: Implications for osteosarcoma
  89. Association of low attenuation area scores with pulmonary function and clinical prognosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  90. Long non-coding RNAs in bone formation: Key regulators and therapeutic prospects
  91. The deubiquitinating enzyme USP35 regulates the stability of NRF2 protein
  92. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio as potential diagnostic markers for rebleeding in patients with esophagogastric variceal bleeding
  93. G protein-coupled receptor 1 participating in the mechanism of mediating gestational diabetes mellitus by phosphorylating the AKT pathway
  94. LL37-mtDNA regulates viability, apoptosis, inflammation, and autophagy in lipopolysaccharide-treated RLE-6TN cells by targeting Hsp90aa1
  95. The analgesic effect of paeoniflorin: A focused review
  96. Chemical composition’s effect on Solanum nigrum Linn.’s antioxidant capacity and erythrocyte protection: Bioactive components and molecular docking analysis
  97. Knockdown of HCK promotes HREC cell viability and inner blood–retinal barrier integrity by regulating the AMPK signaling pathway
  98. The role of rapamycin in the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway in mitophagy in podocytes
  99. Laryngeal non-Hodgkin lymphoma: Report of four cases and review of the literature
  100. Clinical value of macrogenome next-generation sequencing on infections
  101. Overview of dendritic cells and related pathways in autoimmune uveitis
  102. TAK-242 alleviates diabetic cardiomyopathy via inhibiting pyroptosis and TLR4/CaMKII/NLRP3 pathway
  103. Hypomethylation in promoters of PGC-1α involved in exercise-driven skeletal muscular alterations in old age
  104. Profile and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of bacteria isolated from effluents of Kolladiba and Debark hospitals
  105. The expression and clinical significance of syncytin-1 in serum exosomes of hepatocellular carcinoma patients
  106. A histomorphometric study to evaluate the therapeutic effects of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles on the kidneys infected with Plasmodium chabaudi
  107. PGRMC1 and PAQR4 are promising molecular targets for a rare subtype of ovarian cancer
  108. Analysis of MDA, SOD, TAOC, MNCV, SNCV, and TSS scores in patients with diabetes peripheral neuropathy
  109. SLIT3 deficiency promotes non-small cell lung cancer progression by modulating UBE2C/WNT signaling
  110. The relationship between TMCO1 and CALR in the pathological characteristics of prostate cancer and its effect on the metastasis of prostate cancer cells
  111. Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K is a potential target for enhancing the chemosensitivity of nasopharyngeal carcinoma
  112. PHB2 alleviates retinal pigment epithelium cell fibrosis by suppressing the AGE–RAGE pathway
  113. Anti-γ-aminobutyric acid-B receptor autoimmune encephalitis with syncope as the initial symptom: Case report and literature review
  114. Comparative analysis of chloroplast genome of Lonicera japonica cv. Damaohua
  115. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells regulate glutathione metabolism depending on the ERK–Nrf2–HO-1 signal pathway to repair phosphoramide mustard-induced ovarian cancer cells
  116. Electroacupuncture on GB acupoints improves osteoporosis via the estradiol–PI3K–Akt signaling pathway
  117. Renalase protects against podocyte injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis in diabetic nephropathy
  118. Review: Dicranostigma leptopodum: A peculiar plant of Papaveraceae
  119. Combination effect of flavonoids attenuates lung cancer cell proliferation by inhibiting the STAT3 and FAK signaling pathway
  120. Renal microangiopathy and immune complex glomerulonephritis induced by anti-tumour agents: A case report
  121. Correlation analysis of AVPR1a and AVPR2 with abnormal water and sodium and potassium metabolism in rats
  122. Gastrointestinal health anti-diarrheal mixture relieves spleen deficiency-induced diarrhea through regulating gut microbiota
  123. Myriad factors and pathways influencing tumor radiotherapy resistance
  124. Exploring the effects of culture conditions on Yapsin (YPS) gene expression in Nakaseomyces glabratus
  125. Screening of prognostic core genes based on cell–cell interaction in the peripheral blood of patients with sepsis
  126. Coagulation factor II thrombin receptor as a promising biomarker in breast cancer management
  127. Ileocecal mucinous carcinoma misdiagnosed as incarcerated hernia: A case report
  128. Methyltransferase like 13 promotes malignant behaviors of bladder cancer cells through targeting PI3K/ATK signaling pathway
  129. The debate between electricity and heat, efficacy and safety of irreversible electroporation and radiofrequency ablation in the treatment of liver cancer: A meta-analysis
  130. ZAG promotes colorectal cancer cell proliferation and epithelial–mesenchymal transition by promoting lipid synthesis
  131. Baicalein inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and mitigates placental inflammation and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes mellitus
  132. Impact of SWCNT-conjugated senna leaf extract on breast cancer cells: A potential apoptotic therapeutic strategy
  133. MFAP5 inhibits the malignant progression of endometrial cancer cells in vitro
  134. Major ozonated autohemotherapy promoted functional recovery following spinal cord injury in adult rats via the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation
  135. Axodendritic targeting of TAU and MAP2 and microtubule polarization in iPSC-derived versus SH-SY5Y-derived human neurons
  136. Differential expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B and Toll-like receptor/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathways in experimental obesity Wistar rat model
  137. The therapeutic potential of targeting Oncostatin M and the interleukin-6 family in retinal diseases: A comprehensive review
  138. BA inhibits LPS-stimulated inflammatory response and apoptosis in human middle ear epithelial cells by regulating the Nf-Kb/Iκbα axis
  139. Role of circRMRP and circRPL27 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  140. Investigating the role of hyperexpressed HCN1 in inducing myocardial infarction through activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway
  141. Characterization of phenolic compounds and evaluation of anti-diabetic potential in Cannabis sativa L. seeds: In vivo, in vitro, and in silico studies
  142. Quantitative immunohistochemistry analysis of breast Ki67 based on artificial intelligence
  143. Ecology and Environmental Science
  144. Screening of different growth conditions of Bacillus subtilis isolated from membrane-less microbial fuel cell toward antimicrobial activity profiling
  145. Degradation of a mixture of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by commercial effective microorganisms
  146. Evaluation of the impact of two citrus plants on the variation of Panonychus citri (Acari: Tetranychidae) and beneficial phytoseiid mites
  147. Prediction of present and future distribution areas of Juniperus drupacea Labill and determination of ethnobotany properties in Antalya Province, Türkiye
  148. Population genetics of Todarodes pacificus (Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae) in the northwest Pacific Ocean via GBS sequencing
  149. A comparative analysis of dendrometric, macromorphological, and micromorphological characteristics of Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica and Pistacia terebinthus in the middle Atlas region of Morocco
  150. Macrofungal sporocarp community in the lichen Scots pine forests
  151. Assessing the proximate compositions of indigenous forage species in Yemen’s pastoral rangelands
  152. Food Science
  153. Gut microbiota changes associated with low-carbohydrate diet intervention for obesity
  154. Reexamination of Aspergillus cristatus phylogeny in dark tea: Characteristics of the mitochondrial genome
  155. Differences in the flavonoid composition of the leaves, fruits, and branches of mulberry are distinguished based on a plant metabolomics approach
  156. Investigating the impact of wet rendering (solventless method) on PUFA-rich oil from catfish (Clarias magur) viscera
  157. Non-linear associations between cardiovascular metabolic indices and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease: A cross-sectional study in the US population (2017–2020)
  158. Knockdown of USP7 alleviates atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice by regulating EZH2 expression
  159. Utility of dairy microbiome as a tool for authentication and traceability
  160. Agriculture
  161. Enhancing faba bean (Vicia faba L.) productivity through establishing the area-specific fertilizer rate recommendation in southwest Ethiopia
  162. Impact of novel herbicide based on synthetic auxins and ALS inhibitor on weed control
  163. Perspectives of pteridophytes microbiome for bioremediation in agricultural applications
  164. Fertilizer application parameters for drip-irrigated peanut based on the fertilizer effect function established from a “3414” field trial
  165. Improving the productivity and profitability of maize (Zea mays L.) using optimum blended inorganic fertilization
  166. Application of leaf multispectral analyzer in comparison to hyperspectral device to assess the diversity of spectral reflectance indices in wheat genotypes
  167. Animal Sciences
  168. Knockdown of ANP32E inhibits colorectal cancer cell growth and glycolysis by regulating the AKT/mTOR pathway
  169. Development of a detection chip for major pathogenic drug-resistant genes and drug targets in bovine respiratory system diseases
  170. Exploration of the genetic influence of MYOT and MB genes on the plumage coloration of Muscovy ducks
  171. Transcriptome analysis of adipose tissue in grazing cattle: Identifying key regulators of fat metabolism
  172. Comparison of nutritional value of the wild and cultivated spiny loaches at three growth stages
  173. Transcriptomic analysis of liver immune response in Chinese spiny frog (Quasipaa spinosa) infected with Proteus mirabilis
  174. Disruption of BCAA degradation is a critical characteristic of diabetic cardiomyopathy revealed by integrated transcriptome and metabolome analysis
  175. Plant Sciences
  176. Effect of long-term in-row branch covering on soil microorganisms in pear orchards
  177. Photosynthetic physiological characteristics, growth performance, and element concentrations reveal the calcicole–calcifuge behaviors of three Camellia species
  178. Transcriptome analysis reveals the mechanism of NaHCO3 promoting tobacco leaf maturation
  179. Bioinformatics, expression analysis, and functional verification of allene oxide synthase gene HvnAOS1 and HvnAOS2 in qingke
  180. Water, nitrogen, and phosphorus coupling improves gray jujube fruit quality and yield
  181. Improving grape fruit quality through soil conditioner: Insights from RNA-seq analysis of Cabernet Sauvignon roots
  182. Role of Embinin in the reabsorption of nucleus pulposus in lumbar disc herniation: Promotion of nucleus pulposus neovascularization and apoptosis of nucleus pulposus cells
  183. Revealing the effects of amino acid, organic acid, and phytohormones on the germination of tomato seeds under salinity stress
  184. Combined effects of nitrogen fertilizer and biochar on the growth, yield, and quality of pepper
  185. Comprehensive phytochemical and toxicological analysis of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.) fractions
  186. Impact of “3414” fertilization on the yield and quality of greenhouse tomatoes
  187. Exploring the coupling mode of water and fertilizer for improving growth, fruit quality, and yield of the pear in the arid region
  188. Metagenomic analysis of endophytic bacteria in seed potato (Solanum tuberosum)
  189. Antibacterial, antifungal, and phytochemical properties of Salsola kali ethanolic extract
  190. Exploring the hepatoprotective properties of citronellol: In vitro and in silico studies on ethanol-induced damage in HepG2 cells
  191. Enhanced osmotic dehydration of watermelon rind using honey–sucrose solutions: A study on pre-treatment efficacy and mass transfer kinetics
  192. Effects of exogenous 2,4-epibrassinolide on photosynthetic traits of 53 cowpea varieties under NaCl stress
  193. Comparative transcriptome analysis of maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings in response to copper stress
  194. An optimization method for measuring the stomata in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) under multiple abiotic stresses
  195. Fosinopril inhibits Ang II-induced VSMC proliferation, phenotype transformation, migration, and oxidative stress through the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway
  196. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Salsola imbricata methanolic extract and its phytochemical characterization
  197. Bioengineering and Biotechnology
  198. Absorbable calcium and phosphorus bioactive membranes promote bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells osteogenic differentiation for bone regeneration
  199. New advances in protein engineering for industrial applications: Key takeaways
  200. An overview of the production and use of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin
  201. Research progress of nanoparticles in diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  202. Bioelectrochemical biosensors for water quality assessment and wastewater monitoring
  203. PEI/MMNs@LNA-542 nanoparticles alleviate ICU-acquired weakness through targeted autophagy inhibition and mitochondrial protection
  204. Unleashing of cytotoxic effects of thymoquinone-bovine serum albumin nanoparticles on A549 lung cancer cells
  205. Erratum
  206. Erratum to “Investigating the association between dietary patterns and glycemic control among children and adolescents with T1DM”
  207. Erratum to “Activation of hypermethylated P2RY1 mitigates gastric cancer by promoting apoptosis and inhibiting proliferation”
  208. Retraction
  209. Retraction to “MiR-223-3p regulates cell viability, migration, invasion, and apoptosis of non-small cell lung cancer cells by targeting RHOB”
  210. Retraction to “A data mining technique for detecting malignant mesothelioma cancer using multiple regression analysis”
  211. Special Issue on Advances in Neurodegenerative Disease Research and Treatment
  212. Transplantation of human neural stem cell prevents symptomatic motor behavior disability in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease
  213. Special Issue on Multi-omics
  214. Inflammasome complex genes with clinical relevance suggest potential as therapeutic targets for anti-tumor drugs in clear cell renal cell carcinoma
  215. Gastroesophageal varices in primary biliary cholangitis with anti-centromere antibody positivity: Early onset?
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