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Enhanced osmotic dehydration of watermelon rind using honey–sucrose solutions: A study on pre-treatment efficacy and mass transfer kinetics

  • Jaspreet Kaur , Sawinder Kaur EMAIL logo , Amine Assouguem EMAIL logo , Sara El Kadili , Riaz Ullah , Zafar Iqbal and Vikas Nanda EMAIL logo
Published/Copyright: September 25, 2024
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Open Life Sciences
From the journal Open Life Sciences Volume 19 Issue 1

Abstract

This study investigates the osmotic dehydration process of watermelon rind using a solution composed of honey and sucrose. The impact of the ratio of rind-to-solution and temperature on the process is illustrated. Pre-treatments such as blanching, microwaves, and ultrasonication were utilized. Ultrasonication reduces the time needed for osmosis in a sample, resulting in increased fluid loss and solute uptake; therefore, it was selected as the method to investigate the kinetics and modelling of mass transfer. The effective diffusivities for water loss (ranging from 3.02 × 10−5 to 4.21 × 10−4 m2 s−1) and solid gain (ranging from 1.94 × 10−6 to 3.21 × 10−6 m2 s−1) were shown to increase with process variables such as temperature and the rind-to-solution ratio. The activation energy decreased as the process temperature increased, ranging from 3.723 to 0.928 kJ mol−1 for water loss and from 1.733 to 0.903 kJ mol−1 for solid gain, respectively. The sample treated with microwaves exhibited the maximum dehydration coefficient, rendering it appropriate for producing dehydrated products. Five empirical models were utilized, with the power law model (R 2 = 0.983) and the Magee model (R 2 = 0.950) being the most suitable for water loss data and solid gain, respectively.

Keywords: watermelon rind; osmotic dehydration; pre-treatments; effective diffusivities; activation energy; overall dehydration coefficient

1 Introduction

Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus, variety lanatus, family Cucurbitaceae) has a high economic value with an annual production estimated to be 93,710 million tonnes. Around 30 million tonnes of watermelon waste are produced as rind and seeds during the production and processing of fruit juices in the food industry [1]. Unfortunately, the disposal of these by-products as waste causes ceaseless difficulties, leading to environmental deterioration. Thus, it is possible to convert this waste into value-added food products. Osmotic dehydration is one such approach. This phenomenon aims to improve product excellence and reliability by altering its physiochemical properties [2]. Osmotic dehydration is governed by the differences in osmotic pressure and concentration gradients [3,4]. Two types of countercurrent flows operate simultaneously when food is engrossed into the osmotic solution: water/moisture discharges from the food into the solution medium, and solute particles from the solution elated into the food [5].

Over the past few decades, osmotic dehydration has gained recognition due to its lower energy consumption, chemical-free preservation of food with higher shelf stability, and better organoleptic properties [6,7,8]. Despite these advantages, the major issue with this process is the prolonged time requirement, which can be overcome using novel techniques such as ultrasonication, microwaves, and high electric field pulses [9,10].

Currently, a plethora of research has demonstrated the combination of the osmotic dehydration process with various other techniques, such as microwave [11], hot-air oven drying [12], ultrasonication [13], and pulse electric field [14], to reduce the extent of food dehydration. This study aimed to provide the most suitable processing method for the development of dehydrated watermelon rind by applying engineering approaches and encouraging the potential of its industrial scale-up. Also, the mass transfer kinetics of waste products, such as watermelon rind, have never been reported before. Additionally, this article presents an innovative approach for comparing various pre-treatments applied to watermelon rinds prior to osmotic dehydration.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Raw materials

The century-23 grade variety of watermelon was purchased from the local market of Longowal, Punjab. The fruit was washed and peeled, and the rind was obtained, which was cut into cubes of 5 mm3 in size using a knife. Unifloral honey was procured from the Apiary of SLIET, Longowal, Punjab. Food-grade sucrose was purchased from the local market in Longowal. Honey and sucrose were combined, keeping honey constant and varying the sucrose concentration on (weight/volume) basis. The trial experiments were conducted, through which the selected concentration of the osmotic solution was 100:15, in which 100 mL of honey and sucrose were taken as 15% (by weight). The rind-to-solution ratios were selected as 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3 throughout the experiments.

2.2 Osmotic dehydration with various pre-treatments

The rind cubes were subjected to three types of treatments: (a) osmotic dehydration with blanching as pre-treatment, (b) ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration, and (c) microwave-assisted osmotic dehydration, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Pictorial presentation of fresh rind subjected to different pre-treatments before the osmotic dehydration process: (a) blanching pre-treatment, (b) microwave pre-treatment, and (c) ultrasonication pre-treatment.
Figure 1

Pictorial presentation of fresh rind subjected to different pre-treatments before the osmotic dehydration process: (a) blanching pre-treatment, (b) microwave pre-treatment, and (c) ultrasonication pre-treatment.

The rind was weighed to 10 g, subjected to blanching at 100°C for 180–240 s, and plunged in cold water. The ultrasonication pre-treatment was given by weighing 10 g of rind cubes and immersing them in 100 mL of distilled water and subjecting them to the ultrasound waves for 1,200 s in the Bath type Ultrasonic equipment (Make Macro Scientific Works; Model MSW 269, New Delhi, India) with a frequency of 25,000 Hz at a constant temperature of 45°C [15]. Furthermore, the rind cubes were subjected to microwave irradiation, generated at 2,450 Hz at 30% of 700 W power for 120 s as a third pre-treatment. Afterward, the cubes were dipped into the honey–sucrose-based osmotic solution (100:15) with varying fruit-to-solution ratios (1:1, 1:2, 1:3), placed in a shaker water bath with agitation at 150 rpm, and set at different temperatures (45, 55, and 65°C) until equilibrium conditions were attained. The cubes were rinsed with distilled water and blotted with tissue paper. The cubes were weighed to determine the amount of water loss and solid gain at regular intervals. The experimental set-up for the osmotic dehydration is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Experimental set-up for osmotic dehydration after subjecting fresh rind to different pre-treatments.
Figure 2

Experimental set-up for osmotic dehydration after subjecting fresh rind to different pre-treatments.

2.3 Modelling of osmotic dehydration phenomenon

The two processes, water loss and solids gain, occurring simultaneously to and from the fruits, were calculated as

(1) Soild gain (SG) = Soild gain ( g ) / 100 g fresh rind = ( m 1 − m 2 ) ,

Weight reduction ( WR ) = ( M 2 − M 1 )

Water loss = SG + WR ( g )

(2) Water loss / 100 g of rind cubes = WL ( g ) × 100 M 1 ,

(3) Solid Gain / 100 g of rind cubes = SG ( g ) × 100 M 1

where weight of rind cubes before osmotic dehydration = M 1 (g), weight of rind cubes after osmotic dehydration at any time (t) = M 2 (g), initial dry matter (before osmotic dehydration) = S × M 1 = m 1, and final dry matter (after osmotic dehydration) = S × M 2 = m 2.

2.3.1 Calculation of effective diffusivity of solids and moisture during osmotic dehydration

The following well-known equations for the transfer of water and solute, respectively, are obtained from the solution of Fick’s second law for diffusion from a rectangular parallel-pipe (sides 2a, 2b, and 2c) [16,17].

(4) MR = M 2 − M ∞ M 1 − M ∞ = ∑ n = 1 ∞ C n 3 exp − D w t q n 2 × 1 a 2 + 1 b 2 + 1 c 2

and

(5) SR = m 2 − m ∞ m 1 − m ∞ = ∑ n = 1 ∞ C n 3 exp − D s t q n 2 × 1 a 2 + 1 b 2 + 1 c 2 ,

where MR and SR are moisture and solid ratio, and M 1, M 2, m 1, and m 2 are the initial and final weights of the rind cubes and the initial and final dry matter, respectively. M ∞ and m ∞ are the weight and dry matter at equilibrium conditions, and D ew and D es are effective diffusivities of water and solute, respectively.

If we consider the rind as a cubical configuration, then

(6) C n 3 = 2 α ( 1 + α ) ( 1 + α + α 2 + q n 2 ) ,

where q ns ′ is the non-zero positive roots of the equation ( tan q n = − α q n ) and ∝ is the volume of the ratio of the rind to solution.

As all the sides of cubes are equal (a = b = c), equations (1) and (2) are reduced to

(7) MR = M 2 − M ∞ M 1 − M ∞ = ∑ n = 1 ∞ C n 3 exp − D w t q n 2 × 3 a 2

and

(8) SR = m 2 − m ∞ m 1 − m ∞ = ∑ n = 1 ∞ C n 3 exp − D s t q n 2 × 3 a 2 .

For diffusion from the cube, the Fourier number for water loss and solid gain is defined as

(9) D ew × t × 3 a 2

and

(10) D es × t × 3 a 2 .

Equations (7) and (8) are graphically shown by plotting log (MR or SR) against Fourier number, and the slope was obtained as

(11) d ( log MR ) or ( log SR ) d ( Fo )

for cubical configuration.

The experimental data were fitted to the solution of mass transfer equations:

for moisture loss,

(12) − d m d t = k m ( m − m ∞ ) ,

and

for a solid gain

(13) d s d t = k s ( s − s ∞ ) ,

where k is the mass transfer coefficient, and the slopes were obtained as

(14) d ( log MR ) or ( log SR ) d t .

On integrating the above equation,

(15) ln M 2 − M ∞ M 1 − M ∞ = − k m × t ,

and

(16) ln m 2 − m ∞ m 1 − m ∞ = − k s × t .

The graph ln MR/SR vs t was plotted, and the slopes were obtained as

(17) d d t ( log MR or log SR ) = ± k m or s 2.3025 .

The effective diffusivity values were calculated from the equation

(18) D w or s = d ( log MR ) or ( log SR ) d t / d ( log MR ) or ( log SR ) d ( Fo ) × a 2 3 .

2.3.2 Calculation of activation energy for solid gain and water loss

The Arrhenius equation was used to calculate the activation energy as

(19) D e = D 0 exp [ − E a / R ( T + 273.15 ) ] ,

where D 0 refers to the coefficient of diffusion at infinitely high temperatures, R is the ideal gas constant (= 8.314 kJ mol−1 K−1), and E a is the activation energy (kJ mol−1).

According to the method of Crank (1975) [16], the value of the calculated natural logarithm of ln ( D w ) or ln ( D s ) , that is water and solid diffusivity, is plotted in a graph contrary to the inverse of temperature (K). The slope of this graph provided the value of activation energy [17].

2.3.3 Various empirical models

Various empirical models, such as the Azura model [18], Magee model [19], Peleg model [20], power law model [21], and process model [22], were used for the prediction of the solid gain and water loss kinetics of the phenomena of osmotic dehydration, as shown in Table 1. A nonlinear regression analysis technique was employed to validate these models.

Table 1

Empirical models for kinetic modelling of watermelon rind cubes

Model no. Model name Model equation
01 Azura model WL or SG = ( B × t × k ) / ( 1 + k × t )
02 Magee model WL or SG = ( B + k × t 1 / 2 )
03 Power law model WL or SG = B × t n
04 Process model WL or SG = B × ( 1 ‒ e ( ‒ k × t ) )
05 Peleg model WL or SG = k 1 + k 2 × t

2.3.4 Suitability of fit of different empirical models

A statistical analysis was performed using non-linear regression analysis using Origin Pro 2017. The coefficient of correlation, R 2, was one of the key factors to decide which model was appropriate. Correspondingly, the excellence of fit was evaluated using a variety of statistical measures, including reduced chi-square (χ 2), sum square error (SSE), and root mean square error (RMSE), which measured the mean square of the divergence between the experimental and projected values for the models. The R 2 value should be larger, and other parameter values should be smaller to fit the suitable fit [23,24,25]. The statistical variables were computed as follows.

R 2 was considered as the quantity of disparity around the mean, as demonstrated by the model:

(20) R 2 = 1 − SS residual SS model + SS residual ,

(21) χ 2 = ∑ i = 1 N ( Experimental value − Predicted value ) 2 ( N − n ) .

The RMSE must be close to zero considering the difference between the experimental and anticipated results.

(22) RMSE = ∑ i = 1 N ( Experimental value − Predicted value ) 2 ( N ) 1 / 2 ,

(23) SSE = ∑ i = 1 N ( Experimental value − Predicted value ) 2 ( N ) .

2.4 Results and discussion

2.4.1 Mass transfer kinetics of watermelon rind cubes

2.4.1.1 Effect of pre-treatments on osmotic dehydration

Three types of pre-treatments were applied to rind the cubes before osmotic dehydration. Equilibrium was attained in approximately 36,000 secin-blanched samples. Blanching reduces the duration of osmotic dehydration by rupturing the cellular structure of rind tissues, leading to increased cell membrane permeability. Thus, it facilitates the removal of moisture and solid gain [26].

The microwave pre-treatment occurred for 120 s at a 30% of 700 W power at 2,450 Hz [27]. The osmotic process required 28,800 s to reach equilibrium. Moisture loss occurred faster in microwave-treated samples owing to the mechanism of microwaves, which causes a higher rate of heating, leading to advancement in the inner fluid pressure of rind cubes on the water molecules, thus facilitating osmosis [28]. The process was aggressive at the start of the phenomenon owing to the greater osmotic potential existing between the rind cubes and osmotic solution. However, the solid gain occurred less compared to other pre-treatments, which occurred due to greater loss of moisture, and shrinkage occurred, thus resisting the passage for solid transfer [29]. Similar results were reported by Manzoor et al., in which moisture loss was greater in microwave-assisted osmotic dehydration, whereas the solid gain was much lower than that in conventional osmotic dehydration [30].

Ultrasonication was conducted at a frequency of 25,000 Hz and a constant temperature of 45°C for 1,200 s. According to the data, the highest amounts of water lost and solid gained were 28.185 and 10.024 g, respectively, while the temperature varied between 45 and 65°C. Moreover, when the rind to solution ratio ranged from 1:1 to 1:3, the highest recorded amount of fluid loss was 29.840 g, while the solute gain was 10.657 g. Therefore, the system reached equilibrium after 21,600 s, and there was no additional mass transfer. The primary phenomenon observed during ultrasonication is cavitation [31]. The mechanical stress zone induced by ultrasonic waves passing through a solid/liquid system is distinguished by consecutive increases and decreases in the local pressure, resulting in the boiling of the liquid and the creation of many bubbles with the surrounding air [7]. These cavitation bubbles remained stable until the internal pressure exceeded the surface tension. However, subsequently, the bubbles develop steadily and then undergo a dramatic explosion as the ambient temperature (500 K) and pressure (101.325 × 106) increase [32]. The collapse of the food matrix results in the disintegration of the cellular membrane, allowing for a more efficient release of fluids. The additional impacts of this phenomenon include the production of shear stress, microstreaming of moisture, and formation of free radicals resulting from the fission of water molecules during this severe bombardment [33].

2.4.1.2 Effect of solution temperature on osmotic dehydration

The effects of temperature on water loss and solid gain for various pre-treatments are shown in Tables 2–4. According to data, the maximum water losses that occurred were 21.88 ± 1.25, 25.875 ± 1.22, and 28.185 ± 1.01 g, respectively, for blanched, microwaved, and ultrasonicated samples at 65°C. Furthermore, the solid gains observed were 9.124 ± 1.21, 8.452 ± 1.40, and 10.02 ± 0.98 g, respectively, at 65°C for blanched, microwave-treated, and ultrasonicated rind cubes. Figures 3–5 illustrate that there was an increase in the fluid loss and solid gain, with a significant increase in temperature from 45 to 65°C of the osmotic solution at 100:15 concentration in which the rind cubes were immersed.

Table 2

Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain of blanched watermelon rind cubes

Time (min) WL (45°C) WL (55°C) WL (65°C) SG (45°C) SG (55°C) SG (65°C)
5 6.546 ± 1.21 7.657 ± 1.25 8.321 ± 1.2 1.983 ± 1.31 2.983 ± 1.52 4.435 ± 1.11
15 7.321 ± 1.13 9.325 ± 1.27 10.436 ± 1.51 2.321 ± 1.25 4.321 ± 1.24 5.768 ± 1.47
30 9.546 ± 1.09 11.372 ± 1.26 13.547 ± 1.35 3.567 ± 1.45 4.875 ± 0.98 6.532 ± 1.36
60 12.821 ± 1.08 14.218 ± 1.27 15.782 ± 1.05 4.213 ± 1.36 5.763 ± 1.32 7.657 ± 1.21
120 14.436 ± 1.32 16.659 ± 1.16 17.874 ± 1.71 5.721 ± 1.32 6.032 ± 0.99 8.343 ± 1.32
240 15.433 ± 1.21 17.214 ± 1.18 18.124 ± 1.95 5.989 ± 1.25 6.567 ± 1.21 8.453 ± 1.65
360 17.231 ± 1.22 19.186 ± 1.09 20.453 ± 1.35 6.342 ± 1.47 7.065 ± 1.54 8.768 ± 1.85
420 18.456 ± 1.32 19.898 ± 1.08 21.546 ± 1.47 6.763 ± 1.35 7.773 ± 1.02 8.943 ± 1.21
480 18.876 ± 1.43 20.163 ± 1.24 21.678 ± 1.67 7.012 ± 1.62 7.986 ± 1.2 9.123 ± 1.3
540 19.324 ± 1.54 20.213 ± 1.1 21.879 ± 1.45 7.013 ± 1.24 7.989 ± 1.14 9.124 ± 1.1
600 19.325 ± 1.25 20.215 ± 1.14 21.88 ± 1.25 7.013 ± 1.65 7.990 ± 1.77 9.124 ± 1.21
Table 3

Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in microwave-treated samples at a fruit-to-solution ratio of 1:3 and an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15

Time (min) WL (45°C) WL (55°C) WL (65°C) SG (45°C) SG (55°C) SG (65°C)
5 7.015 ± 1.32 8.875 ± 1.31 11.325 ± 1.26 3.221 ± 1.43 3.589 ± 1.34 3.892 ± 1.12
15 9.423 ± 1.21 10.676 ± 1.42 13.235 ± 1.34 3.35 ± 1.52 4.687 ± 1.21 5.021 ± 1.21
30 12.342 ± 1.09 13.667 ± 1.10 15.382 ± 1.27 4.021 ± 1.23 4.993 ± 1.04 5.582 ± 1.32
60 15.098 ± 1.00 16.456 ± 1.29 19.737 ± 1.23 4.391 ± 1.16 5.045 ± 1.09 6.383 ± 1.43
120 17.201 ± 1.21 18.556 ± 1.02 22.999 ± 1.23 4.535 ± 1.18 6.56 ± 1.08 6.896 ± 1.35
240 19.062 ± 1.32 20.567 ± 1.56 24.452 ± 1.43 4.731 ± 1.29 6.983 ± 1.02 7.455 ± 1.22
360 21.982 ± 1.54 23.456 ± 1.23 25.873 ± 1.32 5.898 ± 1.26 7.134 ± 1.11 8.024 ± 1.23
420 21.983 ± 1.43 23.457 ± 1.34 25.875 ± 1.43 5.899 ± 1.25 7.135 ± 1.15 8.452 ± 1.43
480 21.983 ± 1.04 23.457 ± 1.65 25.875 ± 1.22 5.90 ± 1.23 7.135 ± 1.21 8.452 ± 1.40
Table 4

Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in ultrasound-treated samples at a fruit-to-solution ratio of 1:3 and an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15

Time (min) WL (45°C) WL (55°C) WL (65°C) SG (45°C) SG (55°C) SG (65°C)
5 7.325 ± 0.89 8.923 ± 0.998 11.547 ± 0.95 3.221 ± 1.03 4.854 ± 0.99 5.892 ± 1.03
15 10.876 ± 0.99 11.272 ± 1.074 13.675 ± 0.97 3.35 ± 1.25 5.452 ± 1.02 6.321 ± 1.05
30 16.342 ± 1.01 18.436 ± 1.097 20.874 ± 0.96 4.021 ± 1.28 5.998 ± 1.06 7.582 ± 12.05
60 19.098 ± 1.02 21.321 ± 1.065 23.464 ± 0.85 4.391 ± 1.03 6.231 ± 1.02 8.383 ± 1.02
120 25.201 ± 1.03 26.392 ± 1.014 27.008 ± 0.95 5.535 ± 1.18 7.768 ± 0.99 8.896 ± 1.03
240 26.062 ± 1.06 27.321 ± 1.08 28.184 ± 1.03 5.731 ± 1.09 8.324 ± 0.96 9.455 ± 1.05
360 26.063 ± 0.99 27.325 ± 1.06 28.185 ± 1.01 6.898 ± 1.06 8.762 ± 1.08 10.02 ± 0.98
Figure 3 Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in the blanched samples at an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15 and a rind-to-solution ratio of 1:3.
Figure 3

Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in the blanched samples at an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15 and a rind-to-solution ratio of 1:3.

Figure 4 Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in the microwave pre-treated samples at an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15 and a fruit-to-solution ratio of 1:3.
Figure 4

Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in the microwave pre-treated samples at an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15 and a fruit-to-solution ratio of 1:3.

Figure 5 Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in ultrasound-treated samples at a rind-to-solution ratio of 1:3 and an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15.
Figure 5

Effect of temperature on water loss and solid gain in ultrasound-treated samples at a rind-to-solution ratio of 1:3 and an osmotic solution concentration of 100:15.

Roy et al. (2021) observed similar results when osmotic dehydration was performed in Satkara fruits. A significant increase in temperature caused a decrease in the viscosity of the osmotic solution, which consequently facilitated the diffusion of solutes into the rind cubes, enhancing the permeability of cells [34,35,36,37].

2.4.1.3 Effect of fruit-to-solution ratio

The effect of the rind-to-solution ratio in blanched samples is demonstrated in Table 5, in which the water loss and solid gain were 20.34 ± 1.014 and 9.934 ± 1.052 g, respectively. This amount was highest when the rind-to-solution ratio was 1:3 at 65°C. Similarly, in the microwaved and ultrasonicated rind cubes, the maximum water loss and solid gain were observed to be the greatest at 1:3, followed by 1:2 and 1:1. Similarly, Tables 6 and 7 show that the amounts of water loss in microwaved and ultrasonicated samples are 28.219 ± 1.032 and 29.840 ± 1.024 g and that for solid gain are 7.543 ± 0.968 and 10.657 ± 1.018 g, respectively. Similar results were observed in a study by Thatayaone et al. (2023) on the effects of osmotic agents and concentration on the physical attributes of intermediate-moisture (IM) bananas [38].

Table 5

Effect of rind-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in blanched samples immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose osmotic solution at a temperature of 65°C

Time (min) WL (1:1) WL (1:2) WL (1:3) SG (1:1) SG (1:2) SG (1:3)
5 4.037 ± 0.998 4.657 ± 1.025 5.214 ± 1.025 2.215 ± 0.987 2.654 ± 1.025 2.987 ± 1.001
15 6.244 ± 0.969 7.219 ± 1.032 7.985 ± 1.014 3.654 ± 0.958 4.358 ± 1.051 4.657 ± 0.982
30 7.743 ± 0.968 8.957 ± 1.065 9.324 ± 1.02 5.987 ± 0.964 6.329 ± 1.062 6.974 ± 0.998
60 9.658 ± 1.098 10.018 ± 1.025 11.659 ± 1.035 6.189 ± 0.967 6.957 ± 1.025 7.326 ± 1.021
120 10.324 ± 1.056 11.871 ± 1.065 13.657 ± 1.025 7.324 ± 1.025 7.987 ± 1.05 8.557 ± 1.025
240 11.354 ± 1.014 13.354 ± 1.025 15.874 ± 1.052 7.654 ± 1.032 8.328 ± 1.05 9.257 ± 1.032
360 13.982 ± 1.025 15.249 ± 0.978 16.985 ± 1.032 8.168 ± 1.021 8.698 ± 1.021 9.354 ± 1.025
420 14.124 ± 1.041 15.896 ± 0.989 18.0257 ± 1.025 8.235 ± 1.02 9.218 ± 1.031 9.575 ± 1.054
480 15.325 ± 1.021 16.125 ± 1.021 20.328 ± 1.051 8.281 ± 1.031 9.587 ± 1.024 9.932 ± 1.032
540 15.326 ± 1.052 16.126 ± 1.025 20.33 ± 1.025 8.285 ± 1.054 9.588 ± 1.032 9.933 ± 1.021
600 15.328 ± 1.021 16.127 ± 1.035 20.34 ± 1.014 8.300 ± 1.025 9.589 ± 1.001 9.934 ± 1.052
Table 6

Effect of rind-to-solution ratio on the water loss and solid gain in microwave-treated samples at 65°C immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution

Time (min) WL (1:1) WL (1:2) WL (1:3) SG (1:1) SG (1:2) SG (1:3)
5 6.015 ± 0.974 6.123 ± 1.051 6.321 ± 1.051 1.897 ± 0.987 2.123 ± 0.989 2.214 ± 0.969
15 8.423 ± 0.987 9.272 ± 1.032 10.342 ± 1.06 2.543 ± 0.994 3.329 ± 0.967 4.436 ± 0.959
30 14.342 ± 0.968 16.436 ± 1.024 18.453 ± 1.035 3.651 ± 1.014 4.874 ± 1.018 5.541 ± 0.947
60 16.098 ± 0.935 18.321 ± 0.998 20.123 ± 1.028 4.872 ± 1.002 5.621 ± 1.091 6.762 ± 0.897
120 18.201 ± 1.01 20.392 ± 0.987 22.342 ± 1.047 5.741 ± 1.034 6.572 ± 0.992 7.246 ± 1.012
240 20.062 ± 1.04 22.321 ± 0.969 24.125 ± 1.02 6.381 ± 0.997 7.032 ± 0.938 7.457 ± 1.045
360 22.982 ± 0.988 26.348 ± 1.012 27.11 ± 0.989 6.677 ± 0.998 7.073 ± 0.994 7.542 ± 1.104
420 23.798 ± 1.021 26.56 ± 1.321 28.218 ± 1.024 6.678 ± 1.012 7.261 ± 1.087 7.543 ± 1.098
480 24.023 ± 0.98 26.61 ± 1.021 28.219 ± 1.032 6.678 ± 1.021 7.262 ± 1.037 7.543 ± 0.968
Table 7

Effect of fruit-to-solution ratio for water loss and solid gain in ultrasound-treated samples

Time (min) WL (1:1) WL (1:2) WL (1:3) SG (1:1) SG (1:2) SG (1:3)
5 6.02 ± 1.4 6.234 ± 1.014 6.327 ± 1.021 4.567 ± 0.975 4.598 ± 1.21 5.21 ± 1.054
15 10.123 ± 1.031 11.213 ± 1.021 12.125 ± 1.034 5.432 ± 1.054 6.76 ± 1.014 7.651 ± 1.025
30 15.431 ± 0.912 17.654 ± 0.999 18.201 ± 1.301 6.762 ± 0.998 7.726 ± 1.101 8.874 ± 1.03
60 18.653 ± 0.998 23.324 ± 1.017 25.100 ± 1.038 7.876 ± 0.932 8.981 ± 1.02 9.872 ± 1.214
120 24.564 ± 0.968 26.657 ± 0.997 28.191 ± 1.041 8.864 ± 1.034 9.564 ± 1.2 10.542 ± 1.206
240 25.576 ± 1.01 27.125 ± 1.021 29.839 ± 1.131 9.267 ± 1.047 9.999 ± 1.035 10.654 ± 1.145
360 25.577 ± 0.997 27.125 ± 1.031 29.840 ± 1.024 9.267 ± 1.035 10.012 ± 1.062 10.657 ± 1.018

In addition, Figures 6–8 support the data by depicting the increase in the amount of loss of water and gain of solutes with an increase in the rind-to-solution ratio from 1:1 to 1:3. Similar results were obtained by various authors in their studies [37,39,40], who found that the maximum amount of solute gain and water loss were obtained at high concentrations of osmotic solution. The major reason for this is the increase in the diffusivity of water, along with the reduction in the activation energy due to the increased concentration. Moreover, due to the greater osmotic pressure and the potential difference between the solution outside and water inside, the fluids and solids diffusion became faster, thus providing larger spaces in the cells available for solutes to get occupied [41,42].

Figure 6 Effect of fruit-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in blanched sample immersed in 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.
Figure 6

Effect of fruit-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in blanched sample immersed in 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.

Figure 7 Effect of fruit-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in microwave-treated samples immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.
Figure 7

Effect of fruit-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in microwave-treated samples immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.

Figure 8 Effect of the rind-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in ultrasound-treated samples immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.
Figure 8

Effect of the rind-to-solution ratio on water loss and solid gain in ultrasound-treated samples immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.

2.4.2 Comparative study between different pre-treatments applied to rind cubes

Pre-treatments, such as blanching, microwave, and ultrasonication were applied to the fresh rind cubes, and the osmotic dehydration process was performed. Figure 9 illustrates that the duration for osmotic dehydration varied greatly for pre-treated samples. The maximum fluid loss was observed in the ultrasonicated treatment (28.125 ± 1.065 g), followed by the microwave sample (25.185 ± 1.065 g) and blanched sample (21.88 ± 1.068 g), as shown in Table 8. Meanwhile, the solid gain was 10.12 ± 1.064, 8.934, and 8.452 ± 1.081 g in ultrasonicated, blanched, and microwaved samples, respectively. Similar findings were found by Sharif et al. [43] and Singla and Sit [44] in the microwave-assisted drying of sweet potatoes. This contradicting trend of solid gain occurred owing to uneven heating in the rind cubes, which caused more fluid loss from the cells. Eventually, the surface mass transfer resistance disrupts the cell membrane concentration potential, causing a reduction in the solid gain [30,44].

Figure 9 Comparative study between pre-treatments applied to the rind cubes subjected to osmotic dehydration at a rind-to-solution ratio of 1:3 immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.
Figure 9

Comparative study between pre-treatments applied to the rind cubes subjected to osmotic dehydration at a rind-to-solution ratio of 1:3 immersed in a 100:15 honey–sucrose solution at 65°C.

Table 8

Comparison between various pre-treatments applied to rind cubes when immersed in a 100:15 concentration osmotic solution at a ratio of 1:3 at 65°C

Time (min) WL (B) (g/100 g rind) SG (B) (g/100 g rind) WL/SG (B) WL (M) (g/100 g rind) SG (M) (g/100 g rind) WL/SG (M) WL (U) (g/100 g rind) SG (U) (g/100 g rind) WL/SG (U)
5 8.321 ± 1.021 4.435 ± 1.052 1.876 ± 1.01 11.325 ± 1.024 3.892 ± 1.052 2.909 ± 1.032 11.547 ± 1.058 5.892 ± 1.014 1.959 ± 1.028
15 10.436 ± 1.035 5.768 ± 1.057 1.809 ± 1.03 13.235 ± 1.034 5.021 ± 1.054 2.635 ± 1.025 13.675 ± 1.052 6.321 ± 0.995 2.163 ± 1.034
30 13.547 ± 1.025 6.532 ± 1.035 2.073 ± 1.021 15.382 ± 1.062 5.582 ± 1.024 2.755 ± 1.051 20.874 ± 1.054 7.582 ± 1.054 2.753 ± 1.037
60 15.782 ± 1.031 7.657 ± 1.014 2.061 ± 1.030 19.737 ± 1.052 6.383 ± 1.052 3.092 ± 1.017 23.464 ± 1.065 8.383 ± 1.029 2.798 ± 1.068
120 17.874 ± 0.998 8.343 ± 1.032 2.142 ± 1.042 22.999 ± 1.063 6.896 ± 1.014 3.335 ± 1.061 27.008 ± 1.035 8.896 ± 1.035 3.035 ± 1.001
240 18.124 ± 1.065 8.564 ± 1.052 2.116 ± 1.025 24.452 ± 1.082 7.455 ± 1.02 3.279 ± 1.035 28.184 ± 1.08 9.955 ± 1.021 2.831 ± 1.095
360 20.453 ± 1.047 8.583 ± 1.024 2.382 ± 1.031 25.873 ± 1.057 8.024 ± 1.028 3.224 ± 1.062 28.185 ± 1.065 10.12 ± 1.064 2.785 ± 1.021
420 21.546 ± 1.028 8.932 ± 1.0241 2.412 ± 1.021 25.875 ± 1.058 8.452 ± 1.045 3.261 ± 1.023
480 21.678 ± 0.998 8.933 ± 1.062 2.426 ± 1.029 25.875 ± 1.065 8.452 ± 1.081 3.2611.027
540 21.879 ± 1.097 8.934 ± 1.032 2.442 ± 1.031
600 21.88 ± 1.068 8.934 ± 1.054 2.449 ± 1.015

B = blanching pre-treatment, M = microwave pre-treatment, U = ultrasonication pre-treatment, and WL/SG = overall dehydration coefficient.

The overall dehydration coefficient (WL/SG) was also measured for the pre-treated samples, as shown in Table 8. The WL/SG ratio was found to be the highest in the microwave-treated samples, which is desirable for developing dehydrated food products (Sharif et al. [43]). Additionally, there is great potential for developing intermediate moisture food (IMF) products utilizing ultrasonicated samples with an overall dehydration coefficient of 2.785 ± 1.021 g. Similar results were observed by the overall dehydration coefficient was greater in microwave-treated samples [38,45]. This occurred because of the variation in the dielectric characteristics due to the microwave treatment, which led to extra loss of fluid with increased mass transfer [45].

2.4.3 Modelling of the osmotic dehydration process

The moisture and solid diffusivities of ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration of rind cubes were kinetically studied. The water loss and solid gain responses were evaluated using Fick’s second law of diffusion’s first Fourier term. The presumption was that all terms except the first were improper [9,46].

Table 9 demonstrates that the watermelon rind cubes gained more solutes and lost more water. Thus, their diffusivities increased due to water loss and solid uptake. The effective diffusivities were calculated from the slope of the natural logarithm of the moisture ratio (MR) or solid ratio (SR) as a function of the dipping time. The values varied from 3.02 × 10−5 to 4.21 × 10−4 for water loss, and the values for diffusivities varied from 1.94 × 10−6 to 3.21 × 10−6 for solids. The variation in diffusivities is dependent on various process parameters and conditions.

Table 9

Diffusivity and activation energy for moisture loss and solid gain during osmotic dehydration of ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration of rind cubes at a 100:15 osmotic solution

F:S (w/w) Water loss diffusivity ( m 2 s−1) Solid gain diffusivity ( m 2 s−1) Activation energy (E a) (kJ mol−1) Water loss Activation energy (E a) (kJ mol−1) Solid gain
Solution temperature (°C) Solution temperature (°C)
45 55 65 45 55 65
1:1 3.02 × 10−5 3.15 × 10−5 3.70 × 10−5 1.94 × 10−6 2.06 × 10−6 2.85 × 10−6 3.743 1.733
1:2 5.59 × 10−5 5.59 × 10−5 6.04 × 10−5 2.38 × 10−6 2.39 × 10−6 2.76 × 10−6 1.720 1.359
1:3 3.55 × 10−4 3.62 × 10−4 4.21 × 10−4 2.93 × 10−6 3.12 × 10−6 3.21 × 10−6 0.928 0.903

It was observed that with an increase in the temperature of the osmotic solution at a 100:15 concentration, the diffusivities varied significantly. When the rind-to-solution ratio was increased from 1:1 to 1:3, the effective diffusivities for solute gain varied from 3.02 × 10−5 to 3.55 × 10−4 for the solution temperature at 45°C. Similarly, it varied from 2.06 × 10−6 to 3.12 × 10−6 at 55°C and 2.85 × 10−6 to 3.21 × 10−6 at 65°C. Additionally, the variation in diffusivity occurred for water loss, with an increase in the rind-to-solution ratio from 2.073 × 10−5 to 3.55 × 10−4 at 45°C, 3.15 × 10−5 to 3.62 × 10−6 at 55°C, and 3.70 × 10−5 to 4.2 × 10−4 at 65°C. Similar findings were obtained by Sabetghadam et al. (2024), where the diffusivities increased with variations in the solution temperature and concentration of the osmotic solution [41]. This could be because, as the process parameters varied there were changes in the physical characteristics of the fruit cells, such as enhanced permeability of the cell membranes, which leads to the porous structure, thus facilitating the process [47].

2.4.4 Activation energy for moisture loss and solid diffusivities of watermelon-rind cubes

The activation energy is the minimum energy required for the removal of moisture and intake of solids in rind cubes when soaked in osmotic solutions with varied sucrose concentrations at different temperatures ranging from 45°C to 65°C. The Arrhenius equation was employed for determining the activation energy:

(24) ln D = ln D e + − E a R ( T + 273.15 ) .

The natural log of diffusivity for water or solids was plotted against the inverse of temperature, as a straight line, and the slope of the graph depicts the value of activation energy. According to Table 9, the different values of diffusivities along with the activation energy indicated that the activation energy decreased as the processing conditions varied from 1.733 to 0.903 kJ mol−1, with an increase in the solution temperature and rind-to-solution ratio for a solid gain. Similarly, the activation energy for fluid loss varied from 3.743 to 0.928 kJ mol−1.

2.4.5 Validation of various empirical models employed for osmotic dehydration

The empirical models were applied to the experimental data under various process conditions and parameters; those with high R 2 values and lower chi-square (χ 2), RMSE, and SSE values were accepted. Table 10 shows the values of R 2, χ 2, RMSE, and SSE for different models and indicates that all the selected models had coefficients of correlation (R 2) values greater than 0.90 for both water loss and solid gain at varied temperatures and fruit to osmotic solution ratios (F:S). The two models, Magee and power law models, were best suited for both solid gain and water loss, respectively. The Magee model had R 2, chi-square, RMSE, and SSE values of 0.950, 0.243, 0.377, and 10.021, respectively, for solid gain, and 0.979, 1.257, 1.116, and 12.775, respectively, for water loss. The power law model resulted in 0.939, 2.242, 0.582, and 4.258 values of the coefficient of correlation, reduced chi-square, RMSE, and sum square error (SSE), respectively, for solid gain, and 0.983, 1.101, 0.978, and 10.056, respectively, for water loss.

Table 10

Statistical values of selected models for water loss and solid gain in ultrasonicated samples

Model F:S Temperature Constants (k, n) χ 2 R 2 RMSE SSE
Magee model (solid gain) 1:1 45 2.937 ± 0.147 0.149 ± 0.008 0.060 0.967 0.245 0.603
55 3.576 ± 0.207 0.186 ± 0.012 0.118 0.959 0.344 1.187
65 2.937 ± 0.147 0.149 ± 0.008 0.060 0.967 0.245 0.603
1:2 45 3.729 ± 0.152 0.176 ± 0.008 0.064 0.975 0.253 0.644
55 4.735 ± 0.321 0.275 ± 0.018 0.286 0.955 0.535 2.862
65 5.392 ± 0.291 0.354 ± 0.017 0.235 0.977 0.484 2.350
1:3 45 3.913 ± 0.271 0.250 ± 0.015 0.203 0.961 0.450 2.030
55 4.137 ± 0.668 0.412 ± 0.038 1.233 0.918 1.110 12.33
65 5.579 ± 0.562 0.456 ± 0.032 0.875 0.950 0.935 8.753
Average 4.103 ± 0.307 0.267 ± 0.017 0.243 0.950 0.377 10.021
Power loss (water loss) 1:1 45 5.53 ± 0.42 0.25 ± 0.01 0.929 0.98 0.963 9.291
55 5.82 ± 0.33 0.25 ± 0.01 0.58 0.99 0.766 5.867
65 1.33 ± 0.14 0.44 ± 0.02 0.368 0.99 0.607 3.684
1:2 45 5.94 ± 0.43 0.23 ± 0.01 0.864 0.98 0.929 8.643
55 5.90 ± 0.33 0.25 ± 0.01 0.54 0.99 0.736 5.422
65 7.45 ± 0.38 0.22 ± 0.01 0.59 0.99 0.771 5.985
1:3 45 6.39 ± 0.67 0.25 ± 0.02 2.275 0.96 1.508 22.75
55 8.56 ± 0.32 0.21 ± 0.01 0.399 0.99 0.631 3.992
65 10.42 ± 0.56 0.18 ± 0.01 1.014 0.98 1.007 10.14
Average 6.462 ± 0.51 0.24 ± 0.01 1.101 0.983 0.978 10.056

The Magee model for a solid gain, despite its lower value of R 2, had a lower SSE value (10.021) compared to that of the power law model. The Azura and process models were rejected due to lower R 2 and higher Chi-square, RMSE, and SSE values. Similar results were observed by Allahdad et al. (2019) during the ultrasonication-assisted osmotic dehydration of pomegranate arils, in which the Magee model was best suited for solid gain.

3 Conclusions

The current research focused on the exploitation of watermelon waste products (rind), which underwent several pre-treatments, such as blanching, ultrasonication, and microwaving. We used the concept of food waste valorization as a sustainable strategy to decrease the amount of trash produced by fruit processing enterprises. Ultrasonication, in combination with osmotic dehydration, is the most suitable method for producing dehydrated food. Therefore, this method may be used effectively with the possibility of scaling up the production capacity to create osmotically dehydrated items. The developed watermelon rind cubes possess a market presence equivalent to confectioneries, serving as snack items, such as candies, enriched with the benefits of honey. Future research should focus on enhancing the nutritional qualities of osmotically dehydrated rind cubes by enriching the osmotic solution with other food waste that is high in bioactive components. Additionally, it is possible to investigate alternative non-empirical models such as mathematical and computational approaches. Additionally, we investigated the various components that influence the osmotic dehydration process. The kinetics of applying hurdle technologies such as freezing, vacuum drying, innovative non-thermal procedures, like cold plasma and pulsed electric fields, and osmotic dehydration can be further investigated.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSPD2024R706) at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for financial support.

  1. Funding information: This research paper was financially supported by Project Number (RSPD2024R706) at King Saud University Riyadh Saudi Arabia for financial support.

  2. Author contributions: Jaspreet Kaur: writing – original draft, editing, and conceptualization. Vikas Nanda, Amine Assouguem, Riaz Ullah, Zafar Iqbal, and Sara El Kadili: supervision, resources, review, and editing.

  3. Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-02-22
Revised: 2024-06-29
Accepted: 2024-07-09
Published Online: 2024-09-25

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  49. Cystic adenomyoma of the uterus: Case report and literature review
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  52. Vitamin D deficiency and inflammatory markers in type 2 diabetes: Big data insights
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  55. Mitochondrial DNA drives neuroinflammation through the cGAS-IFN signaling pathway in the spinal cord of neuropathic pain mice
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  59. Yak meat content in feed and its impact on the growth of rats
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  84. Atypical presentation of γ/δ mycosis fungoides with an unusual phenotype and SOCS1 mutation
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  87. Refractory hypertension complicated with Turner syndrome: A case report
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  90. Long non-coding RNAs in bone formation: Key regulators and therapeutic prospects
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  92. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio as potential diagnostic markers for rebleeding in patients with esophagogastric variceal bleeding
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  94. LL37-mtDNA regulates viability, apoptosis, inflammation, and autophagy in lipopolysaccharide-treated RLE-6TN cells by targeting Hsp90aa1
  95. The analgesic effect of paeoniflorin: A focused review
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  97. Knockdown of HCK promotes HREC cell viability and inner blood–retinal barrier integrity by regulating the AMPK signaling pathway
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  111. Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K is a potential target for enhancing the chemosensitivity of nasopharyngeal carcinoma
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  113. Anti-γ-aminobutyric acid-B receptor autoimmune encephalitis with syncope as the initial symptom: Case report and literature review
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  115. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells regulate glutathione metabolism depending on the ERK–Nrf2–HO-1 signal pathway to repair phosphoramide mustard-induced ovarian cancer cells
  116. Electroacupuncture on GB acupoints improves osteoporosis via the estradiol–PI3K–Akt signaling pathway
  117. Renalase protects against podocyte injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis in diabetic nephropathy
  118. Review: Dicranostigma leptopodum: A peculiar plant of Papaveraceae
  119. Combination effect of flavonoids attenuates lung cancer cell proliferation by inhibiting the STAT3 and FAK signaling pathway
  120. Renal microangiopathy and immune complex glomerulonephritis induced by anti-tumour agents: A case report
  121. Correlation analysis of AVPR1a and AVPR2 with abnormal water and sodium and potassium metabolism in rats
  122. Gastrointestinal health anti-diarrheal mixture relieves spleen deficiency-induced diarrhea through regulating gut microbiota
  123. Myriad factors and pathways influencing tumor radiotherapy resistance
  124. Exploring the effects of culture conditions on Yapsin (YPS) gene expression in Nakaseomyces glabratus
  125. Screening of prognostic core genes based on cell–cell interaction in the peripheral blood of patients with sepsis
  126. Coagulation factor II thrombin receptor as a promising biomarker in breast cancer management
  127. Ileocecal mucinous carcinoma misdiagnosed as incarcerated hernia: A case report
  128. Methyltransferase like 13 promotes malignant behaviors of bladder cancer cells through targeting PI3K/ATK signaling pathway
  129. The debate between electricity and heat, efficacy and safety of irreversible electroporation and radiofrequency ablation in the treatment of liver cancer: A meta-analysis
  130. ZAG promotes colorectal cancer cell proliferation and epithelial–mesenchymal transition by promoting lipid synthesis
  131. Baicalein inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and mitigates placental inflammation and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes mellitus
  132. Impact of SWCNT-conjugated senna leaf extract on breast cancer cells: A potential apoptotic therapeutic strategy
  133. MFAP5 inhibits the malignant progression of endometrial cancer cells in vitro
  134. Major ozonated autohemotherapy promoted functional recovery following spinal cord injury in adult rats via the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation
  135. Axodendritic targeting of TAU and MAP2 and microtubule polarization in iPSC-derived versus SH-SY5Y-derived human neurons
  136. Differential expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B and Toll-like receptor/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathways in experimental obesity Wistar rat model
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  138. BA inhibits LPS-stimulated inflammatory response and apoptosis in human middle ear epithelial cells by regulating the Nf-Kb/Iκbα axis
  139. Role of circRMRP and circRPL27 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
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  143. Ecology and Environmental Science
  144. Screening of different growth conditions of Bacillus subtilis isolated from membrane-less microbial fuel cell toward antimicrobial activity profiling
  145. Degradation of a mixture of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by commercial effective microorganisms
  146. Evaluation of the impact of two citrus plants on the variation of Panonychus citri (Acari: Tetranychidae) and beneficial phytoseiid mites
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  148. Population genetics of Todarodes pacificus (Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae) in the northwest Pacific Ocean via GBS sequencing
  149. A comparative analysis of dendrometric, macromorphological, and micromorphological characteristics of Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica and Pistacia terebinthus in the middle Atlas region of Morocco
  150. Macrofungal sporocarp community in the lichen Scots pine forests
  151. Assessing the proximate compositions of indigenous forage species in Yemen’s pastoral rangelands
  152. Food Science
  153. Gut microbiota changes associated with low-carbohydrate diet intervention for obesity
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  155. Differences in the flavonoid composition of the leaves, fruits, and branches of mulberry are distinguished based on a plant metabolomics approach
  156. Investigating the impact of wet rendering (solventless method) on PUFA-rich oil from catfish (Clarias magur) viscera
  157. Non-linear associations between cardiovascular metabolic indices and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease: A cross-sectional study in the US population (2017–2020)
  158. Knockdown of USP7 alleviates atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice by regulating EZH2 expression
  159. Utility of dairy microbiome as a tool for authentication and traceability
  160. Agriculture
  161. Enhancing faba bean (Vicia faba L.) productivity through establishing the area-specific fertilizer rate recommendation in southwest Ethiopia
  162. Impact of novel herbicide based on synthetic auxins and ALS inhibitor on weed control
  163. Perspectives of pteridophytes microbiome for bioremediation in agricultural applications
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  165. Improving the productivity and profitability of maize (Zea mays L.) using optimum blended inorganic fertilization
  166. Application of leaf multispectral analyzer in comparison to hyperspectral device to assess the diversity of spectral reflectance indices in wheat genotypes
  167. Animal Sciences
  168. Knockdown of ANP32E inhibits colorectal cancer cell growth and glycolysis by regulating the AKT/mTOR pathway
  169. Development of a detection chip for major pathogenic drug-resistant genes and drug targets in bovine respiratory system diseases
  170. Exploration of the genetic influence of MYOT and MB genes on the plumage coloration of Muscovy ducks
  171. Transcriptome analysis of adipose tissue in grazing cattle: Identifying key regulators of fat metabolism
  172. Comparison of nutritional value of the wild and cultivated spiny loaches at three growth stages
  173. Transcriptomic analysis of liver immune response in Chinese spiny frog (Quasipaa spinosa) infected with Proteus mirabilis
  174. Disruption of BCAA degradation is a critical characteristic of diabetic cardiomyopathy revealed by integrated transcriptome and metabolome analysis
  175. Plant Sciences
  176. Effect of long-term in-row branch covering on soil microorganisms in pear orchards
  177. Photosynthetic physiological characteristics, growth performance, and element concentrations reveal the calcicole–calcifuge behaviors of three Camellia species
  178. Transcriptome analysis reveals the mechanism of NaHCO3 promoting tobacco leaf maturation
  179. Bioinformatics, expression analysis, and functional verification of allene oxide synthase gene HvnAOS1 and HvnAOS2 in qingke
  180. Water, nitrogen, and phosphorus coupling improves gray jujube fruit quality and yield
  181. Improving grape fruit quality through soil conditioner: Insights from RNA-seq analysis of Cabernet Sauvignon roots
  182. Role of Embinin in the reabsorption of nucleus pulposus in lumbar disc herniation: Promotion of nucleus pulposus neovascularization and apoptosis of nucleus pulposus cells
  183. Revealing the effects of amino acid, organic acid, and phytohormones on the germination of tomato seeds under salinity stress
  184. Combined effects of nitrogen fertilizer and biochar on the growth, yield, and quality of pepper
  185. Comprehensive phytochemical and toxicological analysis of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.) fractions
  186. Impact of “3414” fertilization on the yield and quality of greenhouse tomatoes
  187. Exploring the coupling mode of water and fertilizer for improving growth, fruit quality, and yield of the pear in the arid region
  188. Metagenomic analysis of endophytic bacteria in seed potato (Solanum tuberosum)
  189. Antibacterial, antifungal, and phytochemical properties of Salsola kali ethanolic extract
  190. Exploring the hepatoprotective properties of citronellol: In vitro and in silico studies on ethanol-induced damage in HepG2 cells
  191. Enhanced osmotic dehydration of watermelon rind using honey–sucrose solutions: A study on pre-treatment efficacy and mass transfer kinetics
  192. Effects of exogenous 2,4-epibrassinolide on photosynthetic traits of 53 cowpea varieties under NaCl stress
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  196. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Salsola imbricata methanolic extract and its phytochemical characterization
  197. Bioengineering and Biotechnology
  198. Absorbable calcium and phosphorus bioactive membranes promote bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells osteogenic differentiation for bone regeneration
  199. New advances in protein engineering for industrial applications: Key takeaways
  200. An overview of the production and use of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin
  201. Research progress of nanoparticles in diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  202. Bioelectrochemical biosensors for water quality assessment and wastewater monitoring
  203. PEI/MMNs@LNA-542 nanoparticles alleviate ICU-acquired weakness through targeted autophagy inhibition and mitochondrial protection
  204. Unleashing of cytotoxic effects of thymoquinone-bovine serum albumin nanoparticles on A549 lung cancer cells
  205. Erratum
  206. Erratum to “Investigating the association between dietary patterns and glycemic control among children and adolescents with T1DM”
  207. Erratum to “Activation of hypermethylated P2RY1 mitigates gastric cancer by promoting apoptosis and inhibiting proliferation”
  208. Retraction
  209. Retraction to “MiR-223-3p regulates cell viability, migration, invasion, and apoptosis of non-small cell lung cancer cells by targeting RHOB”
  210. Retraction to “A data mining technique for detecting malignant mesothelioma cancer using multiple regression analysis”
  211. Special Issue on Advances in Neurodegenerative Disease Research and Treatment
  212. Transplantation of human neural stem cell prevents symptomatic motor behavior disability in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease
  213. Special Issue on Multi-omics
  214. Inflammasome complex genes with clinical relevance suggest potential as therapeutic targets for anti-tumor drugs in clear cell renal cell carcinoma
  215. Gastroesophageal varices in primary biliary cholangitis with anti-centromere antibody positivity: Early onset?
https://doi.org/10.1515/biol-2022-0946
Keywords for this article
watermelon rind; osmotic dehydration; pre-treatments; effective diffusivities; activation energy; overall dehydration coefficient
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  19. Single-nucleotide polymorphism rs2910829 in PDE4D is related to stroke susceptibility in Chinese populations: The results of a meta-analysis
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  24. KAT2A changes the function of endometrial stromal cells via regulating the succinylation of ENO1
  25. Current state of research on copper complexes in the treatment of breast cancer
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  35. Thymosin α1 combined with XELOX improves immune function and reduces serum tumor markers in colorectal cancer patients after radical surgery
  36. Highly specific vaginal microbiome signature for gynecological cancers
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  38. The effects of SDF-1 combined application with VEGF on femoral distraction osteogenesis in rats
  39. Fabrication and characterization of gold nanoparticles using alginate: In vitro and in vivo assessment of its administration effects with swimming exercise on diabetic rats
  40. Mitigating digestive disorders: Action mechanisms of Mediterranean herbal active compounds
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  42. VSP-2 attenuates secretion of inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS in BV2 cells by mediating the PPARγ/NF-κB signaling pathway
  43. Factors influencing spontaneous hypothermia after emergency trauma and the construction of a predictive model
  44. Long-term administration of morphine specifically alters the level of protein expression in different brain regions and affects the redox state
  45. Application of metagenomic next-generation sequencing technology in the etiological diagnosis of peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis
  46. Clinical diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of neurodyspepsia syndrome using intelligent medicine
  47. Case report: Successful bronchoscopic interventional treatment of endobronchial leiomyomas
  48. Preliminary investigation into the genetic etiology of short stature in children through whole exon sequencing of the core family
  49. Cystic adenomyoma of the uterus: Case report and literature review
  50. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles as a drug delivery mechanism
  51. Dynamic changes in autophagy activity in different degrees of pulmonary fibrosis in mice
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  54. Meta-analysis on the efficacy of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation to treat malignant lymphoma
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  56. Application value of artificial intelligence algorithm-based magnetic resonance multi-sequence imaging in staging diagnosis of cervical cancer
  57. Embedded monitoring system and teaching of artificial intelligence online drug component recognition
  58. Investigation into the association of FNDC1 and ADAMTS12 gene expression with plumage coloration in Muscovy ducks
  59. Yak meat content in feed and its impact on the growth of rats
  60. A rare case of Richter transformation with breast involvement: A case report and literature review
  61. First report of Nocardia wallacei infection in an immunocompetent patient in Zhejiang province
  62. Rhodococcus equi and Brucella pulmonary mass in immunocompetent: A case report and literature review
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  64. Evaluation of the role of some non-enzymatic antioxidants among Iraqi patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
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  66. Ten-year anemia as initial manifestation of Castleman disease in the abdominal cavity: A case report
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  76. The expression and biological role of complement C1s in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma
  77. A novel GNAS mutation in pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a with articular flexion deformity: A case report
  78. Predictive value of serum magnesium levels for prognosis in patients with non-small cell lung cancer undergoing EGFR-TKI therapy
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  80. IgG4-related disease complicated by PLA2R-associated membranous nephropathy: A case report
  81. Baculovirus-mediated endostatin and angiostatin activation of autophagy through the AMPK/AKT/mTOR pathway inhibits angiogenesis in hepatocellular carcinoma
  82. Metformin mitigates osteoarthritis progression by modulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and enhancing chondrocyte autophagy
  83. Evaluation of the activity of antimicrobial peptides against bacterial vaginosis
  84. Atypical presentation of γ/δ mycosis fungoides with an unusual phenotype and SOCS1 mutation
  85. Analysis of the microecological mechanism of diabetic kidney disease based on the theory of “gut–kidney axis”: A systematic review
  86. Omega-3 fatty acids prevent gestational diabetes mellitus via modulation of lipid metabolism
  87. Refractory hypertension complicated with Turner syndrome: A case report
  88. Interaction of ncRNAs and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway: Implications for osteosarcoma
  89. Association of low attenuation area scores with pulmonary function and clinical prognosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  90. Long non-coding RNAs in bone formation: Key regulators and therapeutic prospects
  91. The deubiquitinating enzyme USP35 regulates the stability of NRF2 protein
  92. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio as potential diagnostic markers for rebleeding in patients with esophagogastric variceal bleeding
  93. G protein-coupled receptor 1 participating in the mechanism of mediating gestational diabetes mellitus by phosphorylating the AKT pathway
  94. LL37-mtDNA regulates viability, apoptosis, inflammation, and autophagy in lipopolysaccharide-treated RLE-6TN cells by targeting Hsp90aa1
  95. The analgesic effect of paeoniflorin: A focused review
  96. Chemical composition’s effect on Solanum nigrum Linn.’s antioxidant capacity and erythrocyte protection: Bioactive components and molecular docking analysis
  97. Knockdown of HCK promotes HREC cell viability and inner blood–retinal barrier integrity by regulating the AMPK signaling pathway
  98. The role of rapamycin in the PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway in mitophagy in podocytes
  99. Laryngeal non-Hodgkin lymphoma: Report of four cases and review of the literature
  100. Clinical value of macrogenome next-generation sequencing on infections
  101. Overview of dendritic cells and related pathways in autoimmune uveitis
  102. TAK-242 alleviates diabetic cardiomyopathy via inhibiting pyroptosis and TLR4/CaMKII/NLRP3 pathway
  103. Hypomethylation in promoters of PGC-1α involved in exercise-driven skeletal muscular alterations in old age
  104. Profile and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of bacteria isolated from effluents of Kolladiba and Debark hospitals
  105. The expression and clinical significance of syncytin-1 in serum exosomes of hepatocellular carcinoma patients
  106. A histomorphometric study to evaluate the therapeutic effects of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles on the kidneys infected with Plasmodium chabaudi
  107. PGRMC1 and PAQR4 are promising molecular targets for a rare subtype of ovarian cancer
  108. Analysis of MDA, SOD, TAOC, MNCV, SNCV, and TSS scores in patients with diabetes peripheral neuropathy
  109. SLIT3 deficiency promotes non-small cell lung cancer progression by modulating UBE2C/WNT signaling
  110. The relationship between TMCO1 and CALR in the pathological characteristics of prostate cancer and its effect on the metastasis of prostate cancer cells
  111. Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K is a potential target for enhancing the chemosensitivity of nasopharyngeal carcinoma
  112. PHB2 alleviates retinal pigment epithelium cell fibrosis by suppressing the AGE–RAGE pathway
  113. Anti-γ-aminobutyric acid-B receptor autoimmune encephalitis with syncope as the initial symptom: Case report and literature review
  114. Comparative analysis of chloroplast genome of Lonicera japonica cv. Damaohua
  115. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells regulate glutathione metabolism depending on the ERK–Nrf2–HO-1 signal pathway to repair phosphoramide mustard-induced ovarian cancer cells
  116. Electroacupuncture on GB acupoints improves osteoporosis via the estradiol–PI3K–Akt signaling pathway
  117. Renalase protects against podocyte injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis in diabetic nephropathy
  118. Review: Dicranostigma leptopodum: A peculiar plant of Papaveraceae
  119. Combination effect of flavonoids attenuates lung cancer cell proliferation by inhibiting the STAT3 and FAK signaling pathway
  120. Renal microangiopathy and immune complex glomerulonephritis induced by anti-tumour agents: A case report
  121. Correlation analysis of AVPR1a and AVPR2 with abnormal water and sodium and potassium metabolism in rats
  122. Gastrointestinal health anti-diarrheal mixture relieves spleen deficiency-induced diarrhea through regulating gut microbiota
  123. Myriad factors and pathways influencing tumor radiotherapy resistance
  124. Exploring the effects of culture conditions on Yapsin (YPS) gene expression in Nakaseomyces glabratus
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  126. Coagulation factor II thrombin receptor as a promising biomarker in breast cancer management
  127. Ileocecal mucinous carcinoma misdiagnosed as incarcerated hernia: A case report
  128. Methyltransferase like 13 promotes malignant behaviors of bladder cancer cells through targeting PI3K/ATK signaling pathway
  129. The debate between electricity and heat, efficacy and safety of irreversible electroporation and radiofrequency ablation in the treatment of liver cancer: A meta-analysis
  130. ZAG promotes colorectal cancer cell proliferation and epithelial–mesenchymal transition by promoting lipid synthesis
  131. Baicalein inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and mitigates placental inflammation and oxidative stress in gestational diabetes mellitus
  132. Impact of SWCNT-conjugated senna leaf extract on breast cancer cells: A potential apoptotic therapeutic strategy
  133. MFAP5 inhibits the malignant progression of endometrial cancer cells in vitro
  134. Major ozonated autohemotherapy promoted functional recovery following spinal cord injury in adult rats via the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation
  135. Axodendritic targeting of TAU and MAP2 and microtubule polarization in iPSC-derived versus SH-SY5Y-derived human neurons
  136. Differential expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B and Toll-like receptor/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathways in experimental obesity Wistar rat model
  137. The therapeutic potential of targeting Oncostatin M and the interleukin-6 family in retinal diseases: A comprehensive review
  138. BA inhibits LPS-stimulated inflammatory response and apoptosis in human middle ear epithelial cells by regulating the Nf-Kb/Iκbα axis
  139. Role of circRMRP and circRPL27 in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  140. Investigating the role of hyperexpressed HCN1 in inducing myocardial infarction through activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway
  141. Characterization of phenolic compounds and evaluation of anti-diabetic potential in Cannabis sativa L. seeds: In vivo, in vitro, and in silico studies
  142. Quantitative immunohistochemistry analysis of breast Ki67 based on artificial intelligence
  143. Ecology and Environmental Science
  144. Screening of different growth conditions of Bacillus subtilis isolated from membrane-less microbial fuel cell toward antimicrobial activity profiling
  145. Degradation of a mixture of 13 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by commercial effective microorganisms
  146. Evaluation of the impact of two citrus plants on the variation of Panonychus citri (Acari: Tetranychidae) and beneficial phytoseiid mites
  147. Prediction of present and future distribution areas of Juniperus drupacea Labill and determination of ethnobotany properties in Antalya Province, Türkiye
  148. Population genetics of Todarodes pacificus (Cephalopoda: Ommastrephidae) in the northwest Pacific Ocean via GBS sequencing
  149. A comparative analysis of dendrometric, macromorphological, and micromorphological characteristics of Pistacia atlantica subsp. atlantica and Pistacia terebinthus in the middle Atlas region of Morocco
  150. Macrofungal sporocarp community in the lichen Scots pine forests
  151. Assessing the proximate compositions of indigenous forage species in Yemen’s pastoral rangelands
  152. Food Science
  153. Gut microbiota changes associated with low-carbohydrate diet intervention for obesity
  154. Reexamination of Aspergillus cristatus phylogeny in dark tea: Characteristics of the mitochondrial genome
  155. Differences in the flavonoid composition of the leaves, fruits, and branches of mulberry are distinguished based on a plant metabolomics approach
  156. Investigating the impact of wet rendering (solventless method) on PUFA-rich oil from catfish (Clarias magur) viscera
  157. Non-linear associations between cardiovascular metabolic indices and metabolic-associated fatty liver disease: A cross-sectional study in the US population (2017–2020)
  158. Knockdown of USP7 alleviates atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice by regulating EZH2 expression
  159. Utility of dairy microbiome as a tool for authentication and traceability
  160. Agriculture
  161. Enhancing faba bean (Vicia faba L.) productivity through establishing the area-specific fertilizer rate recommendation in southwest Ethiopia
  162. Impact of novel herbicide based on synthetic auxins and ALS inhibitor on weed control
  163. Perspectives of pteridophytes microbiome for bioremediation in agricultural applications
  164. Fertilizer application parameters for drip-irrigated peanut based on the fertilizer effect function established from a “3414” field trial
  165. Improving the productivity and profitability of maize (Zea mays L.) using optimum blended inorganic fertilization
  166. Application of leaf multispectral analyzer in comparison to hyperspectral device to assess the diversity of spectral reflectance indices in wheat genotypes
  167. Animal Sciences
  168. Knockdown of ANP32E inhibits colorectal cancer cell growth and glycolysis by regulating the AKT/mTOR pathway
  169. Development of a detection chip for major pathogenic drug-resistant genes and drug targets in bovine respiratory system diseases
  170. Exploration of the genetic influence of MYOT and MB genes on the plumage coloration of Muscovy ducks
  171. Transcriptome analysis of adipose tissue in grazing cattle: Identifying key regulators of fat metabolism
  172. Comparison of nutritional value of the wild and cultivated spiny loaches at three growth stages
  173. Transcriptomic analysis of liver immune response in Chinese spiny frog (Quasipaa spinosa) infected with Proteus mirabilis
  174. Disruption of BCAA degradation is a critical characteristic of diabetic cardiomyopathy revealed by integrated transcriptome and metabolome analysis
  175. Plant Sciences
  176. Effect of long-term in-row branch covering on soil microorganisms in pear orchards
  177. Photosynthetic physiological characteristics, growth performance, and element concentrations reveal the calcicole–calcifuge behaviors of three Camellia species
  178. Transcriptome analysis reveals the mechanism of NaHCO3 promoting tobacco leaf maturation
  179. Bioinformatics, expression analysis, and functional verification of allene oxide synthase gene HvnAOS1 and HvnAOS2 in qingke
  180. Water, nitrogen, and phosphorus coupling improves gray jujube fruit quality and yield
  181. Improving grape fruit quality through soil conditioner: Insights from RNA-seq analysis of Cabernet Sauvignon roots
  182. Role of Embinin in the reabsorption of nucleus pulposus in lumbar disc herniation: Promotion of nucleus pulposus neovascularization and apoptosis of nucleus pulposus cells
  183. Revealing the effects of amino acid, organic acid, and phytohormones on the germination of tomato seeds under salinity stress
  184. Combined effects of nitrogen fertilizer and biochar on the growth, yield, and quality of pepper
  185. Comprehensive phytochemical and toxicological analysis of Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.) fractions
  186. Impact of “3414” fertilization on the yield and quality of greenhouse tomatoes
  187. Exploring the coupling mode of water and fertilizer for improving growth, fruit quality, and yield of the pear in the arid region
  188. Metagenomic analysis of endophytic bacteria in seed potato (Solanum tuberosum)
  189. Antibacterial, antifungal, and phytochemical properties of Salsola kali ethanolic extract
  190. Exploring the hepatoprotective properties of citronellol: In vitro and in silico studies on ethanol-induced damage in HepG2 cells
  191. Enhanced osmotic dehydration of watermelon rind using honey–sucrose solutions: A study on pre-treatment efficacy and mass transfer kinetics
  192. Effects of exogenous 2,4-epibrassinolide on photosynthetic traits of 53 cowpea varieties under NaCl stress
  193. Comparative transcriptome analysis of maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings in response to copper stress
  194. An optimization method for measuring the stomata in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) under multiple abiotic stresses
  195. Fosinopril inhibits Ang II-induced VSMC proliferation, phenotype transformation, migration, and oxidative stress through the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway
  196. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Salsola imbricata methanolic extract and its phytochemical characterization
  197. Bioengineering and Biotechnology
  198. Absorbable calcium and phosphorus bioactive membranes promote bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells osteogenic differentiation for bone regeneration
  199. New advances in protein engineering for industrial applications: Key takeaways
  200. An overview of the production and use of Bacillus thuringiensis toxin
  201. Research progress of nanoparticles in diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  202. Bioelectrochemical biosensors for water quality assessment and wastewater monitoring
  203. PEI/MMNs@LNA-542 nanoparticles alleviate ICU-acquired weakness through targeted autophagy inhibition and mitochondrial protection
  204. Unleashing of cytotoxic effects of thymoquinone-bovine serum albumin nanoparticles on A549 lung cancer cells
  205. Erratum
  206. Erratum to “Investigating the association between dietary patterns and glycemic control among children and adolescents with T1DM”
  207. Erratum to “Activation of hypermethylated P2RY1 mitigates gastric cancer by promoting apoptosis and inhibiting proliferation”
  208. Retraction
  209. Retraction to “MiR-223-3p regulates cell viability, migration, invasion, and apoptosis of non-small cell lung cancer cells by targeting RHOB”
  210. Retraction to “A data mining technique for detecting malignant mesothelioma cancer using multiple regression analysis”
  211. Special Issue on Advances in Neurodegenerative Disease Research and Treatment
  212. Transplantation of human neural stem cell prevents symptomatic motor behavior disability in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease
  213. Special Issue on Multi-omics
  214. Inflammasome complex genes with clinical relevance suggest potential as therapeutic targets for anti-tumor drugs in clear cell renal cell carcinoma
  215. Gastroesophageal varices in primary biliary cholangitis with anti-centromere antibody positivity: Early onset?
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