Startseite Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
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Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption

  • Hanuma Reddy Tiyyagura ORCID logo EMAIL logo , Rebeka Rudolf ORCID logo EMAIL logo und Matej Bracic ORCID logo EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 20. Januar 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 13 Heft 1

Abstract

In this work, the ability of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-stabilised gold nanoparticle (AuNP) coatings to inhibit blood protein adsorption was evaluated by studying time-resolved solid–liquid interactions of the coatings with the model blood protein bovine serum albumin (BSA). Inhibiting unspecific blood protein adsorption is of crucial importance for blood-contacting implant devices, e.g. vascular grafts, stents, artificial joints, and others, as a preventive strategy for bacterial biofilm formation. A quartz crystal microbalance was used in this work to coat the AuNPs on piezoelectric sensors and to follow time-resolved solid–liquid interactions with the proteins. The AuNP coatings were evaluated for their wettability by contact angle measurements, their surface morphology by light- and atomic force microscopy, and their chemical composition by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Results revealed a homogeneous distribution of AuNPs on the sensor surface with a dry mass coverage of 3.37 ± 1.46 µg/cm2 and a contact angle of 25.2 ± 1.1°. Solid–liquid interaction studies by quartz crystal microbalance showed a high repellence of BSA from the PVP-stabilised AuNP coatings and the importance of the PVP in the mechanism of repellence. Furthermore, the conformation of the polymer on the coatings as well as its viscoelastic properties were revealed. Finally, the activated partial thrombin time test and fibrinogen adsorption studies revealed that the AuNPs do not accelerate blood coagulation and can partially inhibit the adhesion of fibrinogen, which is a crucial factor in the common blood coagulation cascade. Such AuNPs have the potential to be used in blood-contact medical applications.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: gold nanoparticles; ultrasonic spray pyrolysis; haemocompatibility; protein adsorption; quartz crystal microbalance

1 Introduction

Unspecific protein adsorption on materials intended for implantable medical devices, e.g. silicone, polyethylene, polyurethane, and stainless steel in contact with blood, causes significant problems in clinical medicine as it is related to critical implant issues such as bacterial biofilm formation or thrombotic occlusion [1,2]. According to the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 1.7 million people are afflicted, and nearly 100,000 are killed annually due to biofilm-related infections [3] and the UK Parliamentary Health Select Committee reported an annual death rate due to thrombosis of 25,000 in 2005 [4]. Typically, blood proteins and immediately cover the implants surface after insertion [5,6]. Even though the exact order in which the proteins cover the surface is difficult to predict, some suggest that the most abundant high-mobility protein serum albumin attaches first, followed by fibrinogen and globulins [7]. The attachment of proteins on surfaces is a complex process governed by the properties of the protein and the surface (e.g. active sites, conformation, orientation, and surface energy) and conditions of the surrounding environment (e.g. pH and temperature) [8]. Knowing the way proteins attach to a specific surface is crucial to predict how their exposed binding sites will influence further adhesion of microorganisms and blood cells in real applications [8,9].

Applying functional coatings is an effective and extensively studied approach to improve the unspecific protein adsorption on materials intended for blood-contact medical implants. Such coatings alter the physicochemical properties of the implant surface to prevent protein adhesion. This typically includes superhydrophobisation (water contact angle, ∼180°) and superhydrophilisation (water contact angle, ∼0°), [10,11] or the introduction of surface charge, e.g. high-density negative surface [12] charge or zwitterionic charge [13,14].

Nanoparticles as surface coatings are of particular interest as they exhibit specific physicochemical properties which can be utilised for coatings of implant materials used in blood-contacting devices. Nanoparticles from natural polymers, e.g. chitosan, carboxymethyl chitosan, hyaluronic acid [15], and synthetic polymers [16,17] are some of the more extensively studied protein-repellent nanomaterials while metal nanoparticles, e.g. silver, gold, are studied and used in a lesser extent although they have shown great promise in various medical fields including tissue engineering [18], drug development and drug delivery [19], diagnostics, e.g. bioimaging [20] and in therapy, e.g. photothermal cancer therapy [21] where they are often injected in the bloodstream of the subject and not applied as surface coatings.

Strong interactions of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with blood proteins causing adverse effects like doubling of their size [22] and pro-thrombotic activity [23] are their main disadvantages when used in applications in contact with blood and a reason for the scarcity of research on their protein-repellent ability. This has been mitigated by a coating of the AuNPs with natural polymers like sulphonated chitosan [24] or carboxylated polystiren [25]. The current state of research however shows a lack of comprehensive studies describing the adhesion of blood proteins, e.g. serum albumin and fibrinogen, on AuNPs, their conformation, and viscoelastic properties of the adsorbed layer, leaving a hole in the key understanding of how interactions with blood components affect the performance of AuNPs and how AuNPs affect the biological environment [26]. Furthermore, research dealing with the potential of AuNPs as protein-repellent coatings is practically non-existing. Nano-sensitive analytical tools like the Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) have been used to study the above-mentioned phenomena including interactions of proteins with Au surfaces. QCM-D and surface plasmon resonance studies of lysozyme on Au surfaces revealed that during the formation of a monolayer the molecules’ orientation changed from side-on to end-on and that bilayers are formed at high-volume concentration [26]. This provides crucial information on the bioactivity of such protein layers.

In this work, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) functionalised AuNPs prepared by a single-step ultrasonic spray pyrolysis (USP) [27] were utilised as protein-repellent materials. The AuNPs were coated with a thin PVP layer (AuNP*) during particle collection in a stabilisation medium (Figure 1a) and applied as coatings on silicon dioxide (SiO2) and gold QCM-D sensors. The kinetics of AuNP* coating formation was evaluated by QCM-D. The chemical composition of the coating was determined using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and surface morphology with light- and atomic force microscopy (AFM), respectively. Solid–liquid interactions with the model bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein were studied by QCM-D. The adsorption kinetics, layer thickness, and protein orientation were extracted from these results. The haemocompatibility of the AuNP* was evaluated by standardised activated partial thrombin time (APTT) test and QCM-D adsorption studies of fibrinogen.

Figure 1 A schematic representation of (a) the USP device used for the synthesis of PVP-stabilised AuNPs (AuNP*) [27] and (b) the structure of AuNP* and their previously published physicochemical characteristics [27].
Figure 1

A schematic representation of (a) the USP device used for the synthesis of PVP-stabilised AuNPs (AuNP*) [27] and (b) the structure of AuNP* and their previously published physicochemical characteristics [27].

2 Methods

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Preparation of AuNP*

Gold(iii) chloride tetrahydrate – AuCl (trace metals basis 99.9 %, Acros Organics, Germany), Au acetate salt – AuAc (gold(iii) acetate, Alfa Aesar, USA), PVP (PVP40 Sigma Aldrich, Germany), sodium hydroxide (NaOH, Fisher Chemicals, Germany), and hydrochloric acid (HCl, 37%, Sigma Aldrich, Germany).

2.1.2 Modification of SiO2 sensors with AuNP*

SiO2 QCM-D sensor QSX 303 (Biolin Scientific, Sweden).

2.1.3 Protein-repellent studies

Phosphate buffered saline (PBS; pH 7.4, Sigma Aldrich, Germany), ultra-pure water with a resistivity >18 MΩ cm (Millipore, USA), bovine fibrinogen (90% clottable, MPBiomedicals, Germany), and BSA (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany). APTT: Normal pool plasma, 0.025 M CaCl2 solution, and an activator consisting of cephalin and silica were all purchased at Stago, France. Heparin (Hep) with a molecular weight of 16–19 kDa was purchased from Biosynth Carbosynth (Gdańsk, Poland). Fucoidan (FU) with a molecular weight of 50 kDa was purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany).

2.2 Sample preparation

2.2.1 Preparation of AuNP* by USP

AuNP* was produced with a USP custom device. It uses a custom-made ultrasonic generator with a 1.6 MHz ultrasonic transducer LIQUIFOG II (Johnson Matthey Piezo Products GmbH, Redwitz, Germany) composed of three zones as its base. The ultrasonic generator produces aerosol droplets from the Au solution as a precursor ([Au]H2O = 0.5 g/L), which are transported by a carrier gas (N2) into the reaction zones. The first zone (T < 200°C) is evaporative, where the solvent evaporates. In the second reaction zone (400°C < T < 600°C) H2 enters, resulting in the thermal decomposition of the dried Au-ions and the reduction in the Au3 + into Au0 as AuNPs. The sintering of AuNPs is carried out in the third zone (400°C < T < 600°C) – Figure 1a. AuNPs are finally collected in deionised water and stabilised with PVP (1 g/L [as AuNP*]) in four serially connected gas washing bottles as shown in Figure 1a [27]. A schematic representation of the AuNP* is shown in Figure 1b.

2.2.2 Modification of SiO2 sensors with AuNP*

The AuNP* dispersions (c = 0.5 g/L) were deposited on SiO2 QCM-D sensors by pumping them over the sensors surface mounted in a flow cell in a continuous flow of 0.1 mL/min. Time-resolved frequency (Δf) and dissipation (ΔD) changes of the oscillating sensor were recorded and adsorption kinetics extracted. Details about the QCM-D measurement protocol and working principle can be found elsewhere [28,29]. All QCM-D experiments were performed at 25°C for 90 min, i.e. until the adsorption plateau was reached, in triplicates and an arithmetic mean value and standard deviation of dissipation and frequency of the third overtone of oscillation was calculated. The wet mass of the adsorbed AuNP* was estimated by applying the Smartfit (Dfind software, Biolin Scientific, Sweden) model based on the Voight model for viscoelastic materials. A fixed density value for the adsorbed AuNP* layer of 1,100 g/L (defined by the high experimental dissipation values of the highly hydrated adsorbed layer) was selected for the modelling. The dry mass of the adsorbed AuNP* layer was determined by measuring the oscillation f of the blank and dry SiO2 sensor (prior to adsorption experiments; f blank) and the oscillation f of the AuNP*-coated SiO2 (after the adsorption experiment and drying; f AuNP*) and using the Sauerbrey equation as:

(1) m = – C ∙ ( f blank f AuNP * ) .

2.3 Protein interaction studies

A model blood protein BSA was adsorbed on the AuNP* coated SiO2 sensors in PBS buffer at pH 7.4. and 25°C ± 0.1°C. Sensors were first equilibrated with PBS (flow rate, 0.1 mL/min) until a stable frequency was established. Following this, the frequency was set to zero and a 5 min baseline in the PBS buffer was established for 5 min. Subsequently, BSA (c = 1 and 40 mg/mL), dissolved in PBS, pH 7.4, was introduced at a flow rate of 0.1 mL/min until a stable frequency was achieved (t ∼ 90 min) followed by rinsing with PBS buffer (t ∼ 30 min). All QCM-D experiments were performed in triplicates and an arithmetic mean value and standard deviation of dissipation and frequency of the third overtone of oscillation was calculated. The BSA layer thickness, hydrated mass, elastic modulus, and viscosity were estimated by applying the Smartfit (Dfind software, Biolin Scientific, Sweden) model based on the Voight model for viscoelastic materials and compared to the Sauerbrey model. A fixed density value for the hydrated BSA layer of 1,100 g/L was selected for the modelling.

2.4 Haemocompatibility evaluation

APTT indirectly measures the action of thrombin by detecting the formation of fibrin from fibrinogen. It was used in this work to assess the effect of the AuNP* on blood coagulation. The APTT experiment was conducted by mixing 80 µL of citrated normal blood plasma with 20 µL of the AuNP* dispersion. To this, 100 µL of APTT reagent Pathromtin SL, acting as a coagulation pathway activator, was added. The concentration of the AuNP* dispersion in the final mixture ranged from 0.5 to 15 mg/mL. The mixture was incubated at 37°C for 3 minutes followed by the addition of 100 µL of 0.025 M CaCl2 solution (equilibrated to 37°C) triggering the coagulation cascade. The coagulation time was determined using a Thrombotrack™ Solo coagulometer (Axis-Shield PoC, Scotland). Normal blood plasma without the addition of polysaccharides was measured in the same way as a reference to which all polysaccharide data were normalised.

Time-resolved solid–liquid interactions between the AuNP* coatings and the protein fibrinogen were additionally performed by means of QCM-D using the same protocol as for the BSA protein adsorption described above. Fibrinogen is a key factor in the common pathway of the blood coagulation cascade responsible for fibrin fibre formation and the subsequent clot formation. Understanding its interaction with the coating provides detailed insights into the anticoagulative and haemocompatible properties of the AuNP* coatings.

2.5 Surface analysis

2.5.1 Contact angle goniometry

An optical goniometer OCA 35 (Dataphysics, Germany) was used to measure static contact angles of water on neat SiO2 and AuNP*-coated SiO2 sensors. A neat gold sensor was used as a comparison for the AuNP* coatings. A drop volume of 3 µL was used to measure the contact angles on a minimum of five different spots on each surface. All measurements were conducted at ambient conditions.

2.5.2 Light microscopy

The surface morphology of the AuNP* coated on SiO2 sensors was observed using an Axiotech 25 HD light optical microscope (Carl Zeiss Jena GmbH, Germany) at 5-, 20-, and 50-fold magnification. The images were recorded with a high-resolution AxioCam MRc (D) camera attached to the microscope and processed using the KS 300 Rel.3.0 “true color analysis” imaging software.

2.5.3 AFM

Topographical features of the surfaces were measured by AFM in tapping mode with an Agilent 5500 AFM multimode scanning probe microscope (Digital Instruments, Santa Barbara, CA). The images were scanned using silicon cantilevers (ATEC-NC, Nanosensors, Germany) with a resonance frequency of 210–490 kHz and a force constant of 12–110 N/m. All images were recorded with a resolution of 2,048 × 2,048 pixels (10 μm × 10 μm; 1 μm × 1 μm) and were processed using the freeware Gwyddion.

2.5.4 EDS

An EDS INCA 350 (Oxford Instruments, Oxford, UK) with a Schottky electron source was used for EDS measurements at a voltage of 1 kV and a resolution of 2 nm. The AuNP* were mounted on sample holders with conductive carbon adhesive tape.

All surface analytical measurements were conducted at ambient conditions (T = 25°C, Relative humidity = 55%).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Modification of SiO2 sensors with AuNP*

The AuNP* prepared by USP have previously been characterised and are circular in shape [27], with an average diameter of 115.92 ± 1.87 nm [27], and exhibit a negative charge (ζ = −4.6 ± 0.3 mV). Such AuNP* dispersions (c = 0.5 g/L) were used in this study to modify SiO2 QCM-D sensors. As can be seen in Figure 2a, the f (black curve) drops steeply upon the introduction of the AuNP* in the flow cell, indicating a strong deposition on the SiO2 surface. The stable f reading from around 1 h 30 min indicates that no particles are washed off during the water rinse and that such AuNP*-coated SiO2 sensors can be further used for protein adsorption studies. The D value (red curve) of 28 ppm indicates that the adsorbed AuNP* layer is hydrated and behaves viscoelastic. The Smartfit model estimated a layer mass of 9.59 ± 0.55 µg/cm2 which is 3-times higher compared to the dry layer mass (3.37 ± 1.46) µg/cm2. This further confirms the layer hydration. The Δf 3 vs ΔD 3 curve in Figure 2b shows that initially (phase 1) a very viscoelastic/hydrated layer is formed on the surface of the sensor as the ΔD 3 changes faster than Δf 3. After that (phase 2) the ΔD 3 and the Δf 3 change linearly indicating an increase in mass and viscoelasticity on the sensors due to the adsorption of a AuNP*. In the final stage (phase 3), the ΔD 3 changes faster than Δf 3 again indicating that a small fraction (insignificant changes in Δf 3) of a highly hydrated upper layer was removed from the surface.

Figure 2 The AuNP* forms a hydrated layer on SiO2. (a) Frequency (Δf 3) and dissipation (ΔD 3) changes of the third overtone of the oscillating SiO2 sensor during adsorption of AuNP*, (b) Frequency (Δf 3) versus dissipation (ΔD 3), and (c) a scheme of the hydrated and dry AuNP* layers on SiO2 (m = mass).
Figure 2

The AuNP* forms a hydrated layer on SiO2. (a) Frequency (Δf 3) and dissipation (ΔD 3) changes of the third overtone of the oscillating SiO2 sensor during adsorption of AuNP*, (b) Frequency (Δf 3) versus dissipation (ΔD 3), and (c) a scheme of the hydrated and dry AuNP* layers on SiO2 (m = mass).

Light microscopy revealed a rather homogeneous distribution of the AuNP* coating on SiO2 (Figure 3a). A dense and homogeneous coating can be observed at 5-fold magnification (the coating is light grey in colour and black spots represent voids where the coating cannot be detected) while no particles are observed in the blank SiO2 up to 50-fold magnification. At higher magnifications, one can observe particle agglomerates of a few microns in size evenly distributed on the SiO2 surface. The evenly distributed micrometer-sized particles are distinct in the 50-fold magnification. Smaller particles filling the voids of the coating (coloured black) between the agglomerates were not detectable with light microscopy. AFM images in Figure 3b were therefore performed additionally. They show the presence of particles of 42 ± 12 nm in size, confirming their presence in the voids as evidence of a homogeneous coating. Static water contact angles confirm the presence of AuNP* on the SiO2 surface as they decrease from 64.4 ± 0.4 (neat SiO2) to 25.2 ± 1.1 (AuNP* on SiO2). Furthermore, the decrease in the contact angle further shows the hydrophilicity of the adsorbed AuNP*.

Figure 3 The AuNP* form a homogeneous layer on SiO2. (a) Photographic images and light microscopy at 5-fold, 20-fold, and 50-fold magnification, (b) AFM topography images at 10 × 10 and 1 × 1 µm, and (c) Static water contact angles.
Figure 3

The AuNP* form a homogeneous layer on SiO2. (a) Photographic images and light microscopy at 5-fold, 20-fold, and 50-fold magnification, (b) AFM topography images at 10 × 10 and 1 × 1 µm, and (c) Static water contact angles.

Elemental composition of the coatings, determined by EDS as shown in Table 1, confirmed the presence of AuNP* on the SiO2 QCM sensor (SiO2). This is evident in the decrease of Si wt% from neat SiO2 to SiO2 + AuNP*, due to the additional layer of AuNP* on top of it, and the emergence of C wt%, due to the presence of PVP in the AuNP*.

Table 1

Elemental composition of the AuNP*-coated SiO2 QCM-D sensors

Sample Weight percentage (wt%)
Si O C Au N Ti
SiO2 21.3 11.1 — 64.3 — 3.3
SiO2 + AuNP* 4.4 5.1 33.1 52.2 4.7 0.5
SiO2 + BSA 16.4 16.7 44.6 18.9 2.3 1.1
SiO2 + AuNP* + BSA 4.9 9.3 36.6 46.3 2.9 —

3.2 Protein interaction studies

Insights of AuNP* interactions with blood were gained by studying solid–liquid interactions of the AuNP* with the model blood protein BSA by QCM-D (Figure 4). Time-resolved BSA adsorption measurements were performed on neat and AuNP*-coated SiO2 sensors and on neat and PVP-coated Au sensors.

Figure 4 AuNP* coatings reduce BSA adhesion on SiO2. Frequency Δf 3 changes of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor for adsorption of (a) BSA (c = 1 mg/mL) and (b) BSA (c = 40 mg/mL).
Figure 4

AuNP* coatings reduce BSA adhesion on SiO2. Frequency Δf 3 changes of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor for adsorption of (a) BSA (c = 1 mg/mL) and (b) BSA (c = 40 mg/mL).

3.2.1 BSA affinity

Figure 4a shows the change in Δf 3 during adsorption of BSA at 1 mg/mL. The Δf 3 of the neat SiO2 sensor decreases significantly upon interaction with the BSA solution indicating BSA adsorption. It reaches a stable value of −44.3 ± 3.6 Hz at 90 min. This reflects surface saturation with BSA and the end of adsorption. After that, no significant changes in Δf 3 can be observed in the PBS rinsing step, showing that no BSA is removed, and a firm attachment can be assumed. The Au sensor (a 100-nm sputtered layer of Au on quartz) shows a smaller Δf 3 (−19.6 ± 0.2 Hz) compared to SiO2, indicating that less BSA is adsorbed on the surface, hence a lower affinity of BSA to the gold surface can be assumed. No removal of BSA can be observed in the PBS rinsing step. The AuNP* adsorbed on the SiO2 sensor exhibit the smallest Δf 3 (−3.1 ± 0.7 Hz), indicating the lowest affinity to BSA to the AuNP* of all surfaces. A PVP-coated Au sensor was evaluated as well to identify the role of PVP in the BSA repellent effect since gold itself (Au sensor) shows higher BSA affinity than the AuNP*. The PVP-coated Au sensor (PVP) shows a smaller Δf 3 (−11.4 ± 0.2 Hz) compared to neat Au and a slight removal of BSA in the PBS rinsing step. This shows that the PVP plays a crucial role in the AuNP* repellence of BSA. The Δf 3 at the end time of adsorption rank as follows: SiO2 (−44.3 Hz) > Au (−19.6 Hz) > PVP (−11.4 Hz) > AuNP* (−3.1 Hz).

When the concentration of the BSA solution is increased to 40 mg/mL (Figure 4b), the adsorption ends (stable Δf 3) at around 15 min already, indicating a much faster process and a higher initial affinity of BSA to all surfaces compared to BSA at 1 mg/mL (90 min). The Au sensor exhibits a Δf 3 of −51 ± 5.6 Hz, which is more than two times higher than for BSA at 1 mg/mL. However, more than half of the BSA is rinsed in the PBS rinsing step (Δf 3 = −23.4 ± 3.5 Hz), indicating that it was poorly bound to the surface. It can be assumed that surface saturation is reached at 1 mg/mL of BSA already (Δf 3 = −19.6 ± 0.2 Hz) and that in the case of 40 mg/mL of BSA a weakly bound layer of BSA was attached to the more firmly bound BSA layer underneath. This assumption was further investigated in the coming sections. This trend is confirmed for all the other samples as well. The AuNP* exhibit a smaller Δf 3 (−29.9 ± 3.2 Hz) than the Au sensor, confirming a smaller affinity to BSA. After rinsing the Δf 3 reached −3.5 ± 1.6 Hz as in the case of BSA at 1 mg/mL (Δf 3 = −3.1 ± 0.7 Hz), confirming its protein-repelling effect. The PVP sample shows a similar response to the AuNP* with a Δf 3 of −32.3 ± 1.7 Hz and −5.6 ± 1.1 Hz prior and after the PBS rinsing step, respectively. The Δf 3 at the end time of adsorption rank as follows: Au (−23.4 Hz) > PVP (−5.6 Hz) > AuNP* (−3.5 Hz). This further confirms the crucial role of PVP in BSA repellence. This can be ascribed to several possible mechanisms for protein repellence. Electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged surface of AuNP* and the BSA plays a vital role. This is a well-known mechanism for protein repellence [30]. When PVP binds to the AuNPs the n-electrons of the carbonyl group of the PVP accumulate on the particle's surface resulting in a negative surface charge responsible [31] for particle stabilisation and protein repellence. The high hydrophilicity of the hydrated layer of AuNP* (Figure 2) is another mechanism by which water molecules are strongly bound to the AuNP* layer resulting in a low enough surface-free energy that it becomes thermodynamically unfavourable for the proteins to replace the water layer and adsorb on the surface [32].

3.2.2 BSA layer thickness and viscoelasticity

Both the Smartfit (Voight model) and the Sauerbray equation were used to estimate the thickness and mass of the adsorbed protein layer. In Figure 5a and c, the thickness and mass of the BSA layer adsorbed at c = 1 mg/mL are shown. It is evident that the Sauerbray estimations are about 50% lower than the Smartfit (Voight ones). As described in Section 2.2, the Sauerbray model is more accurate in the rigid Saurbrey region, while the smartfit (Voight) model is more accurate in the viscoelastic region. The ΔD 3 values for adsorption of BSA at c = 1 mg/mL (shown in Figure 6a) are below the rigidity threshold of 2 ppm, indicating that the protein forms a rigid layer on all surfaces. The Sauerbray equation estimated layer thicknesses of approx. 5, 3, and 4 nm for BSA adsorbed on Au, AuNP*, and PVP, respectively, while the Smartfit (Voight) model estimated layer thickness of approx. 10, 8, and 9 nm for BSA adsorbed on Au, AuNP*, and PVP, respectively. The estimated mass values follow in the same order. Differences in layer thickness before and after rinsing are negligible, confirming that almost no BSA was desorbed in the rinsing step, hence a saturation of the surface is probably reached and no loose bound BSA is found above the sensor's surface. In the case of BSA adsorption at c = 40 mg/mL (Figure 5b and d) the situation is different. One can immediately see that large differences in layer thickness and mass occur before and after rinsing of BSA. Looking at the Smartfit (Voight) model estimation, a decrease in thickness and mass of over 50% is observed after rinsing, consistent with data obtained from Δf 3 changes in Figure 4. This confirms that a strongly bound layer of BSA resides on the surface of all materials and a loosely bound and highly hydrated BSA layer on top of it. The latter is removed during the rinsing step. It must be noted that the ΔD 3 values before rinsing are above the rigidity threshold for all surfaces. Therefore, the Smartfit (Voight) model should give a more accurate estimation. This seems to be a valid claim, as the Sauerbray equation predicts smaller differences between the BSA layers before and after rinsing. However, after the rinsing step, the ΔD 3 values all decrease below the rigidity threshold and only the strongly bound and rigid BSA layer remains on the surface. In this case, the Sauerbray equation is more accurate as it gives the same values as it did for the BSA layer adsorbed at c = 1 mg/mL. It gives thickness values of 5, 3, and 4 nm for BSA adsorbed on Au, AuNP*, and PVP, respectively. The Smartfit (Voight) model overestimates the thickness and mass in this scenario. In any case, the thickness values for BSA adsorbed at C = 1 and 40 mg/mL after rinsing indicate that a saturated monolayer is adsorbed on the surfaces. This is discussed in more detail in the BSA confirmation section.

Figure 5 BSA forms a firmly bound and a loosely bound layer on top of it on selected surfaces. Smartfit (Voight) model and Sauerbrey equation estimates of BSA layer thickness (a and b) and mass (c and d) for BSA adsorbed at c = 1 mg/mL (a and c) and c = 40 mg/mL (b and d).
Figure 5

BSA forms a firmly bound and a loosely bound layer on top of it on selected surfaces. Smartfit (Voight) model and Sauerbrey equation estimates of BSA layer thickness (a and b) and mass (c and d) for BSA adsorbed at c = 1 mg/mL (a and c) and c = 40 mg/mL (b and d).

Figure 6 Viscoelasticity of BSA layers is concentration dependent. Dissipation (ΔD 3) changes (a and b) of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor, viscosity (c and d) of the BSA layer (c and d) for adsorption of BSA at c = 1 mg/mL (a and c) and c = 40 mg/mL (b and d). (e) Triangular and elongated conformation models of BSA attached on solid surfaces. The model drawings are partially adapted from the literature [31].
Figure 6

Viscoelasticity of BSA layers is concentration dependent. Dissipation (ΔD 3) changes (a and b) of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor, viscosity (c and d) of the BSA layer (c and d) for adsorption of BSA at c = 1 mg/mL (a and c) and c = 40 mg/mL (b and d). (e) Triangular and elongated conformation models of BSA attached on solid surfaces. The model drawings are partially adapted from the literature [31].

The viscosity of the BSA layers as shown in Figure 6c and d reveals the same trend as observed in layer thickness and mass (Au > PVP > AuNP*). The correlation of lower viscosities for the AuNP* surface with lower layer thickness and adsorbed mass reveals that in fact, less BSA has adsorbed on this surface compared to Au and PVP. This is more pronounced for the adsorption experiment at c = 1 mg/mL where the changes in measured frequency between samples are also more pronounced. Interestingly no significant differences are observed when comparing viscosities of the layers before and after rinsing.

All viscosities are higher than the viscosity of the used solvent (µ PBS (25°C) ∼ 890 µPa s) which implies that a more viscous, e.g. BSA layer is on top of the QCM sensors surface.

3.2.3 BSA surface conformation

The conformation of BSA on the surface can be estimated as well by applying the QCM-D thickness and viscoelasticity data. BSA can adopt different conformations in solutions depending on the pH. A compact triangular shape at 4 < pH < 9 and a rather elongated shape at pH < 4 are currently accepted as the best conformational models [33,34]. The compact triangular model is used in this work as the BSA was adsorbed on the selected surfaces at pH = 7.4. The triangular model as shown in Figure 6e has 8 nm long sides and a height of 3 nm [35]. If one assumes two possible surface conformational states (Figure 6e), namely flat-on and side-on, then the thickness data from QCM-D can give an indication to how the BSA adsorbed on the surface. In the case of BSA adsorption at c = 1 mg/mL (Figure 5a), the BSA layer thicknesses estimated by the Saurbrey equation vary between 3 and 5 nm, indicating that a single layer flat-on conformation is more probable, while a side-on conformation is predicted by the Smartfit/Voight model. However, the latter is less accurate in the Sauerbrey region, as previously discussed. In the case of BSA adsorption at c = 40 mg/mL (Figure 5b) the thickness values of over 20 nm as estimated by the Smartfit/Voight model confirm that a thicker multilayer of BSA has adsorbed prior to the rinsing step. After rinsing, the situation is the same as in the case of BSA adsorption at c = 1 mg/mL. The Smartfit/Voight model predicts a side-on while the Sauerbrey model predicts a flat-on conformation of BSA.

3.3 Haemocompatibility evaluation

The APTT of AuNP* is compared to sulphated polymers Hep and FU commonly known for their anticoagulant activity [36,37] in Figure 7a. Results show that the APTT of the AuNP* is concentration-dependent as it increases with increasing concentration. This is a typical behaviour, evident also in the two chosen sulphated polysaccharides, commonly used as anticoagulants. The anticoagulant potency of the substances, however, differs crucially and can be evaluated by the slope of the linear fit and the absolute APPT values. The blank exhibits a slope of 0 (solid red line) as all the APTT data of the polysaccharides were normalised to the blank. The slopes of the samples rank in the following order: Hep (40.4 min/mg L−1) > FU (2.6 min/mg L−1) > AuNP* (0.19 min/mg L−1). The slope of AuNP* is for an order of magnitude lower than FU and two orders of magnitude lower than Hep which is evidence of low anticoagulant potency compared to common anticoagulants. One reason for that is lower charge density (Q/m) as the functional groups of the AuNP* are only present on the particle surface (Q/m AuNP* < 0.1 mmol/g, data not shown, and ζ = −4.6 ± 0.3 mV). In contrast, the soluble sulphated polysaccharides exhibit a high charge density (Q/m Hep = 5.8 mmol/g, Q/m FU = 3.9 mmol/g). The correlation between the charge density and the APTT of polysaccharides agrees with other reports in the literature [38,39]. It can be concluded that the AuNP* do not have the potential to be used as anticoagulants but do exhibit some anticoagulant effect at high concentrations contrary to unmodified AuNPs [22]. Importantly, while some other nanomaterials alter blood coagulation pathways and produce unwanted side effects [40,41], the AuNP* do not promote blood coagulation, a key factor when considering haemocompatibility of blood-contact medical devices and substances.

Figure 7 The AuNP* show anticoagulant behaviour. (a) The anticoagulant activity of the AuNP*s determined by the APTT test and (b) frequency Δf 3 and (c) dissipation ΔD 3 changes of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor for the adsorption of fibrinogen (c = 3 mg/mL). (d) ΔD 3 vs Δf 3 isotherms (dashed lines represent linear fits).
Figure 7

The AuNP* show anticoagulant behaviour. (a) The anticoagulant activity of the AuNP*s determined by the APTT test and (b) frequency Δf 3 and (c) dissipation ΔD 3 changes of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor for the adsorption of fibrinogen (c = 3 mg/mL). (d) ΔD 3 vs Δf 3 isotherms (dashed lines represent linear fits).

Furthermore, the solid–liquid interactions of the AuNP* coatings with the protein fibrinogen which is a key factor for fibrin fibre formation and subsequent clot formation in the common coagulation cascade were conducted by means of QCM-D (Figure 7). Frequency Δf 3 changes of the 3rd overtone of the oscillating QCM-D sensor for the adsorption of fibrinogen (c = 3 mg/mL) shown in Figure 7b reveal a Δf 3 change of −160 Hz in 20 min on the SiO2 surface indicating adsorption of fibrinogen. The Δf 3 change is less pronounced in the next 40 min and the curve flattens out at about 60 min when fibrinogen saturation on the surface is reached. The subsequent rinsing with PBS shows that around 17% of the fibrinogen is loosely bound and removed as the Δf 3 changes to −140 Hz indicating desorption of fibrinogen. On the contrary, the Δf 3 change of −74 Hz after 60 min on the AuNP* surface indicates that a smaller amount of fibrinogen is adsorbed compared to SiO2. This shows that the AuNP* coatings possess the ability to inhibit fibrinogen adhesion. This is however predominantly and attribute of the gold itself as the neat gold QCM sensor inhibits fibrinogen adhesion as well but to a lesser extent. The Δf 3 change in the case of the neat Au sensor after 60 min is −94 Hz. Around 7% of the fibrinogen is desorbed after rinsing with PBS, while no desorption is observed for the AuNP. The dissipation ΔD 3 changes shown in Figure 7c reveal a more viscoelastic fibrinogen layer on the AuNP* surface (higher ΔD 3 at maximum adsorption; ΔD 3 = 26 ppm) compared to neat Au (higher ΔD 3 at maximum adsorption; ΔD 3 = 11 ppm). This indicates that the fibrinogen molecules adsorb to the neat Au surface in a more compact order and more loosely on the AuNP* which agrees with the lower Δf 3 values confirming the ability of AuNP* to inhibit fibrinogen adhesion. This is illuminated even more when looking at the ΔD 3 vs Δf 3 isotherms in Figure 7d, where the isotherms for both the SiO2 and the neat Au surface exhibit the same slope of −0.11, respectively, while the AuNP* surface exhibits a much steeper slope of −0.36. The steeper slope represents a higher change in ΔD 3 per unit change of Δf 3 and is a result of a fibrinogen layer that has a higher hydration, is looser, and less compact compared to the fibrinogen layer in SiO2 and neat Au. It can be concluded that the AuNP* coating interferes with the adhesion of fibrinogen and inhibits it more than neat Au and SiO2 surfaces.

Such AuNP* coatings as presented in this work present a great potential to be used in various established medical applications like diagnostics, e.g. bioimaging [20] and in therapy, e.g. photothermal cancer therapy [21] as well as novel applications like antifouling surface coatings. The system presented in this work also has the potential to be scaled up. The USP process with a 1.6 MHz ultrasonic transducer (LIQUIFOG II) used in this work allows to produce 2 g/h of the AuNP* particles in one batch. This is significantly higher than the total amount used in this work, which was slightly less than 0.5 g. Practically, a small diameter vascular graft with a diameter of 5 mm and a length of 5 cm can be coated by using 10 µg of the AuNP*. This amounts to 200.000 grafts per batch (2 g) of AuNP*. The cost of the AuNP* per batch ranges from 4,000 to 6,000 EUR, which means that the cost of the coating per vascular graft amounts to 2–3 cents, making this a very feasible solution for surface coatings. The processability of the particles is also versatile as they can be applied by static and dynamic dip-coating as in this work, which allows a rather straightforward scaling-up. Other coating options can include spray-drying and several printing processes, however only ink-jet printing was so far tried by the authors of this work. Overall, the AuNP* show great potential to be used on a larger scale as coatings for medical devices [27].

4 Conclusions

The AuNP* coatings on SiO2 surfaces show the ability to significantly inhibit the adhesion of BSA protein compared to neat SiO2. It was demonstrated that the PVP layer on the AuNP* plays a dominant role in protein repellence as the neat PVP coating on the SiO2 surfaces showed significant inhibition of BSA as well compared to neat Au coating. It is estimated that the BSA attaches to the AuNP* coated surfaces in a triangular flat-on conformation as predicted by the Sauerbrey model or a triangular side-on conformation as predicted by the Smartfit viscoelastic model. The APTT test revealed no adverse effects of the AuNP* on blood coagulation. Furthermore, fibrinogen adsorption experiments revealed that the AuNP* inhibit fibrinogen adhesion to a greater extent than SiO2 and neat Au surfaces. From the collected data one can advocate that the AuNP* have the potential to be used as coatings for protein-repellent materials in biomedical applications.

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  1. Funding information: The authors would like to acknowledge the Slovenian Research Agency (grant numbers, P2-0118 and P2-0120 Research Programme, International Infrastructure Project EuBi (I0-E014)).

  2. Author contributions: Hanuma Reddy Tiyyagura: conceptualisation, investigation, writing – original draft, writing – reviewing and editing; Rebeka Rudolf: conceptualisation, writing – reviewing and editing; Matej Bračič: conceptualisation, investigation, writing – original draft, writing – reviewing and editing. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-10-02
Revised: 2023-11-18
Accepted: 2023-12-04
Published Online: 2024-01-20

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0176
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
gold nanoparticles; ultrasonic spray pyrolysis; haemocompatibility; protein adsorption; quartz crystal microbalance
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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