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Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages

  • Inzamam Ul Haq , Shakeel Akram EMAIL logo , Zhi Fang EMAIL logo , Muhammad Tariq Nazir and Essam A. Al-Ammar
Published/Copyright: October 10, 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The augmentation of the epoxy (EP) resin surface to advance flashover performance has become a pivotal point of global interest. This research introduces a novel surface modification method and its mechanism for insulation materials. The research follows an electron cyclotron resonance ion implantation system to subject the surface of EP insulation to ion beams with diverse energies, i.e., 6, 10, 20, 40, 50, and 60 keV for a consistent time of 300 s at an angle of 90°. The experimental phase includes the DC flashover examination under negative polarity. Besides, the simulation phase includes the Monte Carlo model constructed using SRIM software to examine the range and distribution of bombarded ions in the targeted insulation. Results reveal that the flashover properties are affected by the surface potential, surface conductivity, trap distribution, water contact angle, and elemental composition. Likewise, based on the outcomes and theoretical point of view, it is revealed that the bombardment of energetic ions enhances the trap depth, assisting in a reduction in surface conductivity, confining the surface charge movements, and extensively suppressing the secondary electron emission yield. Also, the enhanced trap depth induces homo-charge formation near triple junctions. Synergistically, the factors contribute to high flashover voltages.

Keywords: surface modification; Monte Carlo model; surface flashover; surface conductivity

1 Introduction

In recent decades, polymers such as epoxy resin (EPR) have been used widely as solid insulations in various industrial applications e.g., encapsulation of inverters/converters, motor insulation of electric vehicles, gas-insulated lines, and high-frequency power transformers [1,2,3]. Although, EPR has efficient thermal and mechanical properties and can be molded in various shapes according to the required application [4–6], they still possess several challenges. For example, during the prolonged working of power equipment, the interaction between solid insulation and vacuum/air could cause E-field distortion due to the accumulation of surface charges [7]. This E-field distortion may trigger partial discharges, reducing the flashover performance and declining the withstand voltages [8]. Therefore, measures should be taken to design the appropriate and reliable insulation for such equipment.

Previous research studies have shown that the surface flashover performance of polymeric insulation could effectively be improved by optimizing the surface traps [9,10,11]. Regarding this, various studies have adopted different approaches including the surface and bulk modifications [12,13,14]. For example, in the study by Chen et al. [15], the DC withstand voltages of epoxy (EP)/aluminum nitride composites were enhanced by accelerating the surface charge dissipation rate through dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment. Similarly, Shao et al. modified the EP surface with an atmospheric pressure-dielectric barrier discharge plasma and claimed that surface traps of EP were converted from deeper to shallower which accelerated the dissipation of charges due to elevated surface conductivity, consequently augmenting the flashover voltages [16]. In literature [17], Huang et al. discovered that subjecting the surface of EP/Al2O3 composite to high-energy electron beam irradiation increased its deep trap energy and density, concurrently reducing surface conductivity. This alteration in traps restricted charge mobility and inhibited primary and secondary electron emissions (SEE), resulting in a significant enhancement of the composite’s flashover voltage. Similarly, nano and micro fillers with a nonlinear conductivity nature such as silicon carbide and zinc oxide can be used to enhance the conductivity of the composite coating by introducing the shallow surface traps, thereby accelerating the dissipation rate of the surface charges and reducing the distortion of the local electric field which further augments the surface flashover characteristics [18,19]. In some other studies, several researchers have doped different nanofillers with varying concentrations in polymers to alter the surface trap depth [20,21,22]. They revealed from the results that the deep trap levels of the nanocomposites have increased considerably compared to the virgin polymers that reduce the carrier mobility, blocking the further charge injection from the electrodes, suppressing the SEE, and consequently improving the flashover performance.

Although the research studies in the above-highlighted literature could prominently alter the surface traps of polymers to improve their flashover performance, the methods have non-precise control, expensive, and has complex processing for industrial fabrication, and produce hazardous by-products such as fluorocarbons. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that investigating the characteristics of surface trap distribution and surface modification techniques for polymeric dielectric materials holds significant value and still lacks considerable research to explore their mechanisms on surface flashover performance.

In the recent half-decade, ion beam irradiation has been considered one of the precise and environmentally friendly surface treatment techniques, involving the controlled injection of ions into a targeted substance. Energetic ions slowed down in polymers inducing significant changes by disrupting original chemical bonding. This method allows deliberate modification of polymer chemical composition and bonding by adjusting factors like ion dose, species, energy, and treatment duration [23,24,25]. In our previous studies [26,27], we used an End-Hall Ion source to bombard the surface of EP insulation with low-energy argon (Ar) ions for varying durations and concluded that ion beam treatment could effectively turn the surface traps of EP from deeper to relatively shallower, increasing the surface conductivity, fastening the hoping of charge carriers and consequently elevating the flashover performance. However, the energy of bombarded ions was too low which could only alter the surface condition to some extent with only limited changes in chemical characteristics. Similarly, the optimal treatment duration to obtain the highest improvement in flashover performance was 20 min which was quite a long time and could deform the insulation specimen due to excessive increase in the insulation’s local temperature.

Considering the above-presented analysis and aiming at the problem that EPR insulation accumulates surface charges under prolonged operation, this work adopted an electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) ion implantation system to bombard the surface of EP insulation with ion beams of varying energies, e.g., 6, 10, 20, 40, 50, and 60 keV for a constant period of 300 s at an angle of 90°. DC flashover tests under negative polarity are conducted and the results are processed and compared through the Weibull statistical method. The mechanism of surface trap distribution is then explored to verify the improvement of flashover performance followed by the various experimental characterizations such as surface potential, surface conductivity, water contact angle (WCA), etc., and Monte Carlo method-based simulations.

2 Experimental section

2.1 Sample preparation

Figure 1 illustrates the complete preparation process to fabricate the unmodified and modified insulations. EPR is a well-known polymer and is widely used as solid insulation in various applications of DC systems. From our previous studies [26] and due to the ease of preparation in the laboratory, we found bisphenol-A (C21H24O4) as a suitable polymer resin along with the MeTHPA (C9H10O3) as a hardener and DMP-30 [(CH3)2NCH2]3C6H2OH as a catalyst. Bisphenol-A is a highly viscous liquid at room temperature and is difficult to mix with hardener and catalyst. Therefore, in the first step, it was pre-heated for 4 h and then mechanically sheared with hardener at 1,500 rpm for 1.5 h. During the shearing, the temperature of the mixture was kept constant at 50°C through an adjustable heating plate. Afterward, the catalyst was added to the mixed solution and sheared for another 20 min at 2,000 rpm and 40°C. The obtained liquid was degassed using a THINKY mixer to avoid the effects of air gaps on experimental measurements and then poured into the PTFE molds for curing. The molds were pre-cured for 2 h at 100°C and then post-cured for 3 h at 140°C. After curing, the insulation samples were de-attached from molds, cleaned by sonication, dried in a heating oven, and then fixed on a sample holding assembly in a high vacuum ECR chamber for modification. The virgin EP samples are prepared with a 30 mm radius and thickness of 1 mm.

Figure 1 Preparation process for the unmodified insulation samples.
Figure 1

Preparation process for the unmodified insulation samples.

The schematic structure of an ECR ion-implantation system is illustrated in Figure 2 which consists of a gas inlet, a plasma source, an accelerator, a sample holding assembly, and a scanning system. Table 1 outlines the experimental parameters for ion implantation. Initially, the chamber’s vacuum pressure was gradually raised and then maintained at 2.0 × 10−2 Pascals. Next the surface of the unmodified EP was bombarded homogenously with Ar by the fluence of 6.5 × 1015 ions/cm2 considering varying energies. Concurrently, to avoid the thermal deformation of the insulation sample, the beam current density was maintained below 0.2 A. The insulation samples were divided into unmodified and modified groups. The modified insulation samples were further labeled as M e , where M stands for modified and e = (6, 10, 20, 40, 50, and 60) represents the energy of the ion beam in keV.

Figure 2 Experimental schematic of an ECR ion beam processing unit.
Figure 2

Experimental schematic of an ECR ion beam processing unit.

Table 1

Experimental parameters of an ECR ion source for surface modification of EP insulation

Parameters Values
Flow rate of inlet gas (Ar) 500 SCCM
Chamber vacuum pressure 1.0–2.0 × 10−2 Pa
Ion fluence 6.5 × 1015 ions/cm2
Injection energies 6, 10, 20, 40, 50, and 60 keV
Treatment time 300 s
Incident angle of the beam 90°

2.2 Experimental characterizations

An optical microscope named Leica-M165C was used to analyze the physical state/surface texture of the EPR insulation before and after the ion implantation. The images were captured and processed further for a better illustration. The surface topography and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) study was carried out through a scanning electron microscope to explore the irradiation effects of bombarded ions on the surface morphology and chemical composition of EP insulation. The unmodified and modified samples were sprayed with gold using an Emitech K550X coating device and an Edwards E2M2 high-vacuum pump for better scanning. The water absorption capability of EP insulation after irradiation by an ion beam was analyzed through the WCA test. First, a plastic syringe filled with demineralized water was used to drop 7 µL of water on the insulation surface. Next the water drop on the insulation surface was immediately captured through a camera fixed on a movable rail. Then, the obtained image of the drop was processed numerically through computer software to calculate the actual WCA. For experimental verification and to calculate the average value of WCA, the test was periodically repeated 15 times on various positions of the sample. The insulation samples were prepared without any bulk modification and therefore, we only measured surface conductivity (σ s) in this work. First, the insulation specimens were enclosed in a Keithley-8009 apparatus and a potential of 800 Vdc was supplied. Then, the polarization current was obtained periodically through an ampere meter in time steps of 30 s and recorded in a computer database. Finally, σ s for every insulation group were calculated by putting the values of current and voltages in the appropriate equation as described in the study by Du et al. [28]. In total, ten values are obtained for each sample to calculate the average of the results.

The isothermal surface potential decay (ISPD) method was employed to assess the surface potential characteristics of both unmodified and modified insulations [14,15]. Figure 3 illustrates the experimental setup for the ISPD test. A steel needle, featuring a 0.8 μm edge tip and 60 mm long, was suspended 15 mm above the insulator. A circular grid electrode with a 100 mm diameter was used for the homogenous distribution of charges on insulation. The insulator was placed on a grounded heater and the temperature was fixed at 30°C. Initially, the voltages were supplied to both needle and grid, raised and then fixed at ±12 and ±8 kV for 15 min. The voltages were removed after charging and a contactless voltage probe was used to scan the surface potential of the charged insulator for the scanning duration of 5 h. The measured data was obtained through an electrostatic voltmeter and then transferred to the computer via a data acquisition system for further processing. The humidity of the experiment was fixed at 30 ± 5% using a humidity-controlled box to obtain real results.

Figure 3 Experimental schematic of an ISPD setup.
Figure 3

Experimental schematic of an ISPD setup.

The test apparatus for the flashover experiment is illustrated schematically in Figure 4(a). The insulation samples were tightened in between the finger electrodes made of steel with a gap distance of 10 mm and the test jig was fixed inside a temperature-controlled vacuum chamber. Next high voltages were applied across the electrodes using different polarities as shown in Figure 4(b) through a programmable HVDC source. The applied voltages were removed immediately just after the flashover and the data for flashover voltage and leakage current was recorded graphically on an oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS 2014B) using a current transformer and a high-voltage probe (Tektronix P6015A). After each subsequent test, the electrodes were cleaned using sandpaper and ethanol to avoid the effects of carbon on the results. The experiment was periodically repeated multiple times and the obtained data for the flashover test of each insulation was further processed numerically through Weibull statistical analysis to study the stability and reliability of the results. The experimental conditions are as follows: temperature (T = 30, 80, 120, 150°C); humidity (H = 30 ± 5%); vacuum pressure (P = 1.5 × 10−4 Pa); electrode gap (10 mm); electrode diameter (d electrode = 12.5 mm); sample thickness (a = 1 mm). A thermal imager and a high-speed camera were used to confirm the set temperature and to visualize the flashover occurrence, respectively.

Figure 4 Experimental schematic of flashover (a) test platform and (b) voltage waveforms.
Figure 4

Experimental schematic of flashover (a) test platform and (b) voltage waveforms.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Surface topography and chemical characterization

EP is a thermosetting polymer that may undergo physical changes after being exposed to ions of varying energies. The decline in the average molecular weight of the latter and the rise in local temperature of the EP surface due to the increase in ion energy causes structural defects in the material, known as color centers/oxygen vacancies [29], leading to the change in its density and optical properties [30]. Therefore, to confirm the modification of EP insulation by varied energy ion beams, here we reported the physical appearance of EP before and after modification. It is commonly known that pristine EP is an optically colorless and transparent polymer. However, from Figure 5, it can be observed that unmodified EP acquires a milky white color appearance. This is because a very small ratio of Al2/O3 particles was added to the pristine EP during the sample preparation process to enhance its mechanical strength. The color of the EP insulation changes from milky white to a light grey after bombardment with an ion beam of 6 keV. After that, the color of the EP insulation changes from metallic to dark black from sample M20 to M60. The appearance of the dark black color at high energy might be due to the elevated average band gap in the thermosetting conjugated polymer [29]. This different color appearance of the EP surface at different ion energies confirms the modification of the EP surface which may outcome in different electrical properties.

Figure 5 Surface color structure of unmodified and modified EP insulations under varied energy ion beams.
Figure 5

Surface color structure of unmodified and modified EP insulations under varied energy ion beams.

To further confirm the modification of EP insulation after bombardment with energetic ions, the surface topography of unmodified and modified insulations was obtained and compared through the SEM method. In this study, since only the surface of EP was modified, only the surface SEM was performed. From Figure 6, it can be observed that the surface of unmodified EP is very smooth. After modification with the ion beam of 60 keV, a large number of bumps appeared, apparently because of the physical sputtering effect of bombarded ions. These bumps may act as traps and can capture the surface charges in the deep surface of the insulation which can vary the surface flashover characteristics. The elemental composition of the unmodified and modified insulations was measured using the same SEM method and the results are presented in Figure 7. It is found that the amount of carbon elements has increased while the amount of oxygen elements has decreased considerably in the EP insulation after bombardment with the ion beam of 60 keV. In the presence of carbonyl groups and due to the increase in the local temperature of the EP, the irradiation damage caused by the bombarded ions might lead to the carbonization on EP surface which changes its surface color from milky white to dark black as already described in Figure 5. From this, we can say that the increase in carbon elements and change in the surface color of EP insulation confirms that the modification has been successfully applied.

Figure 6 Surface topography of unmodified and modified (60 keV) EP insulation through SEM method.
Figure 6

Surface topography of unmodified and modified (60 keV) EP insulation through SEM method.

Figure 7 Elemental composition of EP before and after modification (the modified sample is M60).
Figure 7

Elemental composition of EP before and after modification (the modified sample is M60).

3.2 Flashover characteristics

As can be observed from Figure 4(b) (left), initially the negative DC voltages were applied to the flashover electrodes and raised through a programmable HVDC source at a rate of −0.2 kV/s. The electrodes were kept at this potential for 1 min and the voltages were raised again at the same rate. This cycle of applying voltage kept repeating and stopped immediately when a flashover and a spike in the leakage current were observed. In addition, due to the prolonged working operations of DC applications, e.g., power inverters/converters, the heating of electronic modules such as transistors could raise the temperature of the EP insulation which could also affect its flashover performance. Given this, the flashover tests were performed under varying temperatures, e.g., 30, 80, 120, and 150°C. A thermal imager (FOTRIC -325 pro) was used to analyze the temperature of the tested sample. Weibull distribution curves of experimental results were plotted and illustrated graphically in Figure 8. The test was repeated 20 times to obtain a mean value and to use it for Weibull analysis. The cumulative Weibull distribution function along with its detailed explanation can be found in our previous studies [26,27].

Figure 8 Flashover characteristics of unmodified and modified EP insulations under varying temperatures (considering applied voltage polarity as shown in Figure 4(b) (left)).
Figure 8

Flashover characteristics of unmodified and modified EP insulations under varying temperatures (considering applied voltage polarity as shown in Figure 4(b) (left)).

From Figure 8, it can be observed that flashover voltages (U flsh) of unmodified insulation are quite low compared to the modified one irrespective of the experimental temperature. Additionally, under any experimental temperature, the U flsh of the ion beam-modified insulations have raised significantly and increases with the increase in beam energy. The sample M60 modified by the beam of 60 keV attains the highest augmentation in U flsh. The U flsh of M60 improved by 45.02, 57.75, 63.22, and 71.23% under experimental temperatures of 30, 80, 120, and 150°C, respectively. Moreover, it can also be observed that the U flsh of unmodified insulations starts to drop dramatically with the increase in the experimental temperature, especially for the temperature of 150°C. However, the percentage of flashover voltage drop for modified insulations under varying temperatures is very low compared to the unmodified insulation. In light of this analysis, it can be claimed that after modification with an energetic ion beam, the EP insulation becomes thermally stable and shows much more improved flashover performances even at high temperatures.

It is commonly known that the accumulation degree of incoming charges usually depends upon the surface condition of polymer insulation, e.g., its surface conductivity, surface roughness, etc. [10,11]. Given this, to further explore the effects of ion bombardment on the surface charging of EP insulation, the samples were initially charged for 10 min under −15 kV using the needle-grid charging platform as shown in Figure 3. Figure 4(b) (right) shows the applied voltage waveform. After charging, the voltages at the electrodes were raised continuously at the rate of −0.2 kV/s and stopped immediately when a flashover was observed. The recorded data of U flsh was then processed numerically using Weibull statistical analysis and illustrated in Figure 9. From the results, it can be observed that U flsh of charged-unmodified insulations dropped dramatically compared to the uncharged-unmodified insulations and this ratio of voltage drop increases with the increases in sample temperature. This phenomenon of flashover voltage drop indicates the occurrence of a high amount of charge accumulation in unmodified EP insulation. Although the U flsh of charged-modified insulations also dropped compared to the U flsh of uncharged-modified insulations, the voltage drop ratio is quite low compared to the charged-unmodified insulations, indicating the effectiveness of ion beam modification. It can also be observed that among the modified insulations, the ratio of flashover voltage drop decreases with the rise in ion beam energy. The charged insulation sample M60 indicates the lowest flashover voltage drop among all the insulation samples irrespective of the applied temperature. To further explore the reasons for these different flashover characteristics, various characterizations are performed and the results are presented here.

Figure 9 Flashover characteristics of unmodified and modified EP insulations under varying temperatures (considering applied voltage polarity as shown in Figure 4(b) (right)).
Figure 9

Flashover characteristics of unmodified and modified EP insulations under varying temperatures (considering applied voltage polarity as shown in Figure 4(b) (right)).

3.3 Surface conductivity measurement

It was observed from the already conducted research studies that surface conductivity (σ s) of polymer insulations had a great impact on flashover characteristics following their surface condition [14,16]. Therefore, in this section, σ s of unmodified and modified insulations are measured using a sealed 3-electrode system and the results are illustrated graphically as shown in Figure 10. The σ s of unmodified EP is quite high compared to the σ s of modified insulations. Also, it can be noticed that the σ s of modified EP decreases with the increase in energy of the ion beam. The σ s of the samples M6, M10, M20, M40, M50, and M60 decreases by 16.66, 36, 46.67, 66.8, 76, and 83.33%, respectively. The insulation sample M60 shows the highest decline in σ s among all the insulation samples. The above-presented results indicate that U flsh of EP insulation is strongly linked with its surface conductivity and improved with the decline in σ s after modification by the high-energy ion beam.

Figure 10 Surface conductivity of unmodified and modified insulations under varying ion beam energies.
Figure 10

Surface conductivity of unmodified and modified insulations under varying ion beam energies.

The possible reasons for the decline in σ s after modification can be obtained from the surface wettability test. For this purpose, the WCA of unmodified and modified insulations is obtained through the experimental procedure as described earlier in the experimental section and computed via Young’s equation (1) [31,32].

(1) Cos ( θ W ) = Y SG − Y SL Y LG ,

where θ w is the WCA between the solid surface and water-vapor interface in degrees, Y SG is the surface tension of solid–gas, Y SL represents the surface tension of solid–liquid, and Y LG depicts the surface tension of liquid–gas.

From the results shown in Figure 11, it can be observed that the WCA of the unmodified sample is greater than 90° which indicates that it is hydrophobic according to the Young’s equation. After modification, the WCA of the EP insulation starts increasing and reaches to maximum for sample M60. This analysis shows that the bombardment of energetic ions with the EP surface only increases its hydrophobicity, which means that if unmodified EP is hydrophobic then ion bombardment can only enhance its hydrophobic nature, or if the unmodified EP is hydrophilic then ion bombardment can only enhance its hydrophilic nature. It was commonly known and proved from various studies that the rise in hydrophobicity of polymer insulation could decrease its surface conductivity [10,11]. Therefore, from the results of this study, it can be claimed that the increase in surface hydrophobicity of the EP insulation after ion bombardment is the major cause of decreasing its surface conductivity.

Figure 11 WCA measurement of unmodified and modified EP insulations.
Figure 11

WCA measurement of unmodified and modified EP insulations.

3.4 Surface potential and surface trap characteristics

Previous studies indicate that surface charge characteristics of a polymer dielectric can be analyzed through its surface potential (U surf) which also has been considered as one of the critical parameters to characterize the flashover performance of a DC insulation system [33,34]. Therefore, in this section, to link the flashover voltages, surface charge characteristics, and surface conductivity, we measured the U surf performance of unmodified and modified insulations through the ISPD test described earlier in the experimental section. From the results shown in Figure 12, it can be observed that U surf of unmodified and modified insulations exponentially decays with time and reaches its lowest magnitude after a measurement time of 1,800 s. This exponential decay of U surf is because the incoming charges arrive at the insulation surface and are captured by the traps. With time, these captured charges decay slowly owing to the thermal effect (hoping mechanism). It can be seen that the initial surface potential (U int) of unmodified EP is −2.59 kV which drops to −1.159 kV (55.25%) after a measurement time of 1,800 s. On the other side, the U int of samples M6, M10, M20, M40, M50, and M60 drops to 35.31, 33.06, 28.50, 21.64, 20.17, and 17.30%, respectively. The above-presented quantitative analysis of surface potential indicates that modified EP insulation exhibits a quite slow decay compared to unmodified insulation due to the lower magnitude of σ s. The lower σ s reduces the movement of charges along the insulation surface and suppresses the decay of U surf.

Figure 12 Surface potential measurement of unmodified and modified EP insulations.
Figure 12

Surface potential measurement of unmodified and modified EP insulations.

To further explore the effects of ion bombardment on flashover characteristics, the trap parameters of EP insulation before and after modification were obtained using the following equations [14]:

(2) N ( E T ) = ε o ε r t q e f 0 k b T δ L d V s d t ,

(3) E T = k b T ln ( γ ATE t ) ,

where ε 0 is the dielectric constant for vacuum, ε r is the dielectric constant of the used material, dV s/d t is the decay rate of the surface potential, L is the thickness of the sample which is 1 mm in our study, q e is the unit charge in coulombs (1.6 × 10−19 C), k b is the Boltzmann’s constant, δ is the charge distribution range for even surface, T is the experimental temperature (298 K), and γ ATE is the carrier attempt-to-escape frequency.

From Figure 13, it can be observed that the surface trap curve has two peaks. The first peak belongs to the shallow traps while the second peak belongs to the deep traps. For unmodified EP, the energy (E T) and density (N(E T)) of shallow traps are quite high compared to the deep traps. After ion bombardment, the density of the shallow traps starts to decrease while the density of the deep traps starts to increase from samples M6 to M60. The sample M60 modified by the ion beam of the highest energy exhibits the highest density of deep traps and the lowest density of shallow traps. At the same time, after modification, from sample M6 to M60, the trap curve starts to move from the left to the right side. The enhanced density of deep traps, the declined density of shallow traps, and the movement of the trap curve from the left to the right side show that ion bombardment has introduced deeper traps in the EP surface. From previous studies [35,36,37], it was investigated that the introduction of deeper traps is the main reason for reducing the σ s and suppressing the surface potential decay. The reasons for the formation of deeper traps will be described in Section 5.

Figure 13 Trap distribution parameters of unmodified and modified EP insulations.
Figure 13

Trap distribution parameters of unmodified and modified EP insulations.

4 Discussion

The surface of EP insulation is considerably altered by bombarding the ions of varying energies to target the improved flashover characteristics for DC insulations. In this section, the detailed mechanism for flashover voltage improvement is explored through the SRIM program along with the experimental results and theoretical models. SRIM is a software program used to simulate the ions distribution and ions energy loss in the target material via Monte Carlo analyses. Monte Carlo is an analytical analysis method used for mathematical analysis [38]. Here we used SRIM to calculate the depth of ions in the EP insulation to find out the real reasons for deep trap formation. In this work, EP is used as a targeted material while Ar is used as a bombarded ion. The basic parameters for SRIM simulation are tabulated in Table 2 considering the resin, catalyst, hardener, and Ar ion source. According to the table values, the total molecular weight of carbon elements in the EP insulation should be equal to the total number of carbon elements in EPR (Bisphenol-A (C21H24O4)), hardener (MeTHPA (C9H10O3)), and catalyst (DMP-30 [(CH3)2NCH2]3C6H2OH). Similar calculations will be applied to the hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen elements. Considering this, the total molecular weight (MW) of the carbon elements is 540 amu, the total M. W of hydrogen elements is 61 amu, the total M. W of oxygen elements is 128 amu and the total MW of nitrogen elements is 42 amu in the targeted insulation. Similarly, the total density of the targeted insulation will be equal to the total density of EPR (1.2 g/cm3), hardener (1.21 g/cm3), and catalyst (0.96 g/cm3), which is 3.37 g/cm3 in this study. The energy of the incident Ar ions varies between 6 and 60 keV at an incident angle of 90°.

Table 2

Simulation parameters of SRIM considering the EP as the target sample and Ar as the incident ion

Bisphenol-A (C21H24O4) MeTHPA (C9H10O3) DMP-30 [(CH3)2NCH2]3C6H2OH
Atom Molecular Wt (amu) Atom Molecular Wt (amu) Atom Molecular Wt (amu)
Carbon (C) 21 × 12 = 252 Carbon (C) 9 × 12 = 108 Carbon (C) 6 × 12 + 3 × 12 + 6 × 12 = 180
Hydrogen (H) 24 × 1 = 24 Hydrogen (H) 10 × 1 = 10 Hydrogen (H) 18 × 1 + 6 × 1 + 2 × 1 + 1 × 1 = 27
Oxygen (O) 4 × 16 = 64 Oxygen (O) 3 × 16 = 48 Oxygen (O) 16 × 1 = 16
Nitrogen (N) 0 Nitrogen (N) 0 Nitrogen (N) 14 × 3 = 42

The radial and longitudinal range of incident ions in the targeted EP insulation is computed and illustrated graphically in Figure 14(a). The radial projection of the incident Ar ions in the targeted EP insulation lies between 10.17 and 65.70 nm while the longitudinal projection lies between 19.88 and 150.48 nm when the energy of the incident ions varies from 6 to 60 keV. With the rise in the ion energy, the disorder bounce of the bombarded ions will increase in both radial and longitudinal directions followed by the ion collision process. To further analyze the effects of bombarded ions on the insulation surface, the distribution of Ar ions in the depth direction is calculated and presented in Figure 14(b). It can be seen that the Ar ions are distributed to a certain depth below the surface of the EP insulation through a Gaussian distribution pattern. The process can be explained as follows. Initially, the incident ions with a specific energy continuously bombard the surface of the insulation, transferring their energy through electronic excitation or nuclear stopping [26,39], reaching inside the insulation to a certain depth below the surface, creating significant changes in the lattice layers, leaving vacancies due to the cascaded collision and then stop. These created vacancies will act as surface traps and can capture the surface charges. The depth of these vacancies/traps depends upon the energy of the bombarded ions. It can be observed that the distribution depth of the bombarded ions increases with the increase in ion energy which obviously will turn the surface traps into relatively deeper at higher ion energies. Hence, from Figure 14(a) and (b), it can be claimed that with the rise in energy of bombarded ions, the distribution depth of the ions inside the insulation surface also rises which causes the formation of the deeper surface traps. From the above-presented simulation results, the mechanism of the modification method on flashover voltage enhancement is explored as follows.

Figure 14 Range and depth distribution of incident ions in EP insulation. (a) Longitudinal straggling and radial straggling considering varying energy ions and (b) Ar+ ions distribution in depth considering varying energies.
Figure 14

Range and depth distribution of incident ions in EP insulation. (a) Longitudinal straggling and radial straggling considering varying energy ions and (b) Ar+ ions distribution in depth considering varying energies.

The mechanism of air flashover can be explained through streamer theory [40,41] while for vacuum flashover, it follows the SEE avalanche model [34]. For unmodified insulation, the surface traps capture the incoming primary electrons at the point where flashover electrodes, solid insulation, and gas are close to each other and distort the E-field. Under periodic increases in applied voltages, the distortion of the E-field becomes high and emits more primary electrons. Some of the electrons are again captured by the traps and some will lead to the excitation of the secondary electrons. The continuous collision of the primary electrons with the insulation surface gives rise to the avalanche of secondary electrons which finally supports the flashover channel and reduces the U flsh.

After modification, it is observed from the experimental results that the bombarded ions alter the physical state of the insulation material by creating several pits and bumps under the sputtering effect. These physical pits act as surface traps and capture the surface charges. From the surface trap measurements, the density of the deep traps increases while the density of the shallow traps decreases with the increase in bombarded ion energy. Also, the trap curve shifted from the left to right direction with the rise in ion energy. Both these factors confirm the formation of deeper surface traps, assisting in a reduction in surface conductivity, confining the surface charge movements, and extensively suppressing the SEE yield [42,43]. Also, the enhanced trap depth induces homo-charge formation near triple junctions, declining the E-field distortion, and restricting the primary electron emission, synergistically, the factors contribute to high flashover voltages.

5 Conclusion

In this study, a novel modification method is employed to advance the surface of EP, resulting in a significant increase in flashover voltage. The experimental and simulation models validate the significance of the proposed approach, demonstrating its potential to advance the insulation characteristics of industrial applications effectively. The key findings are outlined below.

The surface color of the insulation sample was first changed from milky white to light grey from the unmodified sample to sample M6. After that, it changed from metallic to dark black when the energy of the incident ions varied between 20 and 60 keV. The appearance of the dark black color at high energy is due to the elevated average band gap in the thermosetting conjugated polymer which verifies that the modification has been applied to the insulation. The EDX analyses indicated that the content of the carbon elements in modified insulation had increased significantly which can lead to carbonization and therefore changed the color of the modified sample into a dark black tone. Moving forward, the surface topography of unmodified and modified insulation from SEM indicated that physical sputtering of ion bombardment induces electron bumps and pits which can capture the incoming charges and alter the surface charge characteristics of the insulation. To verify this statement, flashover voltages were measured under different temperatures and voltage polarities. The sample M60 modified by the beam of 60 keV attains the highest augmentation in U flsh. The U flsh of M60 improved by 45.02, 57.75, 63.22, and 71.23% under experimental temperatures of 30, 80, 120, and 150°C, respectively. Moreover, all the modified insulations showed a much more stable improvement of U flsh compared to the unmodified insulations at varying temperatures. Also, it was found that the effect of surface charge accumulation had reduced significantly in the modified insulation group. To justify the flashover voltage improvement and to explore the mechanism, various characterizations and numerical simulations were conducted. Simulation results revealed that energetic ions struck the surface of the insulation, created damage in the lattice layer, left vacancies, and then stopped to a certain depth far below the surface of the insulation. Due to these created vacancies, a large number of deep traps were formed in the modified insulations whose density increases with the increase in ion energy. The deep surface traps capture the incoming charges and do not let them de-trap. This phenomenon reduces the surface conductivity, suppressing the surface charge movements, and declining the SEE yield. Also, the enhanced trap depth induces homo-charge formation near triple junctions, declining the E-field distortion, and restricting the primary electron emission, synergistically, the factors contribute to high flashover voltages.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (52250410350), and Researchers Supporting Project (RSP2024R492), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: Inzamam Ul Haq: conceptualization, writing – original draft preparation, and experimentations; Shakeel Akram: data curation and visualization; Zhi Fang: supervision and funding acquisition; Muhammad Tariq Nazir: investigation and proofreading; Essam A. Al-Ammar: methodology, software, and funding acquisition. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-06-01
Revised: 2024-07-08
Accepted: 2024-07-20
Published Online: 2024-10-10

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0080
Keywords for this article
surface modification; Monte Carlo model; surface flashover; surface conductivity
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