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Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology

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Published/Copyright: February 22, 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

Slope protection and erosion management are severely hampered by the rapid infrastructure development in mountainous valleys, especially during the monsoon season. While conventional approaches like vegetation, porous concrete, and inorganic procedures have been used, stronger and more ecologically friendly alternatives are still needed. A new kind of concrete called vegetation concrete (VC) allows roots to grow through the concrete frame by combining plant integration with porous concrete. This creative method might be used for environmentally friendly building and planting. The alkalinity of VC significantly impacts its planting capabilities and soil nutrient levels, making it crucial to reduce VC alkalinity. In this study, silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA) were combined to create low-alkaline VC. The effects of SF and FA on VC’s alkalinity, porosity, compressive strength, and planting characteristics were examined. The study also investigated VC’s influence on soil fertility and its impact on soil nutrients. Test results revealed that SF and FA reduced the pH of the VC by reducing calcium hydroxide (CH) crystals. While SF had a lower basicity coefficient (M) than FA, it had a more significant effect on lowering VC alkalinity. The compressive strength decreased with FA but increased with SF, despite SF having a smaller cement component in VC–SF mixes. This suggests that blending VC with SF and FA is feasible, with the SF dosage exceeding the FA dosage for reduced alkalinity and increased strength. Lowering VC alkalinity through SF and FA increased soil nutrients, including hydrolyzable nitrogen (AH-N), extractable phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). It also improved planting properties like root development, stem height, and leaf relative water content. Using VC for soil stabilization did not reduce soil fertility but instead increased the available phosphorus and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen in the soil by 32.81 and 52.92%, respectively. The findings of this study open up new avenues for investigation into this technology and have important ramifications for the use of VC technology, particularly in Indian contexts.

Graphical abstract

Keywords: vegetation concrete; fly ash; silica fume; alkalinity; soil nutrients; soil ecology

1 Introduction

Rapid infrastructural development in the hills and valleys is leaving bare slopes vulnerable to water runoff and soil erosion, as well as the danger of shallow landslides. The slope and the area around it are particularly harmed by the stormwater runoff that occurs during the monsoon season. As a method of slope protection, a variety of different strategies have been devised to counteract the detrimental impacts of the slope. Although the slope was effectively stabilized by the slope protection methods, such as vegetation, hydro-mulch, geotextiles, wire mesh, and other inorganic methods (concrete and brick masonry), these methods did not provide the slope with substantial resisting forces in the same way that anchoring and retaining structures do [1,2]. Planting vegetation on a slope is the method that is both the most beneficial to the environment and the most eco-friendly [3]. Although the soils are susceptible to erosion from storm water, it is well recognized that vegetation provides progressive and effective protection for slopes. In order to facilitate the infiltration of surface runoff and storm water, porous concrete, which is also known as pervious concrete, is an alternative material that can be used in place of ordinary concrete. In addition, the use of pervious concrete helps to decrease erosion, alters the pattern of water flow, and increases the amount of groundwater that is recharged. Very recently, a new variety of concrete known as vegetation concrete (VC) emerged as a result of traditional concrete application being combined with the influence of horticulture. The VC combines a plant with a substrate made of porous concrete that enables free passage of water, air, soil, and roots. After this, plants are able to germinate and establish their own roots in the underlying soil strata by growing through the porous concrete frame. The results of Tang et al. [1] highlight the potential of VC technology to be a realistic and successful solution, particularly considering the adaptability of specific grass species. Furthermore, it has been reported that research in this area could result in substantial breakthroughs and practical applications in slope protection and other related sectors.

It is widely recognized that plants need phosphorous (extractable), potassium (K), and hydrolyzable nitrogen (AH-N) for improved development. However, the soil’s greater alkalinity reduced the availability of nutrients and harmed the function of the enzymes needed to assimilate AH-N [4]. Additionally, the soil’s increased alkalinity made it harder for plants to absorb nutrients and water for growth [5]. Despite the fact that plants thrive in acidic environments, Codina et al. [6] and Huang et al. [7] recently showed that the high alkalinity of ordinary VC substantially restricts plant growth in VC. The literature research concluded that planting concrete should not have a higher pH since it has a major impact on the growth of plants. In addition, the increased alkalinity of the VC needs to be minimized since it may enhance the alkalinity of the soil adjacent to it. The appropriate pH values suitable for plants growing were between 8 and 10. The alkalinity of VC mainly came from the hydration phase of cement, and the pH value of hydrated Portland cement was up to about 13, making it inappropriate for making planting concrete. Therefore, Portland cement cannot be simply used to make planting concrete. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) have been utilized extensively over the past few decades to lower the alkalinity of traditional concrete. Sun et al. [8] attempted to investigate the effects of silica fume (SF) and fly ash (FA) on the alkalinity of the cement paste and discovered that the pH of the pore solution decreased due to the addition of minerals, but that the corrosion resistance of reinforcement was decreased by a decrease in alkalinity. SF, a cement additive, was examined by Larbi et al. [9] in the 1990s. They found that SF’s faster pozzolanic reaction lowered the pH of the cement system even at young ages. Yan et al. [2] used powdered anhydrite to reduce the alkalinity of sulfoaluminate cement clinker. Yuan et al. [10] revealing that the anhydrite addition lowered the pH of the cement clinker and improved the performance as well. The experiments by Garcia Calvo et al. [11] showed that adding SCMs to the cement system decreased the pH of the pore fluids and completely changed the cement pastes’ microstructure in contrast to the plain cement paste. Golewski [9,12] presented a new concrete composite made with a quaternary binder containing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) partially replaced by various percentages of SCMs, such as siliceous FA, SF, and nanosilica (nS). According to the test findings, using quaternary blended cements gives promising mechanical qualities and decreased brittleness, making it appropriate for particular building applications requiring high mechanical strength and resistance to dynamic and cyclic loads. Young-Kug Jo [13] studied the integration of blast-furnace slag and FA with OPC to lower the alkalinity of OPC and it was discovered that the pH of the pore solution produced from hydrated cement paste decreased as the admixture level increased in the admixture-supplemented OPC [14]. Gong et al. [15] recently included limestone powder into VPC and assessed the influence of limestone powder on seed germination and plant growth. The results of the tests revealed that adding limestone powder lowered the alkalinity of the VPC, and they concluded that boosting plant growth in the VPC significantly boosted the soil’s moisture retention capacity and slope stability. The addition of FA and SF lowered the alkalinity of the concrete mixes while having no discernible effect on the strength of the concrete. Golewski, G.L. (2023) (2023) [16,17] observed the effect of introducing coal fly ash (CFA) into concrete compositions on the flexural compressive strength and water absorption in another investigation. According to the findings of the tests, the addition of 20% CFA resulted in an increase in flexural compressive strength and water absorption; however, the addition of 30% CFA resulted in a considerable drop in both strength and water absorption.

According to a review of the literature, SCMs, including FA, SF, and granulated blast furnace slag, were often employed by researchers to lower the pH of the cement-based paste and concrete, while relatively few researchers utilized those materials to lower the alkalinity of VC. Furthermore, the usage of SCMs in VPC is still in its early stages, with just a few studies published thus far [18]. These findings emphasize the potential for VC technology to be a viable and effective solution, especially given the adaptability of specific grass species to varying FA content. Further research in this area could lead to significant advancements and practical applications in slope protection and other related fields. Furthermore, more research is needed to determine ways to reduce VC alkalinity in order to increase planting capacities, soil fertility, and ecological preservation. In order to fill the research gap, an experimental investigation was initiated to reduce the alkalinity of the VC utilizing SF and FA, as well as to identify the appropriate dosage in VC production. Additionally, it was examined how the drop in the VC’s alkalinity due to the mixing of SF and FA influenced the planting parameters, such as the grass height, root length, and leaves relative water content (LRWC). Because VC will be used to stabilize soil slopes, the current study evaluated the effects of VC alkalinity on soil fertility that are linked with it, in order to assure environmental protection. The design of experiment (DOE) method is used in the current study to efficiently conduct the experimental inquiry and to give priority to the effect of SF and FA on the physical and physiological features of VC. The central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM) was used to design the testing trials because it is a well-known fitting technique that prioritizes the impact of process factors with few set tests.

2 Materials

2.1 Cement

OPC was utilized to prepare the VC. VC was made with OPC that had a grade of 43 and a specific gravity of 3.08. Table 1 summarizes the chemical composition of OPC.

Table 1

Chemical composition of cement

Chemical composition (% by weight)
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 5.4
Calcium oxide (CaO) 63.6
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 22.5
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 3
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.7
Sulfur trioxide (So3) 1.8
Loss on ignition (LOI) 1.0

2.2 Admixtures: SF and FA

SF and FA were put onto the green concrete as admixtures to lower their alkalinity. For this experiment, FA of industrial grade, grade C, was obtained from Salem, Tamil Nadu, India. FA contains 23.14% silica, and Figure 1 details the chemical make-up of the FA. Figure 1 shows that the primary components of FA are silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al), indicating that FA may be utilized as a pozzolonic substitute for cement. Calcium (Ca), potassium (K), and sulfur (S) were also found in trace levels. With a few irregularly shaped particles, Figure 2 demonstrates that the majority of FA particles are spherical. The micrographs show the porous structure of FA, revealing its large surface area and potential for increased reactivity. The existence of agglomerates shows that FA particles have a propensity to cluster. Interparticle spaces and surface imperfections are observed, indicating probable pozzolanic reaction sites. In this investigation, SF with specific surfaces of 21,500 m2/kg and a relative density of 2.39 was utilized. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) patterns and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures of SF are shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. The specific surface, silica microsphere content, and microstructure of SF are all finer (90.7% of its weight). According to SEM, SF has a unique amorphous structure, with ultrafine particles closely packed together. The large surface area and compactness of SF particles contribute to their pozzolanic reactivity. The agglomerated structure of SF particles is shown in SEM pictures, demonstrating their propensity to form cohesive clusters. The smooth and uneven surfaces of SF particles improve their capacity to fill gaps in the concrete matrix.

Figure 1 EDAX pattern of FA.
Figure 1

EDAX pattern of FA.

Figure 2 SEM images of FA.
Figure 2

SEM images of FA.

Figure 3 EDAX pattern of SF.
Figure 3

EDAX pattern of SF.

Figure 4 SEM images of SF.
Figure 4

SEM images of SF.

2.3 Fine and coarse aggregates

The coarse aggregates were crushed blue metal stone, a combination of limestone and gravel, produced in Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh. The coarse aggregates were screened, and an aggregate gradation of 10–20 mm was used (Table 2). The density of coarse aggregates was 2,780 kg/m3 and the crushing index was 8.5%. Because the addition of sand improves aggregate bonding and the strength of the VC, 2% fine aggregate (by volume) of concrete was included without affecting the VC’s porosity. In this research, sand particles with a specific gravity of 2.52 that could pass through a 4.25 mm screen were used.

Table 2

Particle size distribution of fine and coarse aggregates (IS 383:2016)

Sieve size in mm Cumulative passing amount (%)
Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate
40 100
20 — 97
10 100 6
4.75 98.9 4
2.36 86.1 —
1.18 76.24 —
0.6 60.12 —
0.3 29.45 —
0.15 2.1 —

2.4 Vegetation species

Ryegrass was considered as a crop for VC vegetation due to its superior adaptability/compatibility in the atmosphere of FA- and SF-modified VC and its extensive use in laboratory investigations. Table 3 provides an overview of the key traits of perennial ryegrass. Red soil, peat moss, and river sand are used in equal amounts since the soil mix has a considerable influence on how vegetation develops.

Table 3

Basic properties of perennial ryegrass

S. No Properties
1 Life expectancy Perennial
2 Average mature height (cm) 50–100
3 Season Cold and warm (all seasonal)
4 pH tolerance Acidic and alkaline
5 Preferred soil type Alluvial and Red, sandy to heavy clay
6 Other tolerance Good cold tolerances, heat and drought tolerance

3 Experimental program

3.1 Mixture proportion

To test FA and SF rates ranging from 0 to 40% (with a 10% increment) and 0 to 12% (with a 3% increment), 25 different tests were required. To efficiently complete the experimental program, the number of tests required for the current research must be optimized. The DOE is a novel method for analyzing experimental results in terms of independent variables. DOE requires fewer trials, links unrelated variables, and, in the end, offers the optimum reaction to experimental data [9]. As a result, the trials in this article were created with RSM’s CCD. Priority was also assigned to how process variables affect VC characteristics. The response-influencing parameters and their levels must be specified in order to design CCD experiments. Based on the components and their levels, a total of nine different experiments were produced, and the combination details are shown in Table 4. All of the mixtures are labeled, with the label 25FA-6SF indicating that it contains 25% FA and 6% SF.

Table 4

Parameters levels in the CCD model

Parameters Coding Parameter level
−1 0 +1
Responses: Alkalinity, compressive strength, and void content
FA X1 0 20 40
SF X2 0 6 12

Portland cement, FA, SF, river sand, and coarse aggregate were all used to develop the mixture. The water/cement ratio of 0.41 was established based on the trail test and kept constant for all mixture combinations because the weight of the cement and powder is constant for all mixtures. Table 5 summarizes the details of all mixture combinations.

Table 5

Proportion of cement, FA, and SF in VC

Test no Fly ash (%) SF (%) W/C Sand (%) Cement (kg) FA (kg) SF (kg)
1 40 0 0.41 2 240 160 0
2 20 14.48 0.41 2 262 80 58
3 20 6 0.41 2 296 80 24
4 40 12 0.41 2 192 160 48
5 0 6 0.41 2 376 0 24
6 48.28 6 0.41 2 183 193 24
7 20 0 0.41 2 320 80 0
8 0 0 0.41 2 400 0 0
9 0 12 0.41 2 352 0 48

  1. For 1M3 of VC: cement – 400 kg; fine aggregate – 37 kg; coarse aggregate – 867 kg.

3.2 Specimen fabrication and testing

3.2.1 Alkalinity

In this study, a pH meter was used to measure the pH value of the VC. The test was done according to the instructions in IS:3025 (Part II) – 1983, and the test sample was made according to the instructions in Lianfang Li et al. [18] (Figure 5). For the sample preparation, the mortar part of the VC was taken out at 7 and 28 days, ground, and passed through 0.08 mm sieves. The sample of sieved mortar was then mixed with water in a ratio of 1:10 and left to rest for 1 h. The water part was then filtered and checked for pH.

Figure 5 Determination of pH.
Figure 5

Determination of pH.

3.2.2 Compressive strength test

In accordance with the procedure outlined in IS 456-2000, concrete cubes measuring 150 mm in size were fabricated and subjected to testing at the ages of 7 and 28 days. All of the cubes were created at ambient temperature, and they underwent curing and testing at a temperature of 26°C (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Preparation and testing of VC cubes.
Figure 6

Preparation and testing of VC cubes.

3.2.3 Porosity (void ratio)

The void content of all combinations was evaluated in this study since it is widely known that minimizing the void content of VC minimizes water runoff and root penetration. The void content of VC was measured in this study using the volume displacement technique, and the test was conducted in accordance with the steps indicated in ASTM C1754/C1754M-12 [19]. After 28 days, the VC cylindrical specimen’s dry mass and underwater mass were recorded. Equation (2) [19] was then used to calculate the VR:

(1) VR = 1 − k × ( D m − W m ) ρ w × D 2 × L × 100 ,

where k is a constant (= 1,273,240 ((mm3 kg)/(m3/g)); D m and W m are the dry mass and the mass under the water, respectively (g); ρ w is the water density (kg/m3); and D and L are the diameter and length of the cylinder specimen, respectively (mm).

3.2.4 Grass height, root length, and LRWC

After planting the plants for 3, 10, 17, 25, 35, 45, and 60 days, the plant samples were removed from the VC, and a ruler was used to randomly measure the plant’s height (stem) and roots (Figure 7). Safety precautions were implemented to guarantee that the roots’ integrity would be preserved while being removed out of the concrete. In this study, the LRWC was determined by employing the fresh weight method that was outlined in Golewski [15]. In the plantation, samples of leaves that were 15 and 90 days old were taken from the plant and weighed (W f). The leaves were gathered and then placed in a jar with water for 24 h. After 24 h, the leaves were taken out of the water, carefully dried, and weighed once more (W w). After wiping the leaves, they were put in an oven for half an hour at 105°C to dry. In addition, the weight of the dried leaves was determined (W d). After the weighing procedure had been completed, LRWC was determined by using equation (2) [15]. Figure 8 depicts the procedure for conducting the test:

(2) LRWC = ( W f − W d ) ( W w − W d ) × 100 .

Figure 7 Measurements of the root and stem lengths.
Figure 7

Measurements of the root and stem lengths.

Figure 8 The LRWC test.
Figure 8

The LRWC test.

3.2.5 Soil fertility index

To assess the concentration of nutrients in the soil mass, soil samples from above and below the VC were obtained and tested for nutrients, such as hydrolyzable nitrogen (AH-N), phosphorous (P) (extractable), and potassium (K). Because the Olsen [20] technique is highly preferred for measuring soil phosphorous levels at pH 7.4 or higher, the same approach was used in this research to test soil phosphorus. The earth phosphate will be extracted using a 0.5 N sodium bicarbonate solution adjusted to pH 8.5 in this technique. In this research, AH-N was determined using the simple alkaline hydrolysis technique proposed by Dodor and Abatabai [21]. The released NH3 boric acid was captured in this technique by direct-steam distillation of soil with 1 M potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH), and its content was measured for 40 min.

4 Results and discussion

4.1 Alkalinity

Figure 9 shows the pH value for the entire combination, and it is clear that the integration of FA and SF reduced the alkalinity of the VC, and that increasing the dose rate of FA and SF lowered the alkalinity of the VC even more. The pH of the combination with OPC was 12.55 after 28 days, but the pH values of the mixtures VC-40FA and VC-12SF were 11.85 and 11.65%, respectively, which are 5.9 and 7.72% lower than the pH of the mixture with OPC. The amount of calcium hydroxide (CH) crystals presents in the hydration products, according to Teixeira et al. [22], not only affects the concrete’s strength but also significantly affects its alkalinity. The pozzolanic reaction of SCMs in the VC consumes CH crystals to form C–S–H gels, and the reduction in the quantity of CH crystals causes the pH of the VC to decrease.

Figure 9 Effects of FA and SF on the pH of the VC.
Figure 9

Effects of FA and SF on the pH of the VC.

According to equation (3), documented by Hao Zeng et al. [23], the basicity coefficient (M) of the cement, FA, and SF were 2.85, 0.522, and 0.015, respectively.

(3) M = Cao % + MgO % + R 2 O % SiO 2 % + Al 2 O 3 % + P 2 O 5 % M > 1 − alkaline admixture; M = 1 − neutral admixture; and M < 1 − acid admixture .

The presence of FA and SF lowered the pH of the VC because their M values, which are less than 1.0, indicate that they belong to the acidic admixture. The observations above lead to the conclusion that the FA and SF can both be used effectively to reduce the alkalinity of the VC. The Pareto chart, which is a bar graph, shows the importance of different independent factors affecting the result. Figure 8 depicts the Pareto chart of alkalinity at 7 and 28 days of age. Figures 9 and 10 show that the impact of SF is far more significant in decreasing the alkalinity of the VC than the influence of FA. Additionally, the pH of the VC remained unaffected by increasing the FA dose. The 20% FA dose reduced the pH of the VC by around 0.24 units, whereas the 40% FA dosage reduced the pH of the VC by about 0.31 units, which is relatively equivalent. The results are in line with earlier research, and Sun et al. found that even though FA is an acidity addition, the FA’s decreased interaction with the cement matrix did not cause the pH to decrease. Diamond [24] observed that the FA had no effect on the pH of the concrete because the alkalis in the FA did not raise the concentration of alkalinity in the pore solution. Figures 9 and 10 clearly describe how the presence of SF in the VC influenced the hydration process and decreased the pH. Because of the pozzolanic reaction, increasing the SF dosage rate greatly decreases the pH value of VC, and the effects of SF on the pH of the VC are clearly visible even at early ages. At day 7, SF dosages of 6% and 12% in VC lowered the pH by 2.12% and 3.51%, respectively, compared to the VC with OPC. In Larbi et al. [9], the pozzolanic reaction of SF is described. The very fine silica particles in aqueous CH solutions react with water to form a saturated monosilicic acid solution ( H 4 SiO 4 − ) . As accelerated hydration progresses, more OH− and alkali enter the pore solution, resulting in increased silica dissolution. Silica dissolution is directly proportional to alkalinity. Since the OH− attacked the silica to activate the pozzolanic reaction, the concentration of OH− in the aqueous solutions was reduced, resulting in a pH drop. Moreover, the addition of SF decreased the pH of the VC because it is an acidic admixture with an M value of 0.015. Khan et al. [25] assert that raising the SF content in the cement lowers the pH of the pore solution. The pH of cement paste was greatly decreased by adding more SF to OPC, according to Jan et al. [26], but beyond the dosage rate of 50%, there was only a modest pH decrease due to the existence of remaining portlandite. The current study’s findings revealed that FA and SF may be used to reduce the pH; however, a combination of a greater dose of SF (20%) and a lower dosage of FA (10%) is suggested to lower the pH of the VC.

Figure 10 Prioritization impact of FA and SF on the pH of the VC (Pareto chart).
Figure 10

Prioritization impact of FA and SF on the pH of the VC (Pareto chart).

4.2 Porosity

The porosity of all mixtures was measured, and the results are presented in Figure 11. From Figure 11, it can be understood that the inclusion of FA and SF reduced the porosity of the VC, and as the dosage of FA and SF increased, the porosity of the VC decreased further. For instance, the porosity of the combination with OPC was 126.15%, but the porosity of the mixtures VC-40FA and VC-12SF were 21.05 and 24.35%, respectively, which are 24.22 and 13.21% lower than the porosity of the combination with OPC.

Figure 11 Effects of FA and SF on the porosity of VC.
Figure 11

Effects of FA and SF on the porosity of VC.

The low density of the FA and SF in comparison to the cement may be the cause of the reduction in VC porosity with their addition. It is well known that the relative densities of the FA and SF were lower than that of the cement, and the relative densities of the FA and SF used in the study were 2.21 and 2.39, which are 39.37 and 28.87%, respectively, lower than that of cement, and the bulk density of cement was 3.08. Since FA and SF replaced the cement in the VC on a weight basis, the amount of binder and powder available in the VC increased. As a result, the volume of binder and powder slurry available in the VC increased, which enhanced the bonding/contact of the aggregates and decreased the VC’s porosity. Furthermore, the larger surface area of SF and FA results in enhanced void filling and packing efficiency within the concrete matrix. This, in turn, can lead to decreased porosity. The findings are consistent with those of Golewski [27,28], who discovered that the bulk cement paste matrix improves void filling and packing efficiency inside the concrete matrix. Though the relative densities of the FA and SF are relatively equal, Figure 12 clearly implies that the influence of FA was significant in reducing the porosity of the VC rather than the SF. The VC-20FA reduced its porosity by 16.68% than that of VC-0, whereas the porosity of VC-12SF was 23.98%, which was 9.04% lower than that of VC-0. This is a result of the lower slurried density of the FA.

Figure 12 Prioritization impact of FA and SF on the porousness of the VC (Pareto chart).
Figure 12

Prioritization impact of FA and SF on the porousness of the VC (Pareto chart).

4.3 Compressive strength

Figure 13 depicts the effect of FA, SF, and their combination on the compressive strength of VC after 7 and 28 days. Figure 13 depicts the complex interactions among SF, FA, and the strength of concrete. Figure 13 shows that the presence of FA in the VC lowered the compressive strength of the VC as the dosage rate increased; moreover, the drop in the compressive strength was quite considerable, particularly in the early stages (7 days). The strength of VC-20% FA was 14% lower than that of VC-0 at 7 days. Due to the FA’s lower activity (pozzolonic reaction), He et al. [29], Ibrahim [30], and others found that the substitution of FA in concrete reduces the concrete’s compressive strength at a young age. Moreover, as VC cement is replaced by FA, the cement availability in the VC decreases, resulting in less formation of the C–S–H gel. As a result, the VC’s early strength was reduced. He et al. [31] consider nevertheless, the strength of VC-20FA was roughly equivalent to that of VC-0 at 28 days, and the strength was only 7.89% lower than that of VC-0. This is due to the fact that the pozzolonic reaction of FA at later ages produced a greater quantity of C–S–H and C–A–H gels. As a result, the VC-20FA’s strength was comparable to that of the VC-0. The results of the present investigation were in excellent agreement with those of Olsen & Dodor [27,28], Zhou et al. [32] and Wei et al. [33]. Further, we observed that since the bonding of FA particles with the cement matrix is very feeble, replacing FA in VC resulted in a loss of the compressive strength.

Figure 13 Effects of FA and SF on the compressive strength of VC.
Figure 13

Effects of FA and SF on the compressive strength of VC.

Figures 13 and 14 show that the incorporation of SF in the VC significantly enhanced the strength of the VC at all ages when compared to blends with FA. The results of the current investigation also showed that, despite the fact that VC–SF combinations included less cement than VC-0 mixtures, they were stronger than VC-0 mixtures. At 7 and 28 days, the strength of VC-12SF was 9.56% and 11.01% better than that of VC-0, respectively. Teixeira et al. [34] emphasized on the favorable impact of using SF as a substitute for OPC. Zeng et al. [35] discovered that blending cement with SF improved the concrete strength and resistance to sulfate attack. The presence of SF increases the strength of the VC because to the stronger pozzolanic reaction of the SF due to the increased amorphous SiO2 content of the SF. The dissolution of silica to liberate “Si” into the pore solution increased when the pH of the pore solution increased owing to the hydration process. The OH⁻ in the pore solution attacked the silica, causing the pozzolanic process to accelerate. The increased quantity of C–S–H gel formation resulted in enhanced strength, despite the fact that the cement component of VC–SF mixes was lower than that of VC-0. The key factors contributing to SF’s exceptional performance in strengthening the concrete are its high silica content, ultrafine particle size, quick pozzolanic reactivity, and capacity to support both short- and long-term strength growth. Although the blending of cement with FA lowered the strength of the VC, the cement mixed with FA and SF demonstrated that the strength was comparable to the VC-0. For example, the strength of a VC-20FA was 6.67% lower than that of VC-20FA-6SF. As previously stated, the larger amorphous SiO2 content of the SF expedited the pozzolanic process and enhanced the intensity of the VC. The current findings concurred with Thanongsak Nochaiya et al. [29], who observed that combining FA with SF may be more advantageous to the strength development of concrete than combining FA alone. These findings indicate that the VC cement may be combined with SF and FA, but still the SF dosage must be more than the FA dosage to get higher strength.

Figure 14 Prioritization impact of FA and SF on the compressive strength of the VC (Pareto chart).
Figure 14

Prioritization impact of FA and SF on the compressive strength of the VC (Pareto chart).

4.4 Adaptability for vegetation: grass height, root length, and LRWC

At 45 days of age, Figure 15 depicts the development of ryegrass on the two various VC mixes. Figure 16 depicts the height of the roots and the stem at various ages and shows that the planting properties of VC blended with SCMs (FA and SF) are better than that of VC with OPC alone.

Figure 15 Germination and development of ryegrass on VC.
Figure 15

Germination and development of ryegrass on VC.

Figure 16 Effects of FA and SF on the growth of the plant’s roots and stems.
Figure 16

Effects of FA and SF on the growth of the plant’s roots and stems.

According to Figure 16, the ryegrass started to germinate after 3 days and the average height of the stem was 258 mm at the age of 35 days in the mixture with SCMs, whereas, in the case of VC with OPC, plants started to germinate after 4 days and at the age of 35 days, average height of the stem was 198 mm which is 30.31% lower than that in mixture with SCMs. For the plant growth, iron, alkali hydrolyzable nitrogen (AH-N), phosphorous (P) (extractable), and potassium (K) are the important nutrients. The availability of nutrients in the soil for plant growth was often decreased by the increased alkaline nature of the soil. Since the lower availability of nutrients, particularly micronutrients in the soil medium above and below the VC due to the greater alkaline nature of the VC without SCMs, had an impact on the plant growth. In the case of VC with SCMs, the blending of cement content of VC using SCMs influenced the alkalinity of the VC. Because of the enhanced Si/Ca ratio and amorphous silica’s unique adsorption properties, the C–S–H gel’s improved sorption capacity was able to reduce VC’s alkalinity. The decrease in the alkalinity of the VC, thus, increased the nutrients available in the soils slightly compared to the VC without SCMs; consequently, the planting properties was improved. The current findings are in agreement with Golewski [15], who found that a 2% reduction in the VC’s alkalinity using limestone powders significantly improved the VC’s planting qualities. In 2019, Diamond [36] found that the inclusion of SF and FA in VC having a fertilizer content of 5% increased the plant heights significantly. The outcome of Page and Vennesland [37] and Mihara et al. [38] also revealed that the decrease in the alkalinity of the VC with the inclusion of SCMs improved the vegetative capabilities of the VC.

Considering the root morphology of ryegrass in common soil, the root grows vertically in the downward direction. However, in the case of VC with and without SCMs, the root morphology of ryegrass was different and the root growth was staggering in the surface towards the pores of the VC. Though the root morphology of the rye grass was different in VC, the roots penetrated to the soil strata through pores and acquired required nutrients for growth. At the age of 45 days, the average height of the root of VC blended with SCMs was 95 mm; further, in a 95 mm root length, 67 mm of the root length penetrated into the concrete, which was 23% higher than that of VC with OPC. As mentioned above, the decrease in the alkalinity of the VC with SCMs maintained the nutrients available in the soil; consequently, the root development also improved. Though the root development pierced the VC pores and extended into the underlying soil medium, the root penetration did not harm the VC and, in fact, enhanced the underlying soil stability. Similar findings were reported in Golewski [39]. The LRWC of all VCs with and without SCMs were measured at 15 and 90 days and are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6

LRWC results at various ages

Mixture designation LRWC (%)
At 15 days At 90 days
VC-0 67.23 71.5
VC-20FA-14.48SF 70.15 84.56

The LRWC values for both combinations were nearly identical at the age of 15 days since the plants were obtaining nutrients from the soil layer above the VC, and the roots had only begun to penetrate the concrete [40,41]. However, the difference in the LRWC was observed at the age of 90 days. The LRWC of VC with SCMs was 18.26% higher than that of VC-0. As stated earlier, the decrease in the alkalinity of the VC with SCMs increased the nutrients (N–P–K) available in the soils slightly compared to the VC without SCMs; consequently, the LRWC improved [30,42,43,44,45].

4.5 Influence of VC on the soil fertility index

Though the inclusion of SCMs improved the planting properties, the influence of SCM-modified VC on the soil fertility indexes (nitrogen–phosphorous–potassium (N–P–K)) must be verified because the VC will be utilized for slope protection [46,47,48,49]. Further, Golewski [15] discovered that the utilization of VC in the soil slope protection modified the soil fertility indexes. Accordingly, alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen (AH-N), phosphorous (P) (extractable), and potassium (K) were measured on the surface soil of VC after 180 days, and the results are presented in Figure 17.

Figure 17 Soil fertility index: nitrogen–phosphorous–potassium (N–P–K).
Figure 17

Soil fertility index: nitrogen–phosphorous–potassium (N–P–K).

It can be seen from Figure 17 that the VC enhanced the soil fertility indexes; further, the introduction of SCMs in the VC improved the available phosphorous and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen of the soil. The available phosphorous and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen of the soil above the VC with SCMs increased by 32.81 and 52.92%, respectively, compared to nutrients available on the first day of planting. The current findings are in agreement with the findings of Brunno da Silva Cerozi and Kevin Fitzsimmons [30], and it was discovered that the available phosphorous and alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen in the soil decreased with the increase in the pH of the soil. Golewski [15] found that the VC improved the available phosphorus in the soil by 70.2% within 1 year after construction [50,51,52,53,54]. Figure 15 implies that the VC decreased the soil potassium levels; the levels were further decreased with the inclusion of SCMs in the VC. In general, the potassium nutrients available in the soil increased with the increase in the alkaline levels of the soil [55,56,57,58]. Further, because the alkaline nature of the soil increased the cation exchange capacity (CEC), the potassium nutrients available in the soil will be increased. Since the alkalinity of the VC with SCMs was lower than that without SCMs, there was a decrease in the soil potassium levels; however, the difference was not high, and was 4.91% compared to that of VC without SCMs.

5 Conclusions

The present study investigates how SF and SF influenced the VC’s alkalinity, porosity, strength, and plant characteristics, including the grass height, root length, and LRWC. The cement content of the VC was substituted in various proportions with SF and FA. Furthermore, because VC is widely used to stabilize soil slopes, the influence of VC on the soil fertility was studied to ensure ecological protection.

  • Due to the lower relative density of the FA and SF, the volume of binder and powder slurry increased to combine the coarse aggregates of the VC, thus reducing the porosity of the VC. The cement content of VC mixed with 20% FA decreased the porosity by 16.68% compared to VC-0.

  • The lower reactivity of FA with the cement matrix reduced the VC strength; however, the swift pozzolanic reaction of SF increased the quantity of C–S–H gel formation, thereby increasing the VC strength, even though the cement component was smaller than that of VC with OPC.

  • The results show that SF and FA may be coupled with VC cement; however in order to get better strength, the SF dosage must be greater than the FA dosage.

  • The reduction in alkalinity caused by the addition of SF and FA improved the soil nutrients linked to the VC, which improved the planting.

  • The use of VC for soil stability boosted soil fertility indexes by enhancing the soil medium nutrients, such as hydrolyzable nitrogen (AH-N), phosphorous (P) (extractable), and potassium (K).

,

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R381), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: This research was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2024R381), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary information files).

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Received: 2023-11-17
Revised: 2024-01-08
Accepted: 2024-01-11
Published Online: 2024-02-22

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0201
Keywords for this article
vegetation concrete; fly ash; silica fume; alkalinity; soil nutrients; soil ecology
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

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  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
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  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
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  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
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  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
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  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
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  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
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  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
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  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
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  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
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  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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