Home Physical Sciences Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
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Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites

  • Bramanandan Bilvatej , Jesuarockiam Naveen EMAIL logo , Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim EMAIL logo , Victor Feizal Knight , Natesan Karthikeyan , Muthukumar Chandrasekar , Tamil Moli Loganathan and Suya Prem Anand
Published/Copyright: April 12, 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

This research investigates the effect of kenaf/carbon fiber reinforcement with the addition of nanofillers such as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) in the phenolic matrix composite. Three different types of samples were made using short carbon fiber, kenaf fiber (KF), BaSO4, Cashew dust, MWCNT, and CNC. Sample 1 contains 40 wt% of carbon fiber with binders reinforced in the phenolic matrix, whereas, in sample 2, carbon fiber has been replaced with KF in the MWCNT-modified phenolic matrix. On the other hand, in sample 3, carbon fiber has been replaced with KF in a CNC-modified phenolic matrix. The physical, mechanical, and tribological properties were investigated and compared. The results showed that sample 1 exhibited higher mechanical performance compared to other samples. On the other hand, the least wear loss and a high coefficient of friction were observed for Sample 2 compared to Samples 1 and 3. Even though KF-based composites exhibited slightly lower mechanical performance, they showed excellent tribological behavior.

Keywords: carbon fiber; kenaf; MWCNT; CNC; phenolic and polymer

Abbreviations

COF

coefficient of friction

PAN

polyacrylonitrile

MWCNT

multi-walled carbon nanotubes

PKF

palm-kernel fiber

CNSL

cashew nut shell liquid

CNC

cellulose nanocrystal

MS

mild steel

CR

cyrtostachys renda

KF

kenaf fiber

MH

magnesium hydroxide

1 Introduction

Friction materials for automotive applications must be low wear, thermally stable, have an optimal friction coefficient, be free of hazardous emissions, and be reasonably priced [1]. Carbon fiber composite materials used in automotive applications offer exceptional mechanical qualities and a superior strength-to-weight ratio, resulting in less fuel consumption and lower carbon emissions [2]. The distinctive qualities of carbon fiber, such as inherent self-lubrication, high strength, high modulus, and appropriate thermal stability, make it a charming candidate to be used as a reinforcement in different kinds of composites [3,4]. The cost and brittleness of carbon fiber are higher than those of natural fibers, which offer the benefits of being biodegradable, renewable, and less expensive than carbon fiber [5]. Natural fibers have the following limitations is there such as higher moisture uptake, quality variations, low thermal stability, and poor compatibility with the polymeric matrix [6]. Monolithic materials cannot have all these properties. However, hybridizing different fibers in a nanofiller-modified polymer matrix can provide superior properties compared to monolithic materials [7]. Using natural fibers is a good alternative, but due to their hydrophilic nature, it leads to weak bonding in a matrix. So, investigating different weight percentages and different constituents is needed for this study [1]. One approach that shows promise for toughening composite materials is fiber hybridization. Compared to non-hybrid composites, these hybrid composites offer a superior balance of mechanical characteristics thanks to the combination of two or more fiber types [8].

Kenaf fiber (KF) composites have demonstrated higher flexural properties than other natural fiber composites. The high cellulose content and excellent microfibril orientation in kenaf are the key reasons for the high flexural modulus of KF/polypropylene composites. In addition, KF/polypropylene composites show an increase in crystallization during working, the kinetic energy. This is because KF has a high crystalline concentration. Due to the excellent energy absorption ability of kenaf, the composites also displayed increased storage modulus (E′) as a function of temperature [9]. Natural fiber-based composites exhibit slightly lower mechanical strength compared to synthetic fiber-reinforced composites. However, matrix modification with nanofillers would improve the mechanical strength and stiffness. Therefore, a minimal amount of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) as an inorganic nanofiller is used to enhance the mechanical strength and stiffness of KF-reinforced polymeric composites. The use of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphite nano-graphite, and short carbon fibers was because of the interconnecting network between carbon and carbon bonds of these fillers. This often improves the mechanical, thermal, and tribological ability of the composites. A hybrid of CNTs and short carbon fibers in the polymer matrix has a synergistic effect, which in turn contributes to the enhancement of material properties [10,11,12].

Satapathy and Bijwe studied the influence of organic fibers in improving the wear resistance of the composite. The PAN and carbon fiber inclusion are responsible for lowering the of the composite. Cellulose fibers though offered higher coefficient of friction (COF), proved detrimental to wear resistance and fade [13]. In the work of Chandradass, experimental work results revealed that a sample with 10 wt% of carbon fiber has high flexural strength, Rockwell hardness, and COF. This is due to the interfacial bond strength between the fiber and the matrix Also, the wear test showed a low value for the sample containing 10 wt% of carbon content [14].

Barium sulphate is a low-cost filler material that has a high density that helps to fill the voids in the composite. Also, it has a high melting point, thus it imparts heat stability to the tribological material [15]. Nano-scale fabrication has recently set off in nano-material synthesis for the development of lightweight tribological friction materials. The inclusion of nanoparticles in the base material is done for the requirement of tribe and wear requirements. CNTs have a distinct topological hollow tubular structure; due to this property, it has a high L/D ratio, characteristic electronics properties, mechanical ability, and high thermal stability. CNT is used to produce nanocomposites with excellent trio performance [3].

The amount of additives (MWCNT) weight percentage is kept low since the efficiency of carbon-based additives is often significant on polymer matrix when a low amount of these additives is added and depleted when the additive content is more. The investigation revealed that 0.3% MWCNT obtained a higher COF value (0.413) than 0.1 and 0.2% (0.319) [16]. The COF depends on the materials used, most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6 [17]. Phenolic resin is extensively utilized because of its ease of obtaining raw ingredients, low cost, superior heat resistance, high mechanical strength, and consistent performance [18].

MWCNT and cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) are used as nanofillers to enhance the properties of the composite. The inclusion of MWCNTs, which have high microstructural properties, contributes by increasing the hardness of the epoxy-polyamide nanocomposites. With the high-strength nanoparticles incorporated with the phenolic matrix composite, the microhardness value has been increased. It is also found that the values of wear decrease with the increase of the wt% of CNTs but it increases with wt% higher than 0.5 wt%, due to the collection of nanomaterials [19]. MWCNT of 0.5% included with 50% fiber-reinforced phenolic composites improved the flexural, tensile, and impact strength than pure phenolic composites by creating interlocking between fiber and the matrix. These bio-based composites when reinforced with nanofillers provide desirable properties with low cost [10].

Timur et al. studied the effect of various percentages of cashew dust (5, 10, and 15%) on the tribological properties of tribological friction materials using a brake dynamometer. It was shown that 10% of cashew friction dust-based friction materials were beneficiary by showing improved stability and fade resistance [20]. Cashew dusts are less expensive than other tribological materials, which inspired the notion of investigating their potential use in friction materials. The results show that the addition of cashew dust enhances the hardness by 2.3% and the ignition loss by 3%. Due to limited porosity and the fact that cashew dust deforms to prevent thickness increases in the composite material, it is evident that adding cashew dust reduces automotive component composite thickness [21,22,23,24].

Carbon fibers are made mostly of carbon atoms and are about 5–10 micrometers wide. Carbon fibers have many benefits, such as being stiff, strong, light, resistant to chemicals, able to handle high temperatures, and not expanding much when heated [25]. Kenaf is made up of 60–80% cellulose, 5–20% lignin, and up to 20% moisture. The cell wall is a hollow tube with four layers: one main cell wall, three subsidiary cell walls, and a lumen, a microfibril’s open channel. Similar to an artificial fiber-reinforced composite, each layer is cellulose embedded in hemicellulose and lignin. Hemicellulose is responsible for fiber biodegradation, moisture absorption, and heat degradation. Although lignin is thermally stable, it destroys fibers when exposed to UV light [26].

Lee et al. studied the mechanical and thermal properties of KF-reinforced polypropylene (PP) composites and compared them with pure PP composites and KF/magnesium hydroxide composites. The KF/PP composites showed better flexural strength than other composites. The samples were fabricated with different compositions from 10 wt% KF to 25 wt% KF with PP and MH composites. Tensile tests were also carried out with all samples. It was found that the tensile strength of the composites dropped by 35% as the KF content increased from 10 to 25 wt%. As KF wt% increased, poor compacting in the composite caused weaker bonding strength between the matrix and the fiber. Thus, resulting in a decline in tensile strength. Also, high fiber fillings in the samples resulted in inadequate fiber wetting, impacting load transfer structure in the composite negatively, and leading to low strength [9].

There is very little literature on the combination of carbon and KF supplemented with nanofillers. This article evaluates the hardness, impact strength, compressive strength, coefficient of friction, and wear rate experimentally. Then, the optimum wt% of reinforcements were found for automotive components.

2 Materials and experimental details

2.1 Materials

The phenolic composite consists of different constituents to achieve wear performance. Novolak phenolic resin is used as the matrix for this polymer-based phenolic composite sample. A powdered form of phenolic resin is used for achieving homogeneous mixtures in fabrication. Cashew dust is used as functional filler material, barium sulphate is used as a filler agent, and short carbon fiber, and KF which were chopped to 10–15 mm are used as reinforcements. Table 1 shows the details of the selected constituents for the phenolic composite. Figure 1 shows the (a) SEM image for MWCNT, and (b) the procured material of CNC.

Table 1

Details of materials used in this study

Constituents Density (g/cm3) Young’s modulus (GPa) Tensile strength (MPa) Melting point temperature (°C) Suppliers Ref.
Carbon fiber 1.8 200–500 3,000–7,000 280 Go green, Chennai [27,28]
KF 1.34–1.45 33.8 ± 3.9 577 ± 71 160 Go green, Chennai [29,30]
Phenol-formaldehyde Novolak powder resin 0.3–0.6 8 55 110–116 Ankur Rasayan, Chennai [31,32]
Barium sulphate 4.5 — — 1,580 Surya Color Chem, Bengaluru [33]
Cashew dust functional filler 0.590 — — 280 Satya cashew chemicals, Chennai
MWCNT 0.04 — — — BTCORP Generique Nano Pvt Ltd. Bengaluru
CNC 0.3 — — — Nanografi, Turkey
Figure 1 (a) SEM image for MWCNT; (b) procured CNCs.
Figure 1

(a) SEM image for MWCNT; (b) procured CNCs.

2.1.1 Formulation of phenolic composites

The phenolic composite specimens are fabricated by a hot press compression molding process. Three phenolic composites were fabricated by hot press molding by varying the weight percent of the reinforcements and with the inclusion of Nanofillers. From the literature, 30 wt% phenolic resin + 65 wt% periwinkle shell particles were applied and investigated the phenolic composite in automobile applications [34]. The wear behavior was investigated for up to 60 wt% of phenolic resin-incorporated composite material using organic-based composite materials [35]. Table 2 shows the formulation for the prepared samples named Samples 1, 2, and 3.

Table 2

Formulation of the fabricated samples

Sample 1 (wt%) Sample 2 (wt%) Sample 3 (wt%)
Phenolic resin 40 40 40
Carbon fiber 40 20 20
KF — 20 20
BaSO4 10 9.5 9.5
Cashew dust 10 10 10
MWCNT — 0.5 —
CNC — — 0.5

Before fabrication, mixing was carried out by the ball milling method. First, the powdery materials (phenolic resin, BaSO4, Cashew dust, MWCNT, and CNC are mixed for 1 h at 400 rpm. Then, the chopped fiber is added and mixed for 1 h to get a homogeneous blend [36]. A mild steel mold is prepared to fill this homogeneous mixture and compress it in the hot press. Figure 2 shows the hot press machine with the operated parameters. A 30-ton hot press machine is used in this study.

Figure 2 (a) Hot press machine; (b) control setup with operating parameters in a hot press machine.
Figure 2

(a) Hot press machine; (b) control setup with operating parameters in a hot press machine.

After the mixture is filled, the mold is pressed at 100 bar at 150°C for 10 min [37]. An aluminum foil is placed above and below the substance to prevent sticking of material. Then curing is done in a hot air oven for 6 h [38]. Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of the fabrication process.

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of the fabrication of carbon/KF-reinforced phenolic composites.
Figure 3

Schematic diagram of the fabrication of carbon/KF-reinforced phenolic composites.

The above procedure is done for the other two samples and labeled as Samples 1, 2, and 3. The samples are prepared for dimensions of 150 × 150 × 5 mm. Figure 4 shows the fabricated sample after taking out from the mold. Now, this sample is cut into test specimens according to the ASTM standards.

Figure 4 The prepared phenolic composite specimen.
Figure 4

The prepared phenolic composite specimen.

2.2 Characterization

The physical, mechanical, and tribological properties are investigated for Samples 1, 2, and 3.

2.2.1 Physical properties

2.2.1.1 Hardness test

The hardness of the phenolic composite samples is found using the Rockwell Hardness testing machine. The test was carried out according to the standard ASTM E18.‘R’ scale hardness is used for testing, as the samples are polymer-based. A load of 60 kgf is applied with a 12.7 mm steel ball intender. The samples were cut into 20 × 20 mm, and hardness was measured at five different points of the specimen.

2.2.2 Mechanical properties

2.2.2.1 Impact strength

Charpy impact testing was done on the phenolic composite samples using the Pendulum impact testing apparatus. The test was carried out on the standard ASTM D256 with dimensions of 120 × 12 × 10 mm3. The test aims to assess a material’s capacity to endure a high-rate load. The dial on the machine shows the energy absorbed by the specimen at the point of breaking. Five samples were tested for each composition, and the average impact strength is calculated using equation (1).

(1) Impact strength = Impact energy ( kJ ) Area ( m 2 ) .

2.2.2.2 Compressive strength

The compressive strength test was conducted on UTM (Universal Testing Machine) INSTRON 8801. The test was conducted by ASTM D6641 with rectangular specimen dimensions of 145 × 15 × 5 mm. The sample gauge length was maintained at 40 mm, and the crosshead speed was given as 1 mm/min. The mean compressive strength for the samples was determined.

2.2.3 Tribological properties

2.2.3.1 Pin-on-disc wear test

The wear loss and Coefficient of friction in the phenolic composite samples are measured using a Pin-on-disc tribometer. The test was performed according to the ASTM G99 standard. The samples were cut in the shape of a disc with a diameter of 55 mm and a counter shank hole of 6 mm for fixing it. The pin used is a standard material of hardened bearing steel (AISI 52100) with a diameter of 6 mm and a height of up to 40 mm.

The load applied on the sample was 60 N with an rpm of 480 rpm. A time period of 500 s was taken to calculate the wear rate and coefficient of friction.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Rockwell hardness test

In this test, a steel ball intender is forced into the material’s surface under specific conditions. The type of intender material also depends upon the specimen. For thermoplastics, the ‘R’ scale is used with a load of 60 kgf and 1/12″ in the indenter [39]. The apparatus measures the difference in depth of indentation as the force on the intender is increased from the initial load to a specified applied load and then returned to the initial load. Table 3 shows the Rockwell hardness for the prepared phenolic composite samples.

Table 3

Hardness test values of different wt% of samples

Sample label wt% Hardness (HRR)
Sample 1 C 40% 54.33
Sample 2 C20/K20%/MWCNT 65
Sample 3 C20/K20%/CNC 64

Table 3 shows that hardness increased with the addition of KF and nanofillers. Samples 2 and 3 show an increase in hardness value by 20 and 18%, respectively. The Rockwell harness at a point on the part of the sample does not represent the physical characteristics of the whole sample. Hence, five specimens of each sample were taken to evaluate the hardness and the mean value was taken. Thus, it is observed that natural KF shows good physical properties and can be a good replacement for carbon fiber with Sample 2 having the highest hardness value.

3.2 Impact strength test

The test determines the resistance of materials to breakage by flexural shock as indicated by energy extracted from the standard pendulum-type hammers mounted in the Charpy testing apparatus. The impact energy obtained in Joules for all the samples is shown in Table 4.

Table 4

Charpy test values of the prepared phenolic composite samples

Energy absorbed (in Joules)
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Trials C 40% C20/K20%/MWCNT C20/K20%/CNC
1 8 5.5 6
2 8 5 6.5
3 9 6 6
Mean 8.333 5.5 6.167

From Figure 4, it is visible that impact strength is higher for increased carbon fiber content. Sample 1 with C 40% has a higher impact strength of 51% than Sample 2. From Figure 5, Sample 2 and Sample 3 do not show much difference in their impact strength. Thus, it can be inferred that this reduction in impact strength might be due to the replacement of carbon fiber with natural fiber.

Figure 5 Effect of the addition of KF and nanofillers on impact strength on Samples 1, 2, and 3.
Figure 5

Effect of the addition of KF and nanofillers on impact strength on Samples 1, 2, and 3.

The pictures of shattered samples under impact load obtained from FE-SEM fracture analysis are presented in Figure 6. Sample 1 (C 40%) phenolic composite including carbon fiber, phenolic resin, BaSO4, and cashew sawdust is shown in Figure 6(a). In Figure 6(b), there is Sample 2 (C20/K20%/MWCNT) phenolic composite with the observed, following components: carbon fiber, KF, phenolic resin, BaSO4, and cashew sawdust. Sample 3 (C20/K20%/CNC) of the phenolic composite is shown in Figure 6(c). It contains the following compositions: cashew sawdust, CNC, phenolic resin, KF, carbon fiber, and BaSO4. However, Sample 1 exhibited the highest impact strength when compared to Samples 2 and 3 because of the strong bonding between the carbon fiber, phenolic resin BaSO4, and cashew sawdust. BaSO4 and phenolic resin stopped the fiber from debonding. Compared to synthetic fiber reinforced composites, Samples 2 and 3’s natural fiber (kenaf)-based composites show a somewhat reduced mechanical strength. However, matrix modification using nanofillers such as MWCNT and CNC would increase the mechanical strength and stiffness in Samples 2 and 3.

Figure 6 FESEM microstructure analysis of fractured specimens under impact loading: (a) C 40% (Sample 1), (b) C20/K20%/MWCNT (Sample 2), and (c) C20/K20%/CNC (Sample 3).
Figure 6

FESEM microstructure analysis of fractured specimens under impact loading: (a) C 40% (Sample 1), (b) C20/K20%/MWCNT (Sample 2), and (c) C20/K20%/CNC (Sample 3).

3.3 Compression test

In this test method, compressive properties like compressive strength and modulus of elasticity are found [40]. A combined loading fixture is used in the UTM for this test method. The compressive force is introduced by end loading and shear loading. Table 5 shows all the obtained compressive strength values for the samples. Figure 7 shows the fractured sample after the test.

Table 5

The compression test results for the phenolic composite specimens

Specimen label wt% Maximum comp. load (N) Compressive strength (MPa) Modulus (MPa)
Sample 1 C 40% 3289.53271 43.86044 1761.21896
Sample 2 C20/K20%/MWCNT 646.46008 8.61947 1649.26148
Sample 3 C20/K20%/CNC 713.74176 9.51656 1201.56469
Figure 7 Effect of the addition of KF and nanofillers on impact strength on Samples 1, 2, and 3.
Figure 7

Effect of the addition of KF and nanofillers on impact strength on Samples 1, 2, and 3.

The compressive strength of Sample 1 was measured to be 43.86044 MPa, which is found to be four times greater than the compressive strength values observed for Samples 2 and 3. The strength of the material is diminished as a result of incorporating kenaf, a natural fiber with relatively limited mechanical properties. Hence, the effective observation of Nanofillers’ impact is also limited. Figure 8 shows the compressive strength values in MPa for the samples. In this analysis, 40% carbon fiber was used in Sample 1, which is a synthetic fiber material. The carbon fiber has a tensile strength of 3,000–7,000 MPa. Moreover, Samples 2 and 3 contain 20% carbon fiber and 20% KF, where the kenaf has a tensile strength of 571–640 MPa. However, the nanofillers are MWCNT and CNC-influenced composites to improve the compressive strength, which declined to the expected level. Due to these analyses, sample 1 has a high compressive strength compared to other samples. In a similar vein, it is worth noting that Samples 2 and 3, which incorporate KF, exhibit significantly lower compressive strength when compared to the entirely synthetic carbon reinforcement. It can be posited that the bonding between KF and the phenolic resin matrix is comparatively weaker.

Figure 8 Comparison of compressive stress curve for all three samples.
Figure 8

Comparison of compressive stress curve for all three samples.

3.4 Pin-on-disc wear test

The amount of wear is determined by respectively weighing both before and after the test. The coefficient of friction is also measured using the frictional force obtained in the wear results. Table 6 shows the given parameters and the obtained results, while Figure 9 shows the worn specimen in the apparatus.

Table 6

Wear loss and coefficient of friction results of the phenolic composite samples

Samples wt% Initial weight (g) Final weight (g) Wear loss Coefficient of friction
1 C 40% 17.79 17.758 0.032 0.259792
2 C20/K20%/MWCNT 15.23 15.207 0.023 0.305673
3 C20/K20%/CNC 19.036 19.002 0.034 0.173646
Figure 9 Pin-on-disc apparatus.
Figure 9

Pin-on-disc apparatus.

It has been observed that Sample 2 exhibits the least wear loss and high coefficient of friction. The higher hardness value in Sample 2 can also be correlated to the low wear loss [14,41]. This lower wear loss may be attributed to the homogeneous dispersion of carbon/kenaf MWCNT nanofiller to produce a more stable structure [16]. Moreover, MWCNT may occupy the pores in the composite structure due to which the coefficient of friction has been improved. A similar trend was observed by Rangaswamy et al., whereas the addition of MWCNT in hybrid epoxy composites improved the wear resistance compared to the pure composite samples [42].

Venkategowda et al. have investigated the wear behavior of only KF-reinforced epoxy composites with different wt% [43]. However, the present research has focused on replacing carbon fiber with KF in MWCNT-modified epoxy composites. It has been observed that replacing 20 wt% carbon fiber with KF in MWCNT-modified composites exhibited higher COF (Figure 10) and has paved the way toward sustainability and Net Zero. Figure 11 shows the wear in micrometers for the pure carbon and hybrid composites.

Figure 10 Comparison of coefficient of friction vs time graph of all 3 samples.
Figure 10

Comparison of coefficient of friction vs time graph of all 3 samples.

Figure 11 Computer-generated wear data representing wear in micrometer for all three samples.
Figure 11

Computer-generated wear data representing wear in micrometer for all three samples.

4 Conclusion

In this study, carbon/KF-reinforced phenolic-based composites were fabricated by hot compression molding. The effect of adding nanofillers (MWCNT and CNC) on the physical, mechanical, and tribological properties was investigated.

  • The hardness values of Samples 2 and 3 show an increase of 20 and 18%, respectively. Thus, it is observed that even after replacing carbon fiber with natural KF, it is shown to have good physical properties and can be a good replacement for carbon fiber with Sample 2 having the highest hardness value.

  • The impact strength is higher for increased carbon fiber content. Sample 1 with C 40% has a higher impact strength of 55% than Sample 2. Samples 2 and 3 do not show much difference in their impact strength. Thus, it can be inferred that this reduction in impact strength might be due to low interfacial strength due to the random distribution of KF and insufficient fiber wetting with the resin.

  • The compressive strength of Sample 1 was 43.86044 which has four times higher strength than Samples 2 and 3. The strength in Sample 2 is reduced due to the addition of natural fiber – kenaf, which shows low mechanical properties. Thus, the effect of nanofillers also cannot be observed in KF samples effectively. As KF wt% increased, poor compacting in the composite led to a decrease in compressive strength.

  • Wear test results showed that the least wear loss and a higher coefficient of friction are observed in Sample 2 than in Samples 1 and 3. The higher hardness value in Sample 2 can also be correlated to the low wear loss. Sample 3 also produces similar wear loss as sample 1 after the replacement of carbon fiber with 20% KF indicating tribological characteristics of KF. Wear resistance is good in kenaf long fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites. Automobile components and other tribological components can benefit from these composites.

  • Hence, Sample 2 (20%carbon/kenaf) with MWCNT provides better tribological properties. This inference can be used for further studies with also need to study the thermal behavior for fade characteristics.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like express gratitude for the financial support received from the Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM).

  1. Funding information: The authors sincerely thank the Defence Research Institute (DRI) and Centre for Research Management and Innovation, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM) for the financial support.

  2. Author contributions: Conceptualization: B.B. and J.N.; validation: J.N. and M.N.F.N., V.F.K and S.P.A.; resources: J.N. and M.C.; writing – original draft preparation: B.B., J.N., and T.M.L.; writing – review and editing: B.B., J.N., and M.N.F.N.; supervision: J.N.; project administration: J.N. and M.N.F.N; funding acquisition: M.N.F.N. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Received: 2023-06-09
Revised: 2024-02-02
Accepted: 2024-03-08
Published Online: 2024-04-12

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0009
Keywords for this article
carbon fiber; kenaf; MWCNT; CNC; phenolic and polymer
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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