Startseite Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
Artikel Open Access

Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook

  • Khaled AbouAitah EMAIL logo , Beom Soo Kim EMAIL logo und Witold Lojkowski EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 22. Oktober 2024
Artikel downloaden (PDF)
Veröffentlichen auch Sie bei De Gruyter Brill
Manuskript einreichen Informationen für Autor*innen
Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 13 Heft 1

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic strongly stimulated research on anti-SARS-CoV-2 virus treatments. The present study reviews a nanotechnology approach to this task, i.e., in other terms, a nanomedicine approach. Nanotechnology aims to create nanostructures or nanoparticles, also called nanoformulations, for targeted delivery of drugs, as well as improved drug release control. This approach is particularly promising to enhance the antiviral effect of natural pro-drugs. Here, we review several nanoformulations developed for the targeted delivery of medications against SARS-CoV-2. We draw special attention to repurposing strategies for known antiviral and natural therapies. Also, functionalized nanoparticles with specific targeting moieties and functional groups were discussed. The summary could motivate researchers to pursue more studies in this exciting area by seeking nanotechnology-based, cutting-edge, tailored delivery strategies for the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

Keywords: SARS-CoV-2; antiviral; nanoformulations; nanoparticles; nanomedicine; natural pro-drugs

1 Introduction

With rising morbidity and mortality rates each year, infectious illnesses caused by viruses are responsible for millions of deaths worldwide. Significant worldwide health problems are caused by viral infections, affecting socioeconomic progress [1]. Genetic changes in known viruses and the advent of new ones necessitate the modification of medications and vaccinations and raise serious concerns for healthcare systems worldwide [2,3,4]. Viruses enter the human body by a variety of routes, including nose, mouth, eyes, and skin [5].

A betacoronavirus (SARS-CoV) epidemic known as the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) began in China in 2002 and expanded to 24 other countries. It is estimated that 8,500 cases and fewer than 1,000 deaths occurred during this outbreak, which lasted until 2003 [6,7,8]. In 2012, the Middle East respiratory disease (MERS) caused by the betacoronavirus MERS-CoV initially appeared in Saudi Arabia [9], spread to 27 countries, and resulted in more than 2,000 cases and almost 600 deaths [10,11]. A novel betacoronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), which is responsible for instances of the COVID-19 illness, was first discovered in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 [12]. SARS-CoV-2 quickly spread over the world in a short period of time. On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization assigned it a worldwide pandemic. Since then, COVID-19 has devastated several countries and invaded the healthcare infrastructure of numerous nations worldwide [13]. The most serious global health emergency since the Spanish flu in 1918, SARS-CoV-2, caused more than 6,947,192 deaths globally as of June 26, 2023 (https://covid19.who.int/).

Significant efforts have been made globally to combat the pandemic, including the use of better personal protective gear, social isolation, the use of masks, and antiviral treatment (drugs and therapeutic antibodies) [14]. Significant effort was dedicated to the identification of high-risk groups and providing specific guidelines for such groups [15,16]. Effective antivirals, cutting-edge detection techniques, fluid filtration, surface sanitization, vaccinations, and treatment were all necessary to combat the pandemic [17]. Researchers looked at antivirals with a variety of activities [18]. Any effective antiviral medicine requires years of design, testing, and manufacture to assure its safety and efficacy [19]. Repurposing drugs and accelerating preclinical and clinical development of the COVID-19 vaccine are two possible alternatives [20,21,22].

New antiviral therapy options may be provided by nanomedicine. Nanomedicine is a field of medicine focusing on the medical application of nanotechnology [23,24]. Nanomedicine offers the potential to avoid several drawbacks associated with current antiviral therapies, such as poor drug solubility and bioavailability, limited permeability, low targetability, controlled release, unfavorable side effects, and drug resistance. This is particularly important for natural pro-drugs.

To overcome these barriers, drugs may be incorporated into nanostructures or conjugated with them. The nanostructures can also be functionalized for better targeting and possess a specially designed structure for controlled release. Nanoformulations are another name for such drug-loaded nanostructures. The nanostructures may include nanoparticles, capped nanoparticles, multiple-layer nanoparticles, encapsulated drugs, and porous structures, with sizes in the range of 10–500 nm [25,26,27].

Nanotechnology-based development of vaccines, biosensors, drug delivery systems (DDSs), genetic delivery systems, combination therapies, disinfectants, and biosensors are actively pursued [28]. A variety of approaches, such as drug repurposing, convalescent plasma therapy, vaccination, and artificial intelligence, can be explored to build anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapy [29]. Given the similarities in size between viruses and nanoparticles, nanotechnology offers a highly potent therapeutic strategy [30] as well as diagnosing, treating, and imaging SARS-CoV-2 [31]. Disease diagnosis and treatment are given particular consideration [32,33]. Biopharmacologists are becoming more and more driven to explore innovative treatment agents that include drugs, vaccines, and antibodies [34].

Targeted drug delivery systems (tDDSs) using nanoparticles as drug carriers may be highly effective in limiting the negative side effects of COVID-19 therapy [35]. Several studies have reported that the nanomedicine approach enhances a drug’s therapeutic activity, decreases toxicity, regulates drug release, improves targeting of the virus, enhances molecular responses, etc. [34,36,37,38]. The nanotechnology-based strategy should also consider the current and emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 [39].

As far as natural pro-drug applications, ayurvedic herbal formulations like Ayush Kwathin India, which contain phytochemicals consisting of sunthi rhizome, cinnamon bark, dry tulsi leaves, and black pepper fruit, have been shown to effectively boost the immune system to combat novel coronavirus infections [40]. Some nanoparticles or nanosystems against COVID-19 are in clinical trials [41].

In this review, we discuss the use of functionalized nanostructures, natural antiviral agents, and antiviral medicines to target SARS-CoV-2. We believe that, as exemplified by the nanoparticulate technology utilized in the production of novel vaccines, such as those produced by Pfizer, Moderna, and others, nanomedicines are crucial for the development of new nano-antiviral therapies.

Numerous natural prodrugs have potent antiviral effects, but it is still difficult to apply them efficiently in a controlled-release manner. It has been demonstrated in various studies that the use of nanotechnology can substantially boost the effectiveness of natural therapies for the treatment of cancer and inflammation [42,43,44]. Therefore, it is appropriate to explore how nanotechnology can improve the precise targeting of SARS-CoV-2 by these medications.

2 Nanomedicine as a promising strategy for fighting COVID-19

2.1 Types of nanomaterials used for antiviral therapy

Nanotechnology-based tDDSs require a drug vehicle or carrier. Antiviral drugs are incorporated into well-designed nanocarriers, which protect them in their way throughout the body and enable them to reach the diseased location, boosting their antiviral activity [45].

Organic materials (such as chitosan nanoparticles and lipids) and inorganic materials (such as mesoporous silica nanoparticles) are the two primary categories of drug carriers [46]. The materials used in different carriers are shown in Figure 1 [47].

Figure 1 Schematic diagram showing the classification of nanocarrier systems based on materials that improve the physicochemical properties of antiviral therapeutic agents.
Figure 1

Schematic diagram showing the classification of nanocarrier systems based on materials that improve the physicochemical properties of antiviral therapeutic agents.

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), a third class of inorganic–organic hybrid nanocarriers, have recently been developed [46].

2.2 Delivery routes of nanoformulations

DDSs with small particle sizes and high specific surface areas allow quick digestion, penetration, and/or uptake [48]. Depending on the formulation and the desired target, several modes of administration, such as oral, injectable, transdermal, or ocular, may be applied (Figure 2) [45]. A pulmonary (inhalation) DDS, constructed with different nanoparticles, has also been demonstrated to be an efficient and practical approach to treating COVID-19 [49].

Figure 2 Different antiviral delivery routes with possible advantages and disadvantages. The figure is based on previous reports [45,49,50,51,52,53,54].
Figure 2

Different antiviral delivery routes with possible advantages and disadvantages. The figure is based on previous reports [45,49,50,51,52,53,54].

The wide range of nanostructures and nanoformulations used to build DDSs for delivering both synthetic and naturally occurring antiviral agents against COVID-19 provides a significant space for novel ideas.

3 Mechanism of action for nano-antiviral-based tDDSs

The primary goal of using nano-antivirals is to enable virus–nanoparticle interactions, which rely on the nanometer size of both objects. Since the sizes of many viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, range from 1 to 150 nm, they merge with the plasma membrane directly. Due to their comparable size features, nanoparticles have a similar internalization mechanism as viruses. Viruses and nanoparticles are internalized to the intracellular compartments by several endocytic mechanisms, including clathrin-mediated endocytosis, caveolin-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and phagocytosis [47]. Several potential antiviral mechanisms of nanoformulations against viral infections involving SARS-COV-2 have been reported previously [45,55,56,57]. The nanoformulation delivery technology enables the following actions: reaching the virus or host cell, binding to viral receptors (on the surface of the host cells), and releasing the antiviral drugs inside the cell, which disrupts the viral replication cell cycle. As a result of these activities, the major three antiviral mechanisms – permitting virucidal killing action, hindering virus reproduction in cells, and blocking virus entrance into host cells – involve direct interaction with the virus [58,59,60,61]. Figure 3 describes each of these anticipated mechanisms and actions. The antiviral drug/agent actions can be divided into the following three categories.

Figure 3 Schematic representation of the main antiviral mechanisms of action against SARS-CoV-2, which are possibly generated by functionalized nanoparticles and nano-delivery targeted system. (i) Virucidal mechanism through direct interaction between virus and nanoparticles or the nano-delivery system – before the virus reaches host cells to infect them. (ii) Blocking virus entry from internalization host cells. (iii) Blocking viral replication into host cells after the successful entrance of the virus and producing infections.
Figure 3

Schematic representation of the main antiviral mechanisms of action against SARS-CoV-2, which are possibly generated by functionalized nanoparticles and nano-delivery targeted system. (i) Virucidal mechanism through direct interaction between virus and nanoparticles or the nano-delivery system – before the virus reaches host cells to infect them. (ii) Blocking virus entry from internalization host cells. (iii) Blocking viral replication into host cells after the successful entrance of the virus and producing infections.

3.1 Virucidal mechanism of action

Figure 3 shows schematically the mechanism of the possibility of the antiviral action of the nano-delivery system by prohibiting the virus from infecting host cells via direct viral interaction (virucidal) [55,62]. Our group previously designed an inorganic–organic hybrid nanoformulation composed of ZnO NP-functionalized triptycene and ellagic acid (natural compound) to inhibit the HCoV-229E coronavirus virus by virucidal mechanism more than 60% [62].

3.2 Blocking virus entry to cells

Figure 3 shows this mechanism schematically; in this case, nanoparticles or nano-delivery systems are attached to the host cell’s receptors that are used for virus entry. For instance, a smart nanodrug composed of taxoid-decorated functionalized silver nanoparticles shows direct binding to SARS-CoV-2 via the S protein, which prevents viral entry [63]. An inhalation-delivery system of remdesivir nanoemulsion effectively inhibits SARS-Cov-2 through two mechanisms: block entry to host cells (at the cell surface) and restrict virus from the replication step intracellularly [64]. Figure 3 shows schematically the block entry to host cells at the cell surface mechanism.

3.3 Blocking virus replication

Functionalized nanoparticles or nano-delivery systems include drug release affecting viral replication and generating new viruses. Once the antiviral drug/agent enters the host cell, the released drug/agent prevents major viral replication steps (such as transcription, replication of DNA, protein synthesis, and assembly) [45]. A liposomal nanoformulation composed of favipiravir drug combined with rosuvastatin or hesperidin (natural compound) demonstrates a high potential to impede the replication of SARS-CoV-2 throughout in vitro studies [65]. Nano-delivery formulation consists of micelles of α-tocopheryl-polyethylene-glycol succinate-loaded cyclosporine A drug was constructed as nasal administration and tested for SARS-CoV-2 (Omicron BA.1 variant); the nano-delivery displays a complete viral inactivation through the prevention from virus replication action [66].

4 Antiviral nanotherapeutics

Figure 4 illustrates the unique approaches to treating SARS-CoV-2 variants based on targeted treatment:

  1. Using the existing antiviral drugs in nanoformulations.

  2. Using natural therapeutic agents and small synthetic molecules in nanoformulations.

  3. Using nanostructures with specific functional groups and moieties.

Figure 4 Current strategies of targeted therapy employing nanoplatforms.
Figure 4

Current strategies of targeted therapy employing nanoplatforms.

Figure 5 demonstrates the possible targeting of the SARS-CoV-2 virus through repurposing drug delivery, nano-delivery of natural compounds, and functionalized nanoparticles.

Figure 5 Schematic representation of possible targeting of SARS-CoV-2 by functionalized nanoparticles and nano-delivery systems based on repurposing existing drugs in use and natural products/extracts originated from plants as phytomedicine substances.
Figure 5

Schematic representation of possible targeting of SARS-CoV-2 by functionalized nanoparticles and nano-delivery systems based on repurposing existing drugs in use and natural products/extracts originated from plants as phytomedicine substances.

4.1 Targeted antiviral DDSs

A nanotechnology-based strategy to fight the Covid-19 infection needs to be based on an in-depth understanding of the infection mechanism. Recent investigations on the antiviral-tDDSs that are currently on the market have demonstrated their therapeutic effectiveness and satisfactory safety [67,68]. Targeting particular organs, such as the lungs, and slowing down the release of drugs are possible advantages of nanomedicine over traditional therapies [33]. The restrictions of intranasal or oral administration can be solved by administering nano-antivirals [69]. Intranasal delivery of antivirals enables easy, noninvasive, and quick absorption [70]. When compared with non-encapsulated free antiviral drugs, remdesivir’s encapsulation makes it possible to maintain high levels of the drug in tissues and minimize the frequency of doses [71].

Viral infections start with the binding of virus particles to potential receptors located on the host cells, after which internalization (entry of the virus into cells) takes place. The binding and entrance are accomplished by the spike S glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 [72,73]. In the majority of cases, the infection is caused by receptor-mediated endocytosis through interactions between the spike glycoprotein present on the virus and the host angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor found on the host cells and the cleavage of the S protein by the host transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) prior to its fusion with the host cell membrane [72,74,75]. Following receptor recognition, the genetic material of the virus particles and the nucleocapsid are released into the cytoplasm of the host cell. Thus, it is highly probable that a drug that disrupts virus binding to the ACE2 receptor or viral endocytosis would be effective [76]. Due to the small size of the viral particles, the binding and entry of the virus into human host cells can occur through endocytosis. Targeting such binding and viral entry to the cell is therefore crucial for prospective therapies [77].

The development of agents to combat SARS-CoV-2 has recently benefited from computer-based artificial intelligence, which has as its primary targets human ACE-2, papain-like protease (PLpro), 3C-like protease (3CLpro), RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), helicase, N7 methyltransferase, human DDP4, the spike protein’s receptor-binding domain (RBD), cathepsin L, and type II transmembrane Ser-protease [78].

The majority of recent research has been concentrated on drug repurposing, where nanomedicine formulations could assist in creating viable therapeutics for SARS-CoV-2 based on pharmaceuticals with different profiles [79]. There are two main groups of methods being employed for medication repurposing: computational and experimental methods [22]. The computational approaches include signature matching (transcriptional or metabolomic data, chemical similarity, and bioactivity, and adverse effect profiling), molecular docking, and network mapping (big data and deep network analysis, and machine learning and AI). The experimental approaches consist of high-throughput screening-based binding assays and phenotypic screening.

In this regard, Halevas et al. constructed a unique bis-MPA hyperbranched dendritic nanocarrier-loaded inhaled tDDS of remdesivir [80]. In a recently published work, Miranda et al. [79] built a delivery system using PLGA (poly[lactic-co-glycolic acid]) nanoparticles that were contained in fingolimod (FTY720). The nanoformulations exhibit an anti-SARS-CoV-2 impact that is around 70 times greater than that of free drug therapy. Many tailored DDSs have been described; there are some instances in which nanotherapeutics have been successfully used to target SARS-CoV-2 with a variety of strategies presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Some reported studies on delivery-repurposed antiviral drugs against SARS-CoV-2

Therapeutic agent Nanocarrier Target Study Effect Ref.
Remdesivir (antiviral drug) Remdesivir-encapsulated polymeric nanoparticles ACE2 membrane receptor In vitro: SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero E6 cells Superior to free drugs in terms of antiviral effect [58]
Fingolimod (FTY720) (immunomodulating drug) Fingolimod-encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles NA In vitro: SARS-CoV-2-infected VeroCCL81 cells ∼70-fold greater inhibition of viral infection than observed with the free drug [79]
The technology boosts the antiviral and biosafety properties of drugs
Releasing action that is pH-controlled
Oseltamivir phosphate (antiviral drug) Oseltamivir phosphate-loaded PLGA nanoparticles targeted with specific peptide ACE2 In vitro With the drug- controlled release, the nanoformulation exhibits greater effectiveness. [81]
Azithromycin or niclosamide in combination with piroxicam (antiviral drugs) Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticle-loaded drug(s) NA In vitro supported with computational studies As compared with the free drugs, the nanoformulations have improved anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity and prevented virus replication [82]
Remdesivir Remdesivir aerosolized nanoliposomal carrier NA In vitro study The nanoformulation serves as a stronger COVID-19 substitute for the free drug [83]
Favipiravir Solid lipid NPs of favipiravir NA In vitro through SARS-CoV-2 pathogen (hCoV-19/Egypt/NRC-3/2020 isolate) Inhaled solid lipid nanoparticles with favipiravir affect coronavirus [61]
Niclosamide combined with lysozyme Inhalable composite niclosamide-lysozyme particles with different excipients Inflammatory cytokines In vitro activity against two coronavirus strains, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, and in vivo by HDPP-4 transgenic mice TNFα and IL-6, two inflammatory cytokines associated with the development of the more severe COVID-19, are strongly suppressed by the formulation. The formulation increases inflammatory cytokine (IL-1) production at the moment, which contributes to enhancing the antiviral activity [84]
This nanoformulation’s intranasal application increases the survival of virally infected tissue in vivo and decreases tissue viral loads
Hydroxychloro-quine and azithromycin Polymeric nanoparticles and nanomicelles based on hydroxychloro-quine and azithromycin NA In vitro using SARS-CoV-2 isolate (EPI_ISL_413016) Compared with polymeric nanoparticles, nanomicelles have stronger antiviral activity against the tested SARS-CoV-2 strain [85]
Application through the lung area could be a good strategy
Ivermectin Ivermectin-encapsulated poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-maleimide (PLGA-b-PEG-Mal) polymer-conjugated Fc immunoglobulin antibody fragment for oral administration ACE2, and nuclear transport activities (importin α/β1 heterodimer) In vitro assays It may be administered orally to deliver a more effective therapeutic antiviral, resulting in a reduction in the expression of viral spike protein and its receptor ACE2 [86]
Sitagliptin and glatiramer acetate (77.42 nm) Sitagliptin and glatiramer acetate conjugates High binding affinity to the 3CL protease was found through molecular docking, preventing replication. which need to be confirmed in vitro and in vivo Molecular and in vitro 3CL protease inhibition test Clinical studies are being conducted to optimize the system, which shows enhanced targeting of viruses [87]

Collectively, targeting and suppressing viruses like SARS-CoV-2 is rendered easier by the advantages that nanostructures, particularly those utilized as drug delivery engines, offer the following:

  1. Targeted delivery: nanostructures can be designed to selectively target cells or tissues that have been infected with a virus. To ensure that the therapeutic payload is delivered exactly to the site of infection, ligands, or antibodies that bind to viral proteins or receptors on the surface of infected cells can be added to the nanoparticles [88,89,90,91]. To achieve this objective, Wang et al. [64] developed a unique nanoemulsion inhalation delivery system for remdesivir that targets ACE2. The system efficiently prevents both wild-type and mutant coronaviruses from infecting target cells by preventing the virus from adhering to the host cell (on the cell surface) and limiting intracellular viral replication. Organelle-targeted strategy was rationalized by Petcherski et al. [92] to increase concentration at the target without causing harm. They created a poly(glycerol monostearate-co-ε-caprolactone) nanoparticle loaded with mefloquine that is aimed at lysosomes and intended for inhalation for pulmonary administration. The method inhibits SARS-CoV-2-WA1 with the Omicron variant in a human lung epithelial model and coronavirus infection in mouse MHV-A59, a human OC43 coronavirus model. They concluded that organelle-targeted administration may be a useful strategy for preventing viral infections.

  2. Improved drug stability: some antiviral medicines degrade easily or have a short half-life in the body. These medications can be shielded from deterioration by nanoformulation, preserving their effectiveness until the target cells are reached [93,94,95]. Designed to have antiviral action against the human coronavirus, the epigallocatechin-3-gallate-palmitate nanoformulation appears more stable and dramatically inactivates the β-coronavirus [96]. Additionally, there was improved physical stability and release in nanoemulsions that contained licorice extract or remdesivir [97].

  3. Prolonged release: drugs or therapeutics may be released deliberately and gradually using nanoparticles. The antiviral agent’s ability to prevent viral replication, viral entry, or additional essential viral activities may be enhanced by this prolonged contact [58,62,80,98]. Regarding this, the remdesivir-inhalable DDS, which is intended to be used as an antiviral agent against SARS-CoV-2 replication, was built using poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles. It exhibits a biphasic release behavior, with a first burst release occurring over a 24-h period and then a sustained release occurring over 10 days [38]. A controlled release of the drug from nanofibers after 3 weeks is demonstrated by another example of a nano-design consisting of daclatasvir-chitosan/gelatin nanoparticles containing poly(l-lactide) nanofibrous [99].

  4. Combined therapies: nanostructure carriers can transport multiple drugs or therapeutic agents at once. This enables the use of a combination treatment, in which various medications with complimentary modes of action are used to effectively suppress the virus [85]. An example of a therapeutic nanoengineered to co-deliver Camostat and Aloxistatin to target SARS-CoV-2 in the lungs was developed by Yang et al. [100]. They demonstrate that it accurately targets the important proteases in the lung’s host cells, preventing SARS-CoV-2 from entering the body regardless of the virus’s mutations. Similarly, effective suppression of almost 99% against viral respiratory infections, including SARS-CoV-2, was demonstrated by a nanoemulsion technology co-encapsulating curcumin and quercetin intended for nasal delivery [101].

  5. Different nanostructures: the development of antiviral nanomedicine may be facilitated by the use of various nanoparticles made of metals, carbon, polymers, mesoporous silica, MOFs, nano-sized cages, and bubbles [102,103]. As an illustration, emulsomal nanoparticles were made to increase N-(5-nitrothiazol-2-yl)-carboxamido derivatives’ antiviral efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 [104]. Additionally, current drugs are more bioavailable, less toxic, and more effective against COVID-19 when delivered using silver nanoparticle-based DDSs [105]. Likewise, a mesoporous silica nanosystem coated with siRNA and decorated with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein may mimic a coronavirus to target host cells and encourage cellular internalization [106]. A ZIF-8 MOF nanoparticulate system was also developed to produce a nanospray that combined edaravone and pentoxifylline to treat acute respiratory distress syndrome [107].

In parallel with extensive fundamental research, clinical studies and attempts to introduce nanoformulations to the market are underway. Recent investigations on the antiviral tDDS that are currently on the market have demonstrated their therapeutic effectiveness and satisfactory safety [67,68]. Targeting particular organs, such as the lungs, and slowing the release of drugs are possible advantages of nanomedicine over traditional therapies [33]. The restrictions of intranasal or oral administration can be solved by administering nano-antivirals [69]. Intranasal delivery of antivirals enables easy, noninvasive, and quick absorption [70]. When compared with non-encapsulated free antiviral drugs, remdesivir’s encapsulation makes it possible to maintain high levels of the drug in tissues and minimize the frequency of doses [71].

4.2 Targeted DDSs using natural substances and small molecules

Numerous natural compounds are known to have antiviral properties. Nature is an enormous source of thousands of phytomedicines (drugs made from plants) that have varied chemical structures and can treat a wide range of ailments. These phytomedicines may be divided into four primary classes: phenolics and polyphenolics, terpenes, nitrogen-containing alkaloids, and sulfur-containing chemicals. They are mostly generated as secondary metabolites by plants [108,109,110].

In response to COVID-19, several ongoing clinical trials using natural herbal remedies are being conducted and have been filed (e.g., www.clinicaltrials.gov) in an effort to find a potent antiviral treatment [111]. Such clinical trials (Table 2) could confirm the usage recommendations and highlight the need to research natural product therapies that could target certain viruses.

Table 2

Several pure or extracts of natural plant-derived products that are undergoing COVID-19 treatment clinical studies in various countries

Natural agent Clinical trial ID (Registry) Clinical phase Disease Country
Berry extract NCT04404218 Phase 2 COVID-19 Brazil
Artemisinin, curcumin, frankincense, and vitamin C (ArtemiC) NCT04382040 Phase 2 COVID-19 Israel
Zinc, quercetin, bromelain, and vitamin C NCT04468139 Phase 4 COVID-19 Saudi Arabia
Resveratrol with vitamin D3 NCT04400890 Phase 2 COVID-19 USA
Berberine alkaloid (COVIDEX-herbal formulation) NCT05228626 Phase 2 COVID-19 Uganda
Berberine hydrochloride NCT04479202 Phase 4 COVID-19 China
Colchicine and probiotic NCT05911022 Not applicable COVID-19 Egypt
Ivermectin and colchicine NCT05930002 Not applicable COVID-19 Egypt
Boswellia serrata gum and licorice extract NCT04487964 Not applicable COVID-19 Egypt
Resveratrol and vitamin D3 NCT04400890 Phase 2 COVID-19 USA
Resveratrol/quercetin (Respicure®) NCT05601180 Not applicable COVID-19 Algeria
Povidone-iodine and essential oils NCT04410159 Phase 2 COVID-19 Malaysia
Aromatherapy: fragrant oil extracted from citrus peels, plant resins, and leaves NCT04980573 Not applicable COVID-19 USA
Essence oils NCT04764981 Not applicable COVID-19 Brazil
Combination of quercetin and curcumin NCT05130671 Not applicable COVID-19 Pakistan
Curcumin and other dietary supplement NCT04912921 Not applicable COVID-19 USA
Herbal extract of Psidii guava and a combination NCT04810728 Phase 3 COVID-19 Indonesia
Quercetin NCT05037240 Not applicable COVID-19 Italy
Quercetin (Quercetix) NCT04851821 Phase 1 COVID-19 Tunisia

Bold type indicates the plant’s natural product or natural extract.

There are three ways to use the phytochemicals that possessed medicinal properties as whole extracts, fractions, and pure compounds to develop nano-delivery systems or functionalize nanoparticles (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Schematic representation of possible methods to use natural substances-derived from plants with medicinal properties and construct functionalized nanoparticles and nano-delivery systems for combating SARS-Cov-2.
Figure 6

Schematic representation of possible methods to use natural substances-derived from plants with medicinal properties and construct functionalized nanoparticles and nano-delivery systems for combating SARS-Cov-2.

Our team has developed a core–shell nanoformulation based on natural ellagic acid and functionalized zinc oxide nanoparticles that have a strong antiviral impact by direct inactivation of HCoV-229E and a virucidal efficacy of >60% [62]. In a different nanosystem, albumin-bound pure steroidal ginsenoside saponins (PNAB-Rg6 and PNAB-Rgx365) from black ginseng were combined with PEGylated nanoparticles to increase sustained bioactivity assessed in COVID-19 patients [112]. Potential benefits include a significant decrease in the plasma levels of histone H4 and NETosis-related variables as well as a reduction in SREBP2-mediated systemic inflammation in SARS-CoV-2 ICU patients. They concluded that the formulation could influence symptoms linked to severe SARS-CoV-2 patients, such as coagulation and cytokine storm. Silymarin, a natural flavonolignan compound, was encapsulated into chitosan nanoparticles and evaluated against SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and in silico [113]. The work revealed a potential antiviral against SARS-CoV-2, which might inhibit the viral host receptor ACE2. As a result, viral attachment and entry into the cells were blocked. In order to effectively combat SARS-CoV-2, Sharma et al. [114] introduced a nanoformulation of curcumin encapsulated in polysaccharide nanoparticles. This nanoformulation inhibited the release of growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines, which would harm the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Additionally, the reduction in NF-κB/MAPK signaling through the regulated expression of various molecules leads to the efficient attenuation of the interaction between ACE2 and the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. In clinical studies, Sinacurcumin soft gel capsules, a curcumin nanosystem, were administered orally twice daily (two capsules) to mildly to moderately ill COVID-19 hospital patients [115]. This curcumin-loaded nanosystem effectively reduced the majority of symptoms and greatly accelerated hospitalized patients’ time to recovery. Another study found that this nanosystem could help individuals with inflammation-related disorders [116]. These clinically validated data for nanosystems, including natural compounds like curcumin, suggest the potential for developing and exploring further nano-designs. Another instance is the use of molecular docking analysis and real-world studies, whereby flavonoid-functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles were demonstrated to strongly interfere with the SARS-CoV-2 spike and, as a result, hinder the process of cell fusion [117]. A nanoformulation with Cuphea ignea extract rich in polyphenols demonstrated complete inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro at low concentrations and in silico studies. This was attributed to a potential synergism between the extract components and their possibly acting as an N3 inhibitor, as suggested by molecular docking studies [118]. Similarly, Refaey et al. [119] used nanoformulations (a nanoemulsion) made of essential oils from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Syzygium aromaticum and surfactants (Span-80/Tween-80). The proposed nanoformulations have putative antiviral activity: they are virucidal and prevent SARS-CoV-2 reproduction. Wang et al. [120] synthesized nanosized formulations containing tylophora alkaloids from a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine (Cynanchum komarovii A) to be used as anti-SARS-CoV-2 treatments. These preparations show good efficacy along with sustained drug action, and they may eventually be enhanced for treating COVID-19. In recent research, resveratrol, a bioactive polyphenol encapsulated with PEGylated bilosomes (PBs), was tested in vitro and in silico against SARS-CoV-2 by combining PEGylated edge activator with regularly used components such as Span 60, cholesterol, and bile salts [121]. The authors found that, compared with a free resveratrol dispersion, the nanoformulation at a particle size of 228.9 ± 8.5 nm with a spherical shape exhibited total suppression (at 0.48 g/mL) of SARS-CoV-2, suggesting its use as an antiviral treatment. Molecular modeling suggested that it may interact with the SARS-CoV-2 Mpro enzyme. Liposome nanoformulations in combination with favipiravir, hesperidin, and rosuvastatin show the greatest ability to block SARS-CoV-2 replication. As a result, both natural compounds – which may be able to target Mpro – could be used as adjuvant medications alongside favipiravir to fight coronavirus. This is supported by molecular docking studies of these natural compounds [65]. Regarding the neutralization and suppression of SARS-CoV-2 infection, PLGA nanoparticles encapsulated with quercetin and then coated with ACE2-containing cell membranes exhibit the highest antiviral efficacy. SARS-CoV-2’s S protein and 3CLproprotein may interact with quercetin, according to molecular docking studies [122]. Lately, it was observed that the novel strategy-based essential oil nanoformulated system for fighting SARS-CoV-2 was successful in reducing the SARS-CoV-2 virion count (exceeding 2 logs above the control) when Lippia sidoides and Syzygium aromaticum essential oil-encapsulated nanostructured lipid-carrying essential oils [123]. Figure 7 shows the possible main approaches to formulate the delivery system-based natural substances and the evaluation against coronavirus.

Figure 7 Schematic illustration of general approaches to design and fabricate nanoplatforms against SARS-CoV-2 virus with naturally plant-derived compounds.
Figure 7

Schematic illustration of general approaches to design and fabricate nanoplatforms against SARS-CoV-2 virus with naturally plant-derived compounds.

As an example of the use of synthetic small molecules, El-Masry et al. [124] set up oxoindole–oxadiazole conjugates that potentially hinder SARS-CoV-2. Molecular docking revealed that some of these compounds have increased affinity for the Mpro active site. N-(5-nitrothiazol-2-yl)-carboxamido-encapsulated emulsomal nanoparticles demonstrate a range of distinct mechanisms of action, including virucidal (>90%), viral adsorption (>80%), and viral replication (>60%) inhibition in vitro; additionally, molecular docking studies suggest that these nanoparticles may target SARS-CoV-2 Mpro [104]. The use of amino-functionalized silver nanoparticles decorated with taxoid as a smart nano-enabled antiviral therapy reveals a direct binding to SARS-CoV-2 via the S protein, inhibits viral entry, and alters the cellular miRNA-directed milieu, all of which ultimately promote antiviral cellular processes and neutralize infection [63]. A recent report demonstrated the possibility of encapsulating cannabidiol, an important ingredient for downregulating enzymes like ACE2, in solid lipid nanoparticles coated with tocilizumab as a medication delivery method to target SARS-CoV-2 [125].

4.3 Specific functionalized nanostructures for targeting SARS-CoV-2

In-depth studies of useful functional nanostructures with potent antiviral capabilities are extensively pursued. Quantum dots (QDs), nanoparticles of metals like gold and silver, nanoclusters, carbon dots, nanographene oxide, silica materials, polymers, and dendrimers are a few examples of prominent nanoparticles with potent antiviral properties [126]. Five selected nanostructures and their antiviral capabilities are highlighted in Table 3. Virucidal activity is a noteworthy mechanism that can be extensively utilized to develop tools that prevent the rapid spread of infections caused by viruses, meeting a critical requirement [127]. Remarkably, the adaptable features of functional nanostructures render them among the best options for fighting deadly viruses on a nanoscale. We propose several suggestions as a guide for researchers to use, explore, and expand to develop nanotherapy with each nanostructure, as shown in Figure 8.

Table 3

Functional nanostructures and their properties, mechanism, and efficiency against SARS-CoV-2: toward future nano-antiviral therapy

Nanostructures Characteristics Mechanisms Remarks
QDs

  • Nanocrystals of a semiconductor exhibit both optical and electrical characteristics [128]

  • Small size (1–10 nm), good biocompatibility, and simple surface functionalization [129]

  • Useful for bioimaging, delivery of antiviral drugs, medical countermeasures, and viral infections, noninvasive monitoring [130]

 Actions exerted by QDs:

  • Preventing SARS-CoV-2 virus entry into host cells [131,132,133]

  • Altering virus–host cell recognition by binding to the coronavirus spike protein, hindering entry to the cell [131]

  • Hampering the genomic replication of RNA in cells [134]

  • Interacting with SARS-CoV-2 virus, leading to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the virus [126]

  • QDs are useful in diagnosing, inhibiting, and treating viral infections [135]

  • They are a crucial quick and secure form of nanotherapy for viral infections [129]

  • QDs enable the selective targeting of SARS-CoV-2

  • They have demonstrated both a broad range of action and an efficient technique of manufacture [136]

  • QDs are also used as nanosized therapeutic delivery vehicles [129]
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)

  • AgNPs are inorganic metallic nanostructures that have a wide range of uses due to their exceptional activities against multidrug-resistant pathogens, including viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases [137]

  • These nanoparticles exhibit distinct optical and catalytic characteristics in addition to a surface area that is extremely reactive [138]

 Actions exerted by AgNPs:

  • In the last few decades, a wide variety of viruses have been exposed to AgNPs, which are well-known for being potent antiviral agents [127,139,140]

  • AgNPs have demonstrated significant promise as a potential therapy for SARS-CoV-2 following the COVID-19 epidemic [141]

  • The direct inactivation activity of virucides is one of the most efficient mechanisms [142,143]

  • AgNPs-based materials have been linked to the following mechanisms: virucidal activity[144], viral replication inhibition [145], and viral entry inhibition [144]

  • AgNPs are well recognized for their industrial uses in the fields of antibacterial, pharmaceutical, medical, food, agricultural, cosmetics, and textiles [146].

  • In biomedicine, the method of administration should be taken into account; toxicological studies in vivo show that inhaling AgNPs results in fewer negative effects than oral or parenteral administration [141]
Gold nanoparticles and nanoclusters (Au NPs)

  • The earliest synthetic nanostructures, AuNPs, had exceptional electric, optical, and mechanical capabilities [147,148]

 Actions exerted by AuNPs:

  • Functionalized-AuNPs bind to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, preventing it from attaching to cell receptors and halting viral infection and transmission [149]

  • It blocks the entrance of viral cells [150]

  • AuNPs may not be virucidally active enough to eradicate this virus

  • AuNPs have distinctive actions against pathogens, including viruses and bacteria [151]

  • They are one of the nanostructures that have recently been used in various methods of SARS-CoV-2 detection and diagnosis [152,153]
Graphene oxide-based materials (GO)

  • Geim and Noveselov, two English scientists who shared the 2010 Nobel Prize in physics, developed the hexagonally organized carbon two-dimensional substance known as GO in 2004 [154,155]

  • Numerous noteworthy properties (including mechanical, thermal, electronic, stability, and others) distinguish GO and its derivatives [156]

 Actions exerted by GO-based materials:

  • These nanoparticles have proven to be highly effective virucidal agents for eliminating SARS-CoV-2 directly [157]

  • In addition, various other approaches using GO may be employed to treat the current virus problem [158,159]

  • ROS and oxidative stress (at the membrane and phospholipids) are produced by GO-based nanostructures, which lead to contact with COVID-19 [160]

  • At the molecular level, the interaction between the SARS-CoV-2 S protein and GO-based nanostructures suggests a barrier to the virus’s ability to bind to human ACE2 [161]

  • Because they have strong viral inhibitory abilities, graphene oxide and GO offer great antiviral capabilities in biomedical applications [162,163,164]. As a result, GO can be used to treat viral infections that cause disease

  • Because of their stacking interactions, GO-based materials are one of the most common drug carriers. They can thus play a crucial role in the delivery of treatments to eliminate SARS-CoV-2 [165]

  • By using GO-based materials as antiviral coatings on medical devices, personal protective equipment, and/or facemasks, the risk of transmission can be reduced [166]
Mesoporous silicon nanoparticles (MSNs)

  • MSNs are more biocompatible and less cytotoxic than other nanostructures [126]

  • They have a wide range of characteristics, including stability (physical, thermal, and chemical), high specific surface area, pore networks, ease of functionalization, high drug loading capacity, and control over drug release [167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174]

  • They are easier to load with drugs than other nanostructures due to their porous structures

 Actions exerted by MSNS:

  • An MSN-Ag composite destroys SARS-CoV-2 [175]

  • MSNs may aid in the deactivation of aerosolized viruses [176]

  • MSNs have demonstrated their promise as a delivery method for antiviral small compounds and vaccines [177]

  • MSNs can release antiviral medications to interact with parts of the virus, such as the nucleocapsid protein (N protein) [178]
Figure 8 Schematic illustration of some recommendations for using functionalized-based nanostructures according to their antiviral activities against SARS-CoV-2.
Figure 8

Schematic illustration of some recommendations for using functionalized-based nanostructures according to their antiviral activities against SARS-CoV-2.

Another strategy for targeting SARS-CoV-2 is the functionalization of nanostructures with certain moieties. As shown in Table 4, several previous investigations have established the effectiveness of the exceptional design flexibility of different nanoparticles in creating capabilities to eliminate this virus. Precisely tailoring and functionalizing nanostructures to bind to viral proteins with SARS-CoV-2 variant-specific antibodies will enable the development of new tools to combat viral resistance to currently used vaccines and drugs [179,180].

Table 4

Nanostructures with possible functional groups and moieties for fighting SARS-CoV-2

Nanostructures/size Specific moiety or functional groups Targets Study References
Stöber silica nanoparticles (210 ± 40 nm) Polyphosphate (polyP) physiological polymer They can interact electrostatically with the viral S proteins’ RBD to attach to it, preventing the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein from attaching to the ACE2 receptor Model RBD of SARS-CoV-2 S protein [181]
Multifunctional nanoparticles (∼70 nm) Monoclonal neutralizing antibody specific to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-conjugated NPs Impedes SARS-CoV-2 binding to ACE2 and renders it inactive In vitro and in vivo [182]
Carbon dot (4.5 ± 0.2 nm) 4-Aminophenyl boronic acid and phenylboronic acid groups Mechanistic investigations show that carbon dots block viral entry by preventing S protein contact with the host cell membrane, impeding cell infection and the virus’s ability to replicate its genome In vitro with HCoV-229E-Luc [183]
Gold and silver nanoparticles (5.34 ± 2.25 and 15.92 ± 8.03 nm) Functionalized with polyphenolic compounds from Solanum mammosum L plant extract Reaches >99% viral inactivation at 0.01–1 mg/mL SARS-CoV-2 surrogate Phi6 and viral model PhiX174 [184]
Silver nanoparticles (5.89 and 5.77 nm) Functionalized with natural compounds (phenolic, flavonoids, fatty acids, sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, and sterols) from strawberry and ginger plant extract Molecular docking simulation demonstrates the potential interactions of various plant extract compounds with SARS-CoV-2 protein targets, such as Mpro, ADP ribose phosphatase, NSP14, NSP16, PLpro, and AAK1 Molecular docking and in vitro investigation [185]
TiO2 nanoparticles (1–100 nm) Functionalized with flavonoids from plant extracts According to molecular docking studies, this prevents SARS-CoV-2 entry and fusion. The target is ACE-2 In vitro on HCoV 229E and SARS-CoV-2 [117]
Gold nanoparticles:SH-PEG-NH2 (∼50 nm) An antigenic peptide from SARS-CoV-2 Enhanced humoral responses In vivo [186]
Gold nanoparticles ACE2 peptide conjugation Blocks binding by SARS-CoV-2 — [187]
Liposome-based nanotrap SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody and phagocytosis-specific phosphatidylserines By preventing the S protein from attaching to the host cells’ ACE2, the system completely inhibits SARS-CoV-2 In vitro and in vivo studies [188]
Glycyrrhizic acid nanoparticles (∼70 nm) Composed glycyrrhizin Important antivirals that specifically target areas of severe inflammation, such as the lungs In vitro and in vivo models [189]
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles Peptide-based subunit candidate vaccine It binds to recombinant S proteins and prevents S proteins from adhering to the ACE-2 receptor In vitro and in vivo studies [190]
AgNPs (2–20 nm) Quaternized hydroxyethyl cellulose It actively thwarts virus growth and stops SARS-CoV-2 from interacting with cells when it is active In vitro study [191]
Zinc oxide NPs (about 5 nm) Green synthesis rich with catechin, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, and syringic acid Molecular docking demonstrates the inhibitory activity of these compounds against the main viral protease In vitro study on HCOV-229E and molecular docking [192]

5 Future prospective and conclusions

The present review shows that nanomedicine offers considerable advantages in combating the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This concerns both diagnostic and treatment purposes to explore nanotechnology-based methods of delivering drugs, vaccines, antibodies, peptides, proteins, and other substances, and a large number of nanostructures may be created and used. As a result, many pharmaceutical companies have concentrated on developing nanotechnology-based anti-SARS-COVID-19 treatments. The main challenges of nanotechnology-based treatments for SARS-CoV-2 are similar to those seen in other nanotherapy studies: full physicochemical property characterization for nanoparticles, toxicological evaluations, pharmacokinetic assessments, production cost, certifications, large-scale manufacturing, safety, quality control, patent protection, etc., are needed.

Future therapy for SARS-CoV-2 is especially likely to benefit from the repurposing of antiviral drugs and herbal products. Designing nanoparticles or nanoformulations that might support repurposing these drugs and effective SARS-CoV-2 viral eradication strategies seems to be a recommended strategy.

Furthermore, nano-vaccines based on organic, inorganic, or hybrid nanoformulations offer a wide range of potential applications. The use of nanoformulations could minimize the cost of vaccinations, reduce viral resistance, increase safety, etc.

Targeted delivery strategies are not yet sufficiently advanced. The most common targeted nanotherapy to prevent SARS-CoV-2 from spreading and to eradicate it are direct virucidal killing and disrupting its structure, blocking entry, and inhibiting replication.

Several techniques can be used to create targeted delivery systems.

  1. Multifunctional nanoplatforms to functionalize the nanostructures with peptides, antibodies, or small ligands before encapsulating the medicines or organic agents. The ligands might be specifically targeted at the viral protein or receptor mediation to prevent interaction with viral proteins, so there is no anticipated entry to host cells.

  2. Inorganic nanostructures are distinguished by their ability to directly destroy SARS-CoV-2.

  3. Novel delivery nanoformulations using natural chemicals that combat this virus by utilizing a broad spectrum of chemical structures.

  4. Antiviral drugs and natural substances combined in nanoformulations.

It is crucial to fully address the suggested nanoformulations’ mechanisms of action, which are based on in vitro and in vivo animal models. Future development of pharmaceutical-based nanomedicines should consider laboratory-scale or large-scale manufacture of the specified targeted nanoformulations.

tel: +82-43-261-2372, fax: +82-43-269-2370
tel: +82-43-261-2372, fax: +82-43-269-2370
tel: +48-22-888-0429

Acknowledgments

The authors thank IHPP, the Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland, and the Brain Pool (BP) program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (Grant No. 2022H1D3A2A02090010) for supporting this work.

  1. Funding information: This work was supported by Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland, and the Brain Pool (BP) program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science and ICT (Grant No. 2022H1D3A2A02090010).

  2. Author contributions: Khaled AbouAitah conceived the review, collected the literature, drafted it, and wrote the original manuscript. Beom Soo Kim revised and edited the manuscript. Witold Lojkowski organized the ideas, revised and edited the manuscript. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

References

[1] Mehendale R, Joshi M, Patravale VB. Nanomedicines for treatment of viral diseases. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carr Syst. 2013;30:1–49.10.1615/CritRevTherDrugCarrierSyst.2013005469Suche in Google Scholar

[2] Mourya DT, Yadav PD, Ullas PT, Bhardwaj SD, Sahay RR, Chadha MS, et al. Emerging/re-emerging viral diseases & new viruses on the Indian horizon. Indian J Med Res. 2019;149:447–67.10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1239_18Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[3] Lindahl JF, Grace D. The consequences of human actions on risks for infectious diseases: a review. Infect Ecol Epidemiol. 2015;5:30048.10.3402/iee.v5.30048Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[4] Gunathilake T, Ching YC, Uyama H, Chuah CH. Nanotherapeutics for treating coronavirus diseases. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2021;64:102634.10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102634Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[5] Breitbart M, Rohwer F. Here a virus, there a virus, everywhere the same virus? Trends Microbiol. 2005;13:278–84.10.1016/j.tim.2005.04.003Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[6] Weiss SR, Leibowitz JL. Coronavirus pathogenesis. Adv Virus Res. 2011;81:85–164.10.1016/B978-0-12-385885-6.00009-2Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[7] Pal M. Severe acute respiratory syndrome: a newly recognized viral zoonosis of public health concern. Acta Sci Microbiol. 2018;1:1.10.31080/ASMI.2018.01.0008Suche in Google Scholar

[8] Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 2020;395:565–74.10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[9] Bauerfeind R, Von Graevenitz A, Kimmig P, Schiefer HG, Schwarz T, Slenczka W, et al. Zoonoses: Infectious diseases transmissible from animals to humans. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2016.10.1128/9781555819262Suche in Google Scholar

[10] Abdelrahman Z, Li M, Wang X. Comparative review of SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and influenza a respiratory viruses. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1–14.10.3389/fimmu.2020.552909Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[11] Zumla A, Hui DS, Perlman S. Middle East respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2015;386:995–1007.10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60454-8Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[12] The Lancet. Emerging understandings of 2019-nCoV. Lancet. 2020;395:311.10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30186-0Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[13] Cascella M, Rajnik M, Aleem A, Dulebohn SC, Di Napoli R. Features, evaluation, and treatment of coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing Copyright © 2022, StatPearls Publishing; LLC. 2022.Suche in Google Scholar

[14] US Food and Drug Administration. COVID-19 update: FDA broadens emergency use authorization for Veklury (remdesivir) to include all hospitalized patients for treatment of COVID-19. 2020.Suche in Google Scholar

[15] Rakhsha A, Azghandi S, Taghizadeh-Hesary F. Decision on chemotherapy amidst COVID-19 pandemic: a review and a practical approach from Iran. Infect Chemother. 2020;52:496–502.10.3947/ic.2020.52.4.496Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[16] Fadavi P, Houshyari M, Yousefi Kashi AS, Jarrahi AM, Roshanmehr F, Broomand MA, et al. Review on the oncology practice in the midst of COVID-19 crisis: the challenges and solutions. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2021;22:19–24.10.31557/APJCP.2021.22.1.19Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[17] Vecitis CD. Antiviral-nanoparticle interactions and reactions. Environ Sci: Nano. 2021;8:11–9.10.1039/D0EN00980FSuche in Google Scholar

[18] Yang KC, Lin JC, Tsai HH, Hsu CY, Shih V, Hu CJ. Nanotechnology advances in pathogen- and host-targeted antiviral delivery: multipronged therapeutic intervention for pandemic control. Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2021;11:1420–37.10.1007/s13346-021-00965-ySuche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[19] He H. Vaccines and antiviral agents. Curr Issues Mol Virol: Viral Genet Biotechnol Appl. 2013;2013:239–50.10.5772/56866Suche in Google Scholar

[20] Saha RP, Sharma AR, Singh MK, Samanta S, Bhakta S, Mandal S, et al. Repurposing drugs, ongoing vaccine, and new therapeutic development initiatives against COVID-19. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:1258.10.3389/fphar.2020.01258Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[21] Deb B, Shah H, Goel S. Current global vaccine and drug efforts against COVID-19: Pros and cons of bypassing animal trials. J Biosci. 2020;45:1–10.10.1007/s12038-020-00053-2Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[22] Saxena A. Drug targets for COVID-19 therapeutics: Ongoing global efforts. J Biosci. 2020;45:87.10.1007/s12038-020-00067-wSuche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[23] Liz-Marzán LM, Nel AE, Brinker CJ, Chan WCW, Chen C, Chen X, et al. What do we mean when we say nanomedicine? ACS Nano. 2022;16:13257–9.10.1021/acsnano.2c08675Suche in Google Scholar

[24] Doyle DJ. Nanotechnology in anesthesia and medicine. Adv Anesth. 2013;31:181–200.10.1016/j.aan.2013.08.010Suche in Google Scholar

[25] Mitchell MJ, Billingsley MM, Haley RM, Wechsler ME, Peppas NA, Langer R. Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021;20:101–24.10.1038/s41573-020-0090-8Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[26] Hoshyar N, Gray S, Han H, Bao G. The effect of nanoparticle size on in vivo pharmacokinetics and cellular interaction. Nanomedicine. 2016;11:673–92.10.2217/nnm.16.5Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[27] Paul S, Mukherjee S, Banerjee P. Recent advancement in nanomaterial-encapsulated drug delivery vehicles for combating cancer, COVID-19, and HIV-like chronic diseases. Mater Adv. 2023;4:2042–61.10.1039/D2MA01075ESuche in Google Scholar

[28] Rai M, Bonde S, Yadav A, Bhowmik A, Rathod S, Ingle P, et al. Nanotechnology as a shield against COVID-19: current advancement and limitations. Viruses. 2021;13:1–17.10.3390/v13071224Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[29] Mishra R, Chaudhary K, Mishra I. Weapons and strategies against COVID-19: a perspective. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2024;25:144–58.10.2174/1389201024666230525161432Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[30] Gregory AE, Titball R, Williamson D. Vaccine delivery using nanoparticles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2013;3:13.10.3389/fcimb.2013.00013Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[31] Ayan S, Aranci-Ciftci K, Ciftci F, Ustundag CB. Nanotechnology and COVID-19: prevention, diagnosis, vaccine, and treatment strategies. Front Mater. 2023;9:1–19.10.3389/fmats.2022.1059184Suche in Google Scholar

[32] Vazquez-Munoz R, Lopez-Ribot JL. Nanotechnology as an alternative to reduce the spread of COVID-19. Challenges. 2020;11:1–14. 10.3390/challe11020015.Suche in Google Scholar

[33] Yayehrad AT, Siraj EA, Wondie GB, Alemie AA, Derseh MT, Ambaye AS. Could nanotechnology help to end the fight against COVID-19? Review of current findings, challenges and future perspectives. Int J Nanomed. 2021;16:5713–43.10.2147/IJN.S327334Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[34] Varahachalam SP, Lahooti B, Chamaneh M, Bagchi S, Chhibber T, Morris K, et al. Nanomedicine for the SARS-CoV-2: state-of-the-art and future prospects. Int J Nanomed. 2021;16:539–60.10.2147/IJN.S283686Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[35] Chowdhury NK, Deepika, Choudhury R, Sonawane GA, Mavinamar S, Lyu X, et al. Nanoparticles as an effective drug delivery system in COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother. 2021;143:112162.10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112162Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[36] Xi Y, Ma R, Li S, Liu G, Liu C. Functionally designed nanovaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. Vaccines. 2024;12:1–18. 10.3390/vaccines12070764.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[37] Skwarek A, Gąsecka A, Jaguszewski MJ, Szarpak Ł, Dzieciątkowski T, Filipiak KJ. Nanoparticles: a breakthrough in COVID-19 prevention, diagnosis and treatment. Arch Med Sci. 2023;19:1410–20.10.5114/aoms/142103Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[38] Chintapula U, Karim S-U, Iyer PR, Asokan-Sheeja H, Neupane B, Nazneen F, et al. A novel nanocomposite drug delivery system for SARS-CoV-2 infections. Nanoscale Adv. 2024;6:3747–58.10.1039/D4NA00361FSuche in Google Scholar

[39] Huang X, Kon E, Han X, Zhang X, Kong N, Mitchell MJ, et al. Nanotechnology-based strategies against SARS-CoV-2 variants. Nat Nanotechnol. 2022;17:1027–37.10.1038/s41565-022-01174-5Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[40] Katoch P, Raina K, Sharma R, Sharma R, Chaudhary A. Ayush Kwath: A major contribution of Ayurveda in preventing COVID-19 infection. Curr Drug Ther. 2024;19:60–80.10.2174/1574885518666230601150338Suche in Google Scholar

[41] Rauf A, Abu-Izneid T, Khalil AA, Hafeez N, Olatunde A, Rahman M, et al. Nanoparticles in clinical trials of COVID-19: an update. Int J Surg. 2022;104:106818.10.1016/j.ijsu.2022.106818Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[42] Li Z, Zhao T, Li J, Yu Q, Feng Y, Xie Y, et al. Nanomedicine based on natural products: improving clinical application potential. J Nanomaterials. 2022;2022:3066613.10.1155/2022/3066613Suche in Google Scholar

[43] Liao W, Li Y, Wang J, Zhao M, Chen N, Zheng Q, et al. Natural products-based nanoformulations: a new approach targeting CSCs to cancer therapy. Int J Nanomed. 2022;17:4163–93.10.2147/IJN.S380697Suche in Google Scholar

[44] Khare T, Palakurthi SS, Shah BM, Palakurthi S, Khare S. Natural product-based nanomedicine in treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:1–22. 10.3390/ijms21113956.Suche in Google Scholar

[45] Delshadi R, Bahrami A, McClements DJ, Moore MD, Williams L. Development of nanoparticle-delivery systems for antiviral agents: A review. J Control Release. 2021;331:30–4.10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.01.017Suche in Google Scholar

[46] Horcajada P, Serre C, Vallet-Regí M, Sebban M, Taulelle F, Férey G. Metal–organic frameworks as efficient materials for drug delivery. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2006;45:5974–78.10.1002/anie.200601878Suche in Google Scholar

[47] Pradhan D, Biswasroy P, Goyal A, Ghosh G, Rath G. Recent advancement in nanotechnology-based drug delivery system against viral infections. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2021;22:47.10.1208/s12249-020-01908-5Suche in Google Scholar

[48] Lembo D, Donalisio M, Civra A, Argenziano M, Cavalli R. Nanomedicine formulations for the delivery of antiviral drugs: a promising solution for the treatment of viral infections. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2018;15:93–114.10.1080/17425247.2017.1360863Suche in Google Scholar

[49] Alipour S, Mahmoudi L, Ahmadi F. Pulmonary drug delivery: an effective and convenient delivery route to combat COVID-19. Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2023;13:705–15.10.1007/s13346-022-01251-1Suche in Google Scholar

[50] Wang F-Y, Chen Y, Huang Y-Y, Cheng C-M. Transdermal drug delivery systems for fighting common viral infectious diseases. Drug Deliv Transl Res. 2021;11:1498–508.10.1007/s13346-021-01004-6Suche in Google Scholar

[51] Limenh LW. Advances in the transdermal delivery of antiretroviral drugs. SAGE Open Med. 2024;12:20503121231223600.10.1177/20503121231223600Suche in Google Scholar

[52] Gabai A, Zeppieri M, Finocchio L, Salati C. Innovative strategies for drug delivery to the ocular posterior segment. Pharmaceutics. 2023;15:1–38.10.3390/pharmaceutics15071862Suche in Google Scholar

[53] Li S, Chen L, Fu Y. Nanotechnology-based ocular drug delivery systems: recent advances and future prospects. J Nanobiotechnol. 2023;21:232.10.1186/s12951-023-01992-2Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[54] Žigrayová D, Mikušová V, Mikuš P. Advances in antiviral delivery systems and chitosan-based polymeric and nanoparticulate antivirals and antiviral carriers. Viruses. 2023;15:1–56.10.3390/v15030647Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[55] Bhatti A, DeLong RK. Nanoscale interaction mechanisms of antiviral activity. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 2023;6:220–28.10.1021/acsptsci.2c00195Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[56] Yasamineh S, Kalajahi HG, Yasamineh P, Yazdani Y, Gholizadeh O, Tabatabaie R, et al. An overview on nanoparticle-based strategies to fight viral infections with a focus on COVID-19. J Nanobiotechnol. 2022;20:440.10.1186/s12951-022-01625-0Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[57] Rodrigues ICP, Campo KN, Arns CW, Gabriel LP, Webster TJ, Lopes ÉSN. From bulk to nanoparticles: an overview of antiviral materials, its mechanisms, and applications. Part Part Syst Charact. 2021;38:2100044.10.1002/ppsc.202100044Suche in Google Scholar

[58] Sanna V, Satta S, Hsiai T, Sechi M. Development of targeted nanoparticles loaded with antiviral drugs for SARS-CoV-2 inhibition. Eur J Med Chem. 2022;231:114121.10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114121Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[59] Cojocaru F-D, Botezat D, Gardikiotis I, Uritu C-M, Dodi G, Trandafir L, et al. Nanomaterials designed for antiviral drug delivery transport across biological barriers. Pharmaceutics. 2020;12:1–34. 10.3390/pharmaceutics12020171.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[60] Maginnis MS. Virus-receptor interactions: The key to cellular invasion. J Mol Biol. 2018;430:2590–611.10.1016/j.jmb.2018.06.024Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[61] Tulbah AS, Lee W-H. Physicochemical characteristics and in vitro toxicity/anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of favipiravir solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14:1–14. 10.3390/ph14101059.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[62] AbouAitah K, Allayh AK, Wojnarowicz J, Shaker YM, Swiderska-Sroda A, Lojkowski W. Nanoformulation composed of rllagic acid and functionalized zinc oxide nanoparticles inactivates DNA and RNA viruses. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13:1–18.10.3390/pharmaceutics13122174Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[63] Bauer AN, Williams JF, Pokhrel LR, Garcia S, Majumdar N, Eells JB, et al. Evaluating molecular mechanism of viral inhibition of aerosolized smart nano-enabled antiviral therapeutic (SNAT) on SARS-CoV-2-Infected hamsters. Toxics. 2024;12:1–18. 10.3390/toxics12070495.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[64] Wang H, Luo S, Xie M, Chen Z, Zhang Y, Xie Z, et al. ACE2 receptor-targeted inhaled nanoemulsions inhibit SARS-CoV-2 and attenuate inflammatory responses. Adv Mater. 2024;36:2311537.10.1002/adma.202311537Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[65] Elimam H, El-Sawy HS, Fayed MAA, Mahmoud SH, Bakr RO, Saleh RM, et al. Antiviral potential of rosuvastatin and hesperidin in combination with favipiravir liposomal nanoformulations in targeting the main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2: molecular docking, molecular dynamics and in-vitro studies. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2024;97:105799.10.1016/j.jddst.2024.105799Suche in Google Scholar

[66] Guareschi F, Del Favero E, Ricci C, Cantù L, Brandolini M, Sambri V, et al. Cyclosporine a micellar nasal spray characterization and antiviral action against SARS-CoV-2. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2024;193:106673.10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106673Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[67] de M, Ribeiro LN, Fonseca BB. The role of pharmaceutical nanotechnology in the time of COVID-19 pandemic. Future Microbiol. 2020;15:1571–82.10.2217/fmb-2020-0118Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[68] Tai TT, Wu TJ, Wu HD, Tsai YC, Wang HT, Wang AM, et al. A strategy to treat COVID-19 disease with targeted delivery of inhalable liposomal hydroxychloroquine: a preclinical pharmacokinetic study. Clin Transl Sci. 2021;14:132–6.10.1111/cts.12923Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[69] Yang D. Application of nanotechnology in the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Nanomed. 2021;16:623–49.10.2147/IJN.S296383Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[70] Costantino HR, Illum L, Brandt G, Johnson PH, Quay SC. Intranasal delivery: Physicochemical and therapeutic aspects. Int J Pharm. 2007;337:1–24.10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.03.025Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[71] Mascio MD. Towards COVID-19 prophylaxis: an AIDS preclinical research perspective. Cancer Stud Ther. 2020;5:1–10.Suche in Google Scholar

[72] Hoffmann M, Kleine-Weber H, Schroeder S, Krüger N, Herrler T, Erichsen S, et al. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181:271–80.e8.10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[73] Ou X, Liu Y, Lei X, Li P, Mi D, Ren L, et al. Characterization of spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 on virus entry and its immune cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020;11:1620.10.1038/s41467-020-15562-9Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[74] Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020;579:270–3.10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[75] Hasan A, Paray BA, Hussain A, Qadir FA, Attar F, Aziz FM, et al. A review on the cleavage priming of the spike protein on coronavirus by angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 and furin. J Biomol Struct Dyn. 2021;39:3025–33.10.1080/07391102.2020.1754293Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[76] Medhi R, Srinoi P, Ngo N, Tran H-V, Lee TR. Nanoparticle-based strategies to combat COVID-19. ACS Appl Nano Mater. 2020;3:8557–80.10.1021/acsanm.0c01978Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[77] Gil C, Ginex T, Maestro I, Nozal V, Barrado-Gil L, Cuesta-Geijo MÁ, et al. COVID-19: drug targets and potential treatments. J Med Chem. 2020;63:12359–86.10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00606Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[78] Kim C-H. Anti–SARS-CoV-2 natural products as potentially therapeutic agents. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:1–27.10.3389/fphar.2021.590509Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[79] Miranda RR, Ferreira NN, Souza EE, Lins PMP, Ferreira LMB, Krüger A, et al. Modulating fingolimod (FTY720) anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity using a PLGA-based drug delivery system. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2022;5:3371–83.10.1021/acsabm.2c00349Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[80] Halevas E, Mavroidi B, Kokotidou C, Moschona A, Sagnou M, Mitraki A, et al. Remdesivir-loaded bis-MPA hyperbranched dendritic nanocarriers for pulmonary delivery. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2022;75:103625.10.1016/j.jddst.2022.103625Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[81] Ucar B, Acar T, Arayici PP, Derman S. A nanotechnological approach in the current therapy of COVID-19: model drug oseltamivir-phosphate loaded PLGA nanoparticles targeted with spike protein binder peptide of SARS-CoV-2. Nanotechnology. 2021;32(48):485601.10.1088/1361-6528/ac1c22Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[82] Abdel-Bar HM, Abdallah IA, Fayed MAA, Moatasim Y, Mostafa A, El-Behairy MF, et al. Lipid polymer hybrid nanocarriers as a combinatory platform for different anti-SARS-CoV-2 drugs supported by computational studies. RSC Adv. 2021;11:28876–91.10.1039/D1RA04576HSuche in Google Scholar

[83] Vartak R, Patil SM, Saraswat A, Patki M, Kunda NK, Patel K. Aerosolized nanoliposomal carrier of remdesivir: an effective alternative for COVID-19 treatment in vitro. Nanomedicine. 2021;16:1187–202.10.2217/nnm-2020-0475Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[84] Brunaugh AD, Seo H, Warnken Z, Ding L, Seo SH, Smyth HDC. Development and evaluation of inhalable composite niclosamide-lysozyme particles: A broad-spectrum, patient-adaptable treatment for coronavirus infections and sequalae. PLOS ONE. 2021;16:e0246803.10.1371/journal.pone.0246803Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[85] de Barros AO, Pinto SR, dos Reis SR, Ricci-Junior E, Alencar LM, Bellei NC, et al. Polymeric nanoparticles and nanomicelles of hydroxychloroquine co-loaded with azithromycin potentiate anti-SARS-CoV-2 effect. J Nanostruct Chem. 2023;13:263–81.10.1007/s40097-022-00476-3Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[86] Surnar B, Kamran MZ, Shah AS, Dhar S. Clinically approved antiviral drug in an orally administrable nanoparticle for COVID-19. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 2020;3:1371–80.10.1021/acsptsci.0c00179Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[87] Alhakamy NA, Ahmed OAA, Ibrahim TS, Aldawsari HM, Eljaaly K, Fahmy UA, et al. Evaluation of the antiviral activity of sitagliptin-glatiramer acetate nano-conjugates against SARS-CoV-2 virus. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14:1–15. 10.3390/ph14030178.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[88] Zoulikha M, Huang F, Wu Z, He W. COVID-19 inflammation and implications in drug delivery. J Control Release. 2022;346:260–74.10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.04.027Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[89] Gedefaw L, Ullah S, Lee TMH, Yip SP, Huang CL. Targeting inflammasome activation in COVID-19: delivery of RNA interference-based therapeutic molecules. Biomedicines. 2021;9:1–28.10.3390/biomedicines9121823Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[90] Idris A, Davis A, Supramaniam A, Acharya D, Kelly G, Tayyar Y, et al. A SARS-CoV-2 targeted siRNA-nanoparticle therapy for COVID-19. Mol Ther. 2021;29:2219–26.10.1016/j.ymthe.2021.05.004Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[91] Mehta M, Prasher P, Sharma M, Shastri MD, Khurana N, Vyas M, et al. Advanced drug delivery systems can assist in targeting coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a hypothesis. Med Hypotheses. 2020;144:110254.10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110254Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[92] Petcherski A, Tingley BM, Martin A, Adams S, Brownstein AJ, Steinberg RA, et al. ENDO-lysosome-targeted nanoparticle delivery of antiviral therapy for coronavirus infections. bioRxiv. 2023;2023.05.08.539898.10.1101/2023.05.08.539898Suche in Google Scholar

[93] McHugh KJ. Employing drug delivery strategies to create safe and effective pharmaceuticals for COVID-19. Bioeng Transl Med . 2020;5(2):e10163.10.1002/btm2.10163Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[94] Reçber T, Timur SS, Erdoğan Kablan S, Yalçın F, Karabulut TC, Neslihan Gürsoy R, et al. A stability indicating RP-HPLC method for determination of the COVID-19 drug molnupiravir applied using nanoformulations in permeability studies. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2022;214:114693.10.1016/j.jpba.2022.114693Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[95] Abdellatif AAH, Alsowinea AF. Approved and marketed nanoparticles for disease targeting and applications in COVID-19. Nanotechnol Rev. 2021;10:1941–77.10.1515/ntrev-2021-0115Suche in Google Scholar

[96] Frank N, Dickinson D, Lovett G, Liu Y, Yu H, Cai J, et al. Evaluation of novel nasal mucoadhesive nanoformulations containing lipid-soluble EGCG for long COVID treatment. Pharmaceutics. 2024;16:1–14. 10.3390/pharmaceutics16060791.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[97] Al Ashmawy AZG, Balata GF. Formulation and in vitro characterization of nanoemulsions containing remdesivir or licorice extract: a potential subcutaneous injection for coronavirus treatment. Colloids Surf B: Biointerfaces. 2024;234:113703.10.1016/j.colsurfb.2023.113703Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[98] Germain M, Caputo F, Metcalfe S, Tosi G, Spring K, Åslund AKO, et al. Delivering the power of nanomedicine to patients today. J Control Release. 2020;326:164–71.10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.07.007Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[99] Ali IH, Elkashlan AM, Hammad MA, Hamdi M. Antimicrobial and anti-SARS-CoV-2 activities of smart daclatasvir-chitosan/gelatin nanoparticles-in-PLLA nanofibrous medical textiles; in vitro, and in vivo study. Int J Biol Macromol. 2023;253:127350.10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127350Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[100] Yang H, Zhou J-N, Zhang X-M, Ling D-D, Sun Y-B, Li C-Y, et al. Nanoengineered red blood cells loaded with TMPRSS2 and cathepsin l inhibitors block SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus entry into lung ACE2+ cells. Adv Mater. 2024;36:2310306.10.1002/adma.202310306Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[101] Vaiss DP, Rodrigues JL, Yurgel VC, do Carmo Guedes F, da Matta LLM, Barros PAB, et al. Curcumin and quercetin co-encapsulated in nanoemulsions for nasal administration: a promising therapeutic and prophylactic treatment for viral respiratory infections. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2024;197:106766.10.1016/j.ejps.2024.106766Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[102] Kamat S, Kumari M, Jayabaskaran C. Nano-engineered tools in the diagnosis, therapeutics, prevention, and mitigation of SARS-CoV-2. J Control Release. 2021;338:813–36.10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.08.046Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[103] Witika BA, Makoni PA, Mweetwa LL, Ntemi PV, Chikukwa MTR, Matafwali SK, et al. Nano-biomimetic drug delivery vehicles: potential approaches for COVID-19 treatment. Molecules. 2020;25:1–20.10.3390/molecules25245952Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[104] Al-Karmalawy AA, El-Gamil DS, El-Shesheny R, Sharaky M, Alnajjar R, Kutkat O, et al. Design and statistical optimisation of emulsomal nanoparticles for improved anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of N-(5-nitrothiazol-2-yl)-carboxamido candidates: in vitro and in silico studies. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem. 2023;38:2202357.10.1080/14756366.2023.2202357Suche in Google Scholar

[105] Yoosefian M, Sabaghian H. Silver nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems in the fight against COVID-19: enhancing efficacy, reducing toxicity and improving drug bioavailability. J Drug Target. 2024;32(7):794–806.10.1080/1061186X.2024.2356147Suche in Google Scholar

[106] Chen J, Wang Y, Wu C, Xiao Y, Zhu Y. A coronavirus-mimic mesoporous silica nanosystem enables efficient targeted delivery of siRNA for anti-SARS-CoV‐2. Appl Mater Today. 2023;35:101952.10.1016/j.apmt.2023.101952Suche in Google Scholar

[107] Li R, Hu X, Li W, Wu W, Xu J, Lin Y, et al. Nebulized pH-responsive nanospray combined with pentoxifylline and edaravone to lungs for efficient treatments of acute respiratory distress syndrome. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024;16:8310–20.10.1021/acsami.3c15691Suche in Google Scholar

[108] Kashyap D, Tuli HS, Yerer MB, Sharma A, Sak K, Srivastava S, et al. Natural product-based nanoformulations for cancer therapy: Opportunities and challenges. Sem Cancer Biol. 2019;69:5–23.10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.08.014Suche in Google Scholar

[109] Kashyap D, Sharma A, Tuli HS, Sak K, Punia S, Mukherjee TK. Kaempferol – a dietary anticancer molecule with multiple mechanisms of action: Recent trends and advancements. J Funct Foods. 2017;30:203–19.10.1016/j.jff.2017.01.022Suche in Google Scholar

[110] Harborne JB. Classes and functions of secondary products from plants. Chemicals from plants. London, UK: World Scientific/Imperial College Press; 1999. p. 1–25.10.1142/9789812817273_0001Suche in Google Scholar

[111] Nile SH, Kai G. Recent clinical trials on natural products and traditional chinese medicine combating the COVID-19. Indian J Microbiol. 2021;61:10–5.10.1007/s12088-020-00919-xSuche in Google Scholar

[112] Park HH, Kim H, Lee HS, Seo EU, Kim J-E, Lee J-H, et al. PEGylated nanoparticle albumin-bound steroidal ginsenoside derivatives ameliorate SARS-CoV-2-mediated hyper-inflammatory responses. Biomaterials. 2021;273:120827.10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120827Suche in Google Scholar

[113] Loutfy SA, Abdel-Salam AI, Moatasim Y, Gomaa MR, Abdel Fattah NF, Emam MH, et al. Antiviral activity of chitosan nanoparticles encapsulating silymarin (Sil–CNPs) against SARS-CoV-2 (in silico and in vitro study). RSC Adv. 2022;12:15775–86.10.1039/D2RA00905FSuche in Google Scholar

[114] Sharma VK, Prateeksha, Singh SP, Singh BN, Rao CV, Barik SK. Nanocurcumin potently Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-induced cytokine storm by deactivation of MAPK/NF-κB signaling in epithelial cells. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2022;5:483–91.10.1021/acsabm.1c00874Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[115] Saber-Moghaddam N, Salari S, Hejazi S, Amini M, Taherzadeh Z, Eslami S, et al. Oral nano-curcumin formulation efficacy in management of mild to moderate hospitalized coronavirus disease-19 patients: an open label nonrandomized clinical trial. Phytother Res. 2021;35:2616–23.10.1002/ptr.7004Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[116] Tahmasebi S, El-Esawi MA, Mahmoud ZH, Timoshin A, Valizadeh H, Roshangar L, et al. Immunomodulatory effects of nanocurcumin on Th17 cell responses in mild and severe COVID-19 patients. J Cell Physiol. 2021;236:5325–38.10.1002/jcp.30233Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[117] León-Gutiérrez G, Elste JE, Cabello-Gutiérrez C, Millán-Pacheco C, Martínez-Gómez MH, Mejía-Alvarez R, et al. A potent virucidal activity of functionalized TiO2 nanoparticles adsorbed with flavonoids against SARS-CoV-2. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2022;106:5987–6002.10.1007/s00253-022-12112-9Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[118] Mahmoud DB, Ismail WM, Moatasim Y, Kutkat O, ElMeshad AN, Ezzat SM, et al. Delineating a potent antiviral activity of cuphea ignea extract loaded nano-formulation against SARS-CoV-2: In silico and in vitro studies. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol. 2021;66:102845.10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102845Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[119] Refaey MS AA, Fayed M, Kutkat O, Moatasim Y, Sameh Tolba N, Anis A, et al. Bio-guided chemical characterization and nano-formulation studies of selected edible volatile oils with potential antibacterial and anti-SARS-CoV-2 activities. Arab J Chem. 2023;16:104813.10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104813Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[120] Wang Z, Ye F, Feng Y, Xiao W, Song H, Zhao L, et al. Discovery and nanosized preparations of (S,R)-tylophorine malate as novel anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents. ACS Med Chem Lett. 2021;12:1840–6.10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00481Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[121] Zakaria MY, Abd El-Halim SM, Beshay BY, Zaki I, Abourehab MAS. ‘Poly phenolic phytoceutical loaded nano-bilosomes for enhanced caco-2 cell permeability and SARS-CoV 2 antiviral activity’: in-vitro and insilico studies. Drug Deliv. 2023;30:2162157.10.1080/10717544.2022.2162157Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[122] Fang J-Y, Huang K-Y, Wang T-H, Lin Z-C, Chen C-C, Chang S-Y, et al. Development of nanoparticles incorporated with quercetin and ACE2-membrane as a novel therapy for COVID-19. J Nanobiotechnol. 2024;22:169.10.1186/s12951-024-02435-2Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[123] Almeida LF, Gil GA, Moraes LN, Furtado FB, Kakuda L, Grotto RMT, et al. Nanostructured lipid carriers loaded with essential oils: a strategy against SARS-CoV-2. J Microencapsul. 2024;41:284–95.10.1080/02652048.2024.2348463Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[124] El-Masry RM, Al-Karmalawy AA, Alnajjar R, Mahmoud SH, Mostafa A, Kadry HH, et al. Newly synthesized series of oxoindole–oxadiazole conjugates as potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents: in silico and in vitro studies. N J Chem. 2022;46:5078–90.10.1039/D1NJ04816CSuche in Google Scholar

[125] Zielińska A, Eder P, Karczewski J, Szalata M, Hryhorowicz S, Wielgus K, et al. Tocilizumab-coated solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with cannabidiol as a novel drug delivery strategy for treating COVID-19: a review. Front Immunol. 2023;14:1–20.10.3389/fimmu.2023.1147991Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[126] Chen L, Liang J. An overview of functional nanoparticles as novel emerging antiviral therapeutic agents. Mater Sci Eng: C. 2020;112:110924.10.1016/j.msec.2020.110924Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[127] Luceri A, Francese R, Lembo D, Ferraris M, Balagna C. Silver nanoparticles: review of antiviral properties, mechanism of action and applications. Microorganisms. 2023;11:1–32. 10.3390/microorganisms11030629.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[128] Michalet X, Pinaud FF, Bentolila LA, Tsay JM, Doose S, Li JJ, et al. Quantum dots for live cells, in vivo imaging, and diagnostics. Science. 2005;307:538–44.10.1126/science.1104274Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[129] Rabiee N, Ahmadi S, Soufi GJ, Hekmatnia A, Khatami M, Fatahi Y, et al. Quantum dots against SARS-CoV-2: diagnostic and therapeutic potentials. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2022;97:1640–54.10.1002/jctb.7036Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[130] Fang M, Peng CW, Pang DW, Li Y. Quantum dots for cancer research: current status, remaining issues, and future perspectives. Cancer Biol Med. 2012;9:151–63.Suche in Google Scholar

[131] Garg P, Sangam S, Kochhar D, Pahari S, Kar C, Mukherjee M. Exploring the role of triazole functionalized heteroatom co-doped carbon quantum dots against human coronaviruses. Nano Today. 2020;35:101001.10.1016/j.nantod.2020.101001Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[132] Gorshkov K, Susumu K, Chen J, Xu M, Pradhan M, Zhu W, et al. Quantum dot-conjugated SARS-CoV-2 spike pseudo-virions enable tracking of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 binding and endocytosis. ACS Nano. 2020;14:12234–47.10.1021/acsnano.0c05975Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[133] Ahmadi S, Ebrahimi Warkiani M, Rabiee M, Iravani S, Rabiee N. Carbon-based nanomaterials against SARS-CoV-2: Therapeutic and diagnostic applications. OpenNano. 2023;10:100121.10.1016/j.onano.2023.100121Suche in Google Scholar

[134] Manivannan S, Ponnuchamy K. Quantum dots as a promising agent to combat COVID-19. Appl Organomet Chem. 2020;34:e5887.10.1002/aoc.5887Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[135] Zare M, Sillanpää M, Ramakrishna S. Essential role of quantum science and nanoscience in antiviral strategies for COVID-19. Mater Adv. 2021;2:2188–99.10.1039/D1MA00060HSuche in Google Scholar

[136] Xue Y, Liu C, Andrews G, Wang J, Ge Y. Recent advances in carbon quantum dots for virus detection, as well as inhibition and treatment of viral infection. Nano Convergence. 2022;9:15.10.1186/s40580-022-00307-9Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[137] Singh P, Mijakovic I. Strong antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles obtained by the green synthesis in viridibacillus sp. extracts. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:1–13.10.3389/fmicb.2022.820048Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[138] Marimuthu S, Antonisamy AJ, Malayandi S, Rajendran K, Tsai PC, Pugazhendhi A, et al. Silver nanoparticles in dye effluent treatment: a review on synthesis, treatment methods, mechanisms, photocatalytic degradation, toxic effects and mitigation of toxicity. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2020;205:111823.10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.111823Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[139] Huy TQ, Hien Thanh NT, Thuy NT, Chung PV, Hung PN, Le A-T, et al. Cytotoxicity and antiviral activity of electrochemical – synthesized silver nanoparticles against poliovirus. J Virol Methods. 2017;241:52–7.10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.12.015Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[140] Sreekanth TVM, Nagajyothi PC, Muthuraman P, Enkhtaivan G, Vattikuti SVP, Tettey CO, et al. Ultra-sonication-assisted silver nanoparticles using Panax ginseng root extract and their anti-cancer and antiviral activities. J Photochem Photobiol B: Biol. 2018;188:6–11.10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2018.08.013Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[141] Pilaquinga F, Morey J, Torres M, Seqqat R, Piña MD. Silver nanoparticles as a potential treatment against SARS-CoV-2: A review. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2021;13:e1707.10.1002/wnan.1707Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[142] Yang XX, Li CM, Huang CZ. Curcumin modified silver nanoparticles for highly efficient inhibition of respiratory syncytial virus infection. Nanoscale. 2016;8:3040–8.10.1039/C5NR07918GSuche in Google Scholar

[143] He Q, Lu J, Liu N, Lu W, Li Y, Shang C, et al. Antiviral properties of silver nanoparticles against SARS-CoV-2: Effects of surface coating and particle size. Nanomaterials (Basel). 2022;12:1–13.10.3390/nano12060990Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[144] Jeremiah SS, Miyakawa K, Morita T, Yamaoka Y, Ryo A. Potent antiviral effect of silver nanoparticles on SARS-CoV-2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2020;533:195–200.10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.09.018Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[145] Allawadhi P, Singh V, Khurana A, Khurana I, Allwadhi S, Kumar P, et al. Silver nanoparticle based multifunctional approach for combating COVID-19. Sens Int. 2021;2:100101.10.1016/j.sintl.2021.100101Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[146] Gherasim O, Puiu RA, Bîrcă AC, Burdușel AC, Grumezescu AM. An updated review on silver nanoparticles in biomedicine. Nanomaterials. 2020;10:1–44.10.3390/nano10112318Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[147] Gupta A, Moyano DF, Parnsubsakul A, Papadopoulos A, Wang L-S, Landis RF, et al. Ultrastable and biofunctionalizable gold nanoparticles. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2016;8:14096–101.10.1021/acsami.6b02548Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[148] Bartczak D, Muskens OL, Sanchez-Elsner T, Kanaras AG, Millar TM. Manipulation of in vitro angiogenesis using peptide-coated gold nanoparticles. ACS Nano. 2013;7:5628–36.10.1021/nn402111zSuche in Google Scholar PubMed

[149] Pramanik A, Gao Y, Patibandla S, Mitra D, McCandless MG, Fassero LA, et al. The rapid diagnosis and effective inhibition of coronavirus using spike antibody attached gold nanoparticles. Nanoscale Adv. 2021;3:1588–96.10.1039/D0NA01007CSuche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[150] Groß R, Dias Loiola LM, Issmail L, Uhlig N, Eberlein V, Conzelmann C, et al. Macromolecular viral entry inhibitors as broad-spectrum first-line antivirals with activity against SARS-CoV-2. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2022;9:e2201378.10.1002/advs.202201378Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[151] Halder A, Das S, Ojha D, Chattopadhyay D, Mukherjee A. Highly monodispersed gold nanoparticles synthesis and inhibition of herpes simplex virus infections. Mater Sci Eng: C. 2018;89:413–21.10.1016/j.msec.2018.04.005Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[152] Wang J, Drelich AJ, Hopkins CM, Mecozzi S, Li L, Kwon G, et al. Gold nanoparticles in virus detection: Recent advances and potential considerations for SARS-CoV-2 testing development. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2022;14:e1754.10.1002/wnan.1754Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[153] Ionescu RE. Updates on the biofunctionalization of gold nanoparticles for the rapid and sensitive multiplatform diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 virus and its proteins: from computational models to validation in human samples. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:1–26. 10.3390/ijms24119249.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[154] Ghosal K, Sarkar K. Biomedical applications of graphene nanomaterials and beyond. ACS Biomater Sci Eng. 2018;4:2653–703.10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00376Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[155] Dave SH, Gong C, Robertson AW, Warner JH, Grossman JC. Chemistry and structure of graphene oxide via direct imaging. ACS Nano. 2016;10:7515–22.10.1021/acsnano.6b02391Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[156] Saxena S, Tyson TA, Negusse E. Investigation of the local structure of graphene oxide. J Phys Chem Lett. 2010;1:3433–7.10.1021/jz1014339Suche in Google Scholar

[157] Seifi T, Reza Kamali A. Antiviral performance of graphene-based materials with emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Med Drug Discov. 2021;11:100099.10.1016/j.medidd.2021.100099Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[158] Mohammadifar E, Ahmadi V, Gholami MF, Oehrl A, Kolyvushko O, Nie C, et al. Graphene-assisted synthesis of 2D polyglycerols as innovative platforms for multivalent virus interactions. Adv Funct Mater. 2021;31:2009003.10.1002/adfm.202009003Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[159] Srivastava AK, Dwivedi N, Dhand C, Khan R, Sathish N, Gupta MK, et al. Potential of graphene-based materials to combat COVID-19: properties, perspectives, and prospects. Mater Today Chem. 2020;18:100385.10.1016/j.mtchem.2020.100385Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[160] Liu S, Zeng TH, Hofmann M, Burcombe E, Wei J, Jiang R, et al. Antibacterial activity of graphite, graphite oxide, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene oxide: membrane and oxidative stress. ACS Nano. 2011;5:6971–80.10.1021/nn202451xSuche in Google Scholar PubMed

[161] Kumar Raghav P, Mohanty S. Are graphene and graphene-derived products capable of preventing COVID-19 infection? Med Hypotheses. 2020;144:110031.10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110031Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[162] Chung HC, Nguyen VG, Kim CU, Do HQ, Park BK, Park YH, et al. Application of nano-graphene oxide as nontoxic disinfectant against alpha and betacoronaviruses. Vet Med Sci. 2021;7:2434–9.10.1002/vms3.584Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[163] Bałaban J, Wierzbicki M, Zielińska-Górska M, Sosnowska M, Daniluk K, Jaworski S, et al. Graphene oxide decreases pro-inflammatory proteins production in skeletal muscle cells exposed to SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Nanotechnol Sci Appl. 2023;16:1–18.10.2147/NSA.S391761Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[164] Hashmi A, Nayak V, Singh KRB, Jain B, Baid M, Alexis F, et al. Potentialities of graphene and its allied derivatives to combat against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Mater Today Adv. 2022;13:100208.10.1016/j.mtadv.2022.100208Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[165] Donskyi IS, Azab W, Cuellar-Camacho JL, Guday G, Lippitz A, Unger WES, et al. Functionalized nanographene sheets with high antiviral activity through synergistic electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Nanoscale. 2019;11:15804–9.10.1039/C9NR05273ASuche in Google Scholar PubMed

[166] Palmieri V, Papi M. Can graphene take part in the fight against COVID-19? Nano Today. 2020;33:100883.10.1016/j.nantod.2020.100883Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[167] Abeer MM, Rewatkar P, Qu Z, Talekar M, Kleitz F, Schmid R, et al. Silica nanoparticles: A promising platform for enhanced oral delivery of macromolecules. J Control Release. 2020;326:544–55.10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.07.021Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[168] AbouAitah KEA, Farghali AA, Swiderska-Sroda A, Lojkowski W, Razin AM. Mesoporous silica materials in drug delivery system: pH/glutathione-responsive release of poorly water-soluble pro-drug quercetin from two and three-dimensional pore-structure nanoparticles. J Nanomed Nanotechnol. 2016;7:1–12.10.4172/2157-7439.1000360Suche in Google Scholar

[169] AbouAitah K, Hassan HA, Swiderska-Sroda A, Gohar L, Shaker OG, Wojnarowicz J, et al. Targeted nano-drug delivery of colchicine against colon cancer cells by means of mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Cancers. 2020;12:1–30.10.3390/cancers12010144Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[170] AbouAitah K, Swiderska-Sroda A, Kandeil A, Salman AMM, Wojnarowicz J, Ali MA, et al. Virucidal action against avian influenza H5N1 virus and immunomodulatory effects of nanoformulations consisting of mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with natural prodrugs. Int J Nanomed. 2020;15:5181–202.10.2147/IJN.S247692Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[171] AbouAitah K, Lojkowski W. Delivery of natural agents by means of mesoporous silica nanospheres as a promising anticancer strategy. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13:143.10.3390/pharmaceutics13020143Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[172] Ambrogio MW, Thomas CR, Zhao Y-L, Zink JI, Stoddart JF. Mechanized silica nanoparticles: a new frontier in theranostic nanomedicine. Acc Chem Res. 2011;44:903–13.10.1021/ar200018xSuche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[173] Aquib M, Farooq MA, Banerjee P, Akhtar F, Filli MS, Boakye-Yiadom KO, et al. Targeted and stimuli–responsive mesoporous silica nanoparticles for drug delivery and theranostic use. J Biomed Mater Res Part A. 2019;107:2643–66.10.1002/jbm.a.36770Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[174] Argyo C, Weiss V, Bräuchle C, Bein T. Multifunctional mesoporous silica nanoparticles as a universal platform for drug delivery. Chem Mater. 2014;26:435–51.10.1021/cm402592tSuche in Google Scholar

[175] Assis M, Simoes LGP, Tremiliosi GC, Coelho D, Minozzi DT, Santos RI, et al. SiO2-Ag composite as a highly virucidal material: a roadmap that rapidly eliminates SARS-CoV-2. Nanomaterials. 2021;11:1–19. 10.3390/nano11030638.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[176] Hirao R, Shigetoh K, Inagaki S, Ishida N. Virus inactivation pased on optimal surfactant reservoir of mesoporous silica. ACS Appl Bio Mater. 2023;6:1032–40.10.1021/acsabm.2c00901Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[177] Tng DJH, Low JGH. Current status of silica-based nanoparticles as therapeutics and its potential as therapies against viruses. Antivir Res. 2023;210:105488.10.1016/j.antiviral.2022.105488Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[178] Zhang X, Zhang X, Xu A, Yu M, Xu Y, Xu Y, et al. Aptamer-gated mesoporous silica nanoparticles for N protein triggered release of remdesivir and treatment of novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Biosensors. 2022;12:1–10. 10.3390/bios12110950.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[179] Duan Y, Wang S, Zhang Q, Gao W, Zhang L. Nanoparticle approaches against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci. 2021;25:100964.10.1016/j.cossms.2021.100964Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[180] Ren M, Wang Y, Luo Y, Yao X, Yang Z, Zhang P, et al. Functionalized nanoparticles in Prevention and targeted therapy of viral diseases with neurotropism properties, special insight on COVID-19. Front Microbiol. 2021;12:767104.10.3389/fmicb.2021.767104Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[181] Neufurth M, Wang X, Tolba E, Lieberwirth I, Wang S, Schröder HC, et al. The inorganic polymer, polyphosphate, blocks binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to ACE2 receptor at physiological concentrations. Biochem Pharmacol. 2020;182:114215.10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114215Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[182] Cai X, Chen M, Prominski A, Lin Y, Ankenbruck N, Rosenberg J, et al. A multifunctional neutralizing antibody-conjugated nanoparticle inhibits and inactivates SARS-CoV-2. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2022;9:e2103240.10.1002/advs.202103240Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[183] Łoczechin A, Séron K, Barras A, Giovanelli E, Belouzard S, Chen Y-T, et al. Functional carbon quantum dots as medical countermeasures to human coronavirus. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2019;11:42964–74.10.1021/acsami.9b15032Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[184] Pilaquinga F, Bosch R, Morey J, Bastidas-Caldes C, Torres M, Toscano F, et al. High in vitro activity of gold and silver nanoparticles from solanum mammosum L. against SARS-CoV-2 surrogate Phi6 and viral model PhiX174. Nanotechnology. 2023;34:175705.10.1088/1361-6528/acb558Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[185] Al-Sanea MM, Abelyan N, Abdelgawad MA, Musa A, Ghoneim MM, Al-Warhi T, et al. Strawberry and ginger silver nanoparticles as potential inhibitors for SARS-CoV-2 assisted by in silico modeling and metabolic profiling. Antibiotics. 2021;10:1–19. 10.3390/antibiotics10070824.Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[186] Farfán-Castro S, García-Soto MJ, Comas-García M, Arévalo-Villalobos JI, Palestino G, González-Ortega O, et al. Synthesis and immunogenicity assessment of a gold nanoparticle conjugate for the delivery of a peptide from SARS-CoV-2. Nanomedicine. 2021;34:102372.10.1016/j.nano.2021.102372Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[187] Mesias VSD, Zhu H, Tang X, Dai X, Guo Y, Liu W, et al. Effective ACE2 peptide–nanoparticle conjugation and its binding with the SARS-Cov-2 RBD quantified by dynamic light scattering. Chem Commun. 2021;57:6979–82.10.1039/D1CC02267ASuche in Google Scholar

[188] Chen M, Rosenberg J, Cai X, Lee ACH, Shi J, Nguyen M, et al. Nanotraps for the containment and clearance of SARS-CoV-2. Matter. 2021;4:2059–82.10.1016/j.matt.2021.04.005Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

[189] Zhao Z, Xiao Y, Xu L, Liu Y, Jiang G, Wang W, et al. Glycyrrhizic acid nanoparticles as antiviral and anti-inflammatory agents for COVID-19 treatment. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13:20995–1006.10.1021/acsami.1c02755Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[190] Qiao L, Chen M, Li S, Hu J, Gong C, Zhang Z, et al. A peptide-based subunit candidate vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 delivered by biodegradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles induced high humoral and cellular immunity in mice. Biomater Sci. 2021;9:7287–96.10.1039/D1BM01060CSuche in Google Scholar

[191] Costa AL, Blosi M, Brigliadori A, Zanoni I, Ortelli S, Simeone FC, et al. Eco design for Ag-based solutions against SARS-CoV-2 and E. coli. Environ Sci: Nano. 2022;9:4295–304.10.1039/D2EN00178KSuche in Google Scholar

[192] Alrabayah IN, Elhawary SS, Kandil ZA, El-Kadder EMA, Moemen YS, Saleh AM, et al. Green synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles based on cestrum diurnum L. of potential antiviral activity against human corona 229-E Virus. Molecules. 2022;28:1–22.10.3390/molecules28010266Suche in Google Scholar PubMed PubMed Central

Received: 2024-02-27
Revised: 2024-07-28
Accepted: 2024-09-08
Published Online: 2024-10-22

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0102
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
SARS-CoV-2; antiviral; nanoformulations; nanoparticles; nanomedicine; natural pro-drugs
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
Jetzt anmelden und 20% sparen
Institutioneller Zugang
Wie funktioniert Authentifizierung?
Haben Sie eine Idee, wie wir unsere Website verbessern können?
Bitte schreiben Sie uns.
© 2025 De Gruyter Brill
Heruntergeladen am 7.9.2025 von https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0102/html
Button zum nach oben scrollen