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Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review

  • Derrick Mirindi EMAIL logo , James Hunter , Frederic Mirindi , David Sinkhonde and Fatemeh Yazdandoust
Published/Copyright: November 19, 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
From the journal Nanotechnology Reviews Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

Under the turbulence of global change, the production of boards has been influenced by the rising demand and price of wood-based materials. To improve the structural performance of boards, reinforcement materials have been added, such as nanoparticles. The purpose of this review is to explore the application of nanomaterials, including nano-SiO2, nano-Al2O3, nano-ZnO, nano-Fe2O3, nano-cellulose, nano-lignin, and nano-chitosan, to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of particleboards. These nanoparticles have demonstrated their ability to reduce formaldehyde emissions, enhance the dimensional stability, bending strength, bending stiffness, fire resistance, and resistance to thermal conductivity in board production. For example, the addition of nano-SiO2, known for its hydrophilicity, attracts and holds water molecules and acts as a thermal barrier due to its high melting point and low thermal conductivity. In contrast, nano-Al2O3 is known for its high compressive strength (up to 3 GPa), hardness strength (9 Mohs scale), and high thermal conductivity, which helps to dissipate heat more effectively. This comprehensive evaluation brings together recent advances in producing particleboards and medium density fiberboard reinforced with nanoparticles, which are essential for future research and industry applications. The study emphasizes how innovative nanoparticles can contribute to sustainable urban development and construction practices, reduce deforestation, preserve natural habitats, and provide affordable housing. The research indicates that nanoparticle boards meet (e.g., nanoclay and nanoalumina panels) and in some cases exceed the minimum requirement for general-purpose panels set standards such as the ANSI/A208.1-1999, including water absorption of 8%, thickness swelling of 3% and EN 312 for the bending strength (15–16 MPa) and bending stiffness (2.2–2.4 GPa) for P4 and P6 boards, respectively. These results support the transformative power of nanomaterials in promoting a more sustainable and future solution for boards in the building construction industry.

Keywords: nanoparticle; board; water absorption; thickness swelling; modulus of rupture; modulus of elasticity

1 Introduction

Population growth, climate change, energy crisis, deforestation, and forest degradation are significant factors contributing to the rise in global greenhouse gas emissions [1,2,3,4]. A study in the New England’s Forest highlights that the demand for wood products exacerbates these issues, especially when it comes to timber harvesting, which can result in forests shifting from net carbon sinks to net carbon sources, potentially emitting up to 909 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent by 2060 [5]. Demand for wood products often exceeds the available supply, driving up prices. Moreover, this demand, particularly for construction purposes, contributes to changes in land use [6]. The projected growth of the construction industry, driven by future population trends, is expected to further fuel the demand for wood products [7]. However, if managed sustainably, this increased demand can help store CO2 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as wood products sequester carbon and require less energy to produce compared to materials such as concrete and steel.

On the other hand, in the construction industry, concerns have arisen due to formaldehyde emissions from conventional particleboards and medium density fiberboard (MDF), which are mostly made of wood fibers and urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin and have been reported to have negative effects on human health [8,9]. Indeed, traditional particleboards made with UF and wood fibers, when installed in kitchen or bathroom countertops, have a very little moisture resistance because water comes into permanent contact with boards. Over time, they swell, break apart, and release formaldehyde, which is negative for human health and leads to cancer in the human body, causes eye irritation and nausea, and affects upper respiratory system and nervous system [10,11]. Indeed, Hosseini and Fadaei [12] demonstrated that particleboards made from chips of mixed wood species and UF at a thickness swelling (TS) of 30% after 24 h can have formaldehyde emissions up to 0.3 mg/L when tested using the desiccator method according to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D5582 [13]. Also, according to the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, particleboards, MDF, and hardwood plywood made with a veneer core or composite core typically have formaldehyde emissions below 0.09, 0.13, 0.11, and 0.05 ppm, respectively [14].

MDF and particleboards differ in appearance, density, strength, durability, and moisture absorption. In contrast to particleboard, which is made with coarsely ground recycled, generally wood shavings, sawdust, and chips, is less strong and has less water resistance, MDF, known for its good water resistance, consists of wood fibers of the same size with a smooth finish [15]. Integrating nanomaterial reinforcement such as nano-SiO2, nano-Al2O3, nano-ZnO, nano-CaSiCO3, and nanocellulose in particleboard production for structural purposes is important for sustainable alternatives in board manufacturing leading to affordable housing. Nanoparticles exist in various chemical compositions, such as micelles, metal oxides, synthetic polymers, and large biomolecules. Each of these materials possesses distinct chemical compositions, which can be examined using various techniques such as X-ray fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) [16]. The use of these nanoparticles, which typically range in size from 1 to 100 nm, has shown promise in reducing formaldehyde emissions, improving bending strength and stiffness, and reducing the TS percentage. Wen et al. [17] demonstrated that adding 3% (mass fraction) of nano-SiO2 particles improves the mechanical properties of gypsum particleboard production. Similarly, Karkoodi et al. [18] discovered that incorporating various concentrations of nano-Al2O3 in the production of MDF leads to the creation of high-performance particleboards.

This research focuses on investigating the use of nanomaterial reinforcement in addressing three main issues. The first is the insufficient mechanical strength and bonding performance of particleboards that can be addressed by the resin’s interaction with nanoparticles during board production, which significantly improves in properties. The second, nanoparticle technology, shows promise for enhancing the durability of particleboards and MDF by improving their dimensional stability. Finally, the absence of guidance for structural applications can be addressed by analyzing the connections between nanoparticle characteristics (density, electrical conductivity, melting point, etc.) with the bonding resin, facilitating the classification, use, and grade of nanoparticle board in building construction. This research provides valuable reference data for producing high-performance boards to meet the growing demand for engineered wood products in construction.

2 Nanoparticle boards

2.1 Metal oxide-based nanoparticle board

Metal oxide nanoparticles, such as nano- zinc oxide (ZnO) [19], nano-aluminum oxide (Al2O3) [20], nano-iron oxide (Fe2O3) [21], nano-silver (Ag) [22,23], nano-titanium oxide (TiO2), and nano-copper oxide (CuO) [22,23], are increasingly being utilized to enhance boards’ physical and mechanical properties. Furthermore, Ag has the highest density compared to ZnO, FeO3, Al2O3, and CuO with 5.9, 5.25, 3.987, and 6.31 g/cm3 as densities, respectively [24,25], while it has the lowest melting point with 1,974, 1,539, 2,072, and 1,201°C, respectively. Also, nanoparticles including ZnO, Al2O3, and CuO have thermal conductivity and electricity conductivity of 30 W/m K with high electron mobility and 401 W/m K and can be used as an electrical insulator, respectively. These properties have the potential to increase the boards’ quality in building production. Indeed, researchers have demonstrated that nanoparticles can be used as reinforcement in panel production. For instance, the interaction between nano-ZnO and UF resin primarily occurs through hydrogen bonding and acid-base interactions. The chemical structure of UF can be formed in the reaction below [26,27]:

NH 2 CONH 2 + CH 2 O → NH 2 CONHCH 2 OH

NH 2 CONHCH 2 OH + NH 2 CONH 2 → NH 2 CONHCH 2 NHCONH 2 + H 2 O

NH2CONHCH2OH has key functional groups: Carbonyl (C═O), amino (−NH₂), and hydroxyl (−OH). Indeed, the hydroxyl groups (−OH) on the surface of nano-ZnO can interact with the carbonyl (C═O) and amino (−NH2) groups of the UF resin, forming hydrogen bonds. The hydroxyl groups (−OH) on the surface of nano-ZnO can form hydrogen bonds with the carbonyl (C═O) and amino (−NH2) groups of the UF resin. Hydrogen bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom (H) bonded to an electronegative atom (X), such as oxygen (O) or nitrogen (N), interacts with another electronegative atom (Y) nearby. In this case, the hydrogen atoms (H) of the surface hydroxyl groups (−OH) on nano-ZnO can form hydrogen bonds (X–H···Y) with the oxygen atom (O) of the carbonyl group (C═O) and the nitrogen atom (N) of the amino group (−NH2) in the UF resin. This interaction improves the dispersion of nanoparticles within the resin matrix, leading to enhanced strength of the boards and reduced formaldehyde emissions [28,29,30].

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy provides insights into these interactions, with shifts in characteristic bands indicating interactions between ZnO nanoparticles and UF resin. These shifts suggest that ZnO acts as a Lewis acid, while the NH groups in the UF resin act as Lewis bases. This acid-base interaction increases cross-linkage density, providing stability to the zinc oxide nanoparticles within the UF resin matrix and enhancing mechanical strength and water resistance [31].

When added to particleboards or MDF, they have demonstrated the potential to improve not only mechanical but also heat transfer properties due to the high thermal conductivity of metal oxide nanoparticles, in particular nano-ZnO and nano-Al2O3, contributing to the boards’ durability and longevity [19,20]. They catalyze condensation reactions, ensure uniform curing, and increase cross-linking density. The catalyzing effect of metal oxide nanoparticles in panel production is primarily a chemical effect, with the physical effect of quicker warming playing a secondary role. The high thermal conductivity of nano-ZnO (49 W/m·K at 300 K and 10 W/m·K at 1,000 K) [32] and nano-Al2O3 (20–30 W/m·K with a pH level ranging between 8 and 10 at 25°C) [33] can contribute to faster warming of the mat during hot pressing in board production. Incorporating these nanoparticles into the UF resin can enhance heat transfer throughout the mat, resulting in more efficient and uniform curing of the resin. This faster heat distribution can lead to improved mechanical properties and reduced pressing time.

Because of their chemical properties, they create a compact, less porous structure, acting as a barrier to moisture penetration and reducing water absorption (WA) and TS. Additionally, nano-Al₂O₃ forms a protective layer, enhancing fire resistance in board production. On the other hand, nano-Ag particles have also been employed in particleboard production. They possess unique properties due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, which imparts antimicrobial characteristics to the particleboards and MDF. The high surface area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles (e.g., a particle of size 3 nm has 50% of its atoms on the surface) [34] such as nano-Ag enhances their antimicrobial efficacy by increasing the contact area and reactivity with bacterial cell membranes. This, in turn, facilitates the release of antimicrobial ions (Ag+) that interact with cellular components, disrupt metabolic processes, and cause oxidative stress, ultimately leading to cell death [35,36].

The incorporation of nano-Ag effectively inhibits the growth of microorganisms, thereby enhancing the particleboards’ resistance to biological degradation [22,23,37]. This is particularly advantageous in environments that demand high levels of hygiene, including healthcare facilities or food processing areas. Finally, nano-Cu has been used to fabricate panels. Indeed, the copper ions (Cu+/Cu2+) may form coordination complexes with the nitrogen atoms present in the UF resin during the fabrication process to bond together [38,39].

2.2 Calcium-based nanoparticle board

Calcium-based nanoparticles are used to fabricate particleboards and MDF to improve their physical and mechanical properties. These nanoparticles have unique characteristics that can positively impact the performance of particleboards. Studies have shown that incorporating nano-calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [40,41] and nano-calcium silicate (CaSiO3) [42] can increase the bending stiffness, bending strength, and internal bond (IB) strength, as well as improve the dimensional stability of particleboard and MDF. The physical and mechanical basis for the improvement in board properties when incorporating nano-CaCO₃ and nano-CaSiO₃ can be attributed to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, density, and thermal stability. For example, CaCO3 has a density of 2.71 g/cm³ and a melting point of 1,339°C, while CaSiO₃ has a density of 2.9 g/cm³ and a melting point of 1,540°C. By adding 1% nano-CaCO₃, it increases the bending strength and stiffness by 3% and 2%, respectively, while adding 3% increases the tensile strength by 30% [43]. Additionally, nano-CaCO3 and CaSiO3 can potentially enhance the fire resistance of boards. They can be used as insulators and have been reported to have a thermal conductivity of 3.14 and 1.5 W/m·K, respectively, improving fire resistance [44,45]. The basis for this improvement lies in the thermal decomposition of CaCO₃ at 1,339°C, which produces CaO and CO₂ [46,47]. This reaction is given in the equation below [46,47]:

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

The above reaction leads to the formation of a protective CaO-layer on the surface of the panel. The char layer acts as a thermal barrier, slowing down heat transfer and combustion [45]. Similarly, with a melting point of 1,540°C, CaSiO3 undergoes thermal decomposition at high temperatures, releasing CO2 and forming a protective layer of CaO and SiO2 which provides an effective thermal shield, improving the overall fire resistance of the particleboard [48,49].

2.3 Silica-based nanoparticle board

Nano-SiO2, also known as nano-silica or silica nanoparticles, an inorganic nanoparticle, refers to silicon dioxide particles with sizes in the nanometer range, typically less than 100 nm in diameter, exhibiting unique properties due to their small size. Adding nano-SiO₂ leads to improvements in the modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), and IB strength of both particleboards and MDF, as well as reduced WA and TS percentage.

The incorporation of nano-SiO2 can be attributed to the strong interfacial interactions between the nano-SiO2 particles, wood fibers, and polymer matrix (Si–O–Si). The high surface area-to-volume ratio of nano-SiO2 particles improves their reactivity up to 300 m2/g. These hydrogen bonding (Si–OH···O–C) interactions improve stress transfer and mechanical properties of the panels.

Indeed, the physical properties of nano-SiO2 such as its density (2.65 g/cm3), high melting point (1,713°C), and low thermal conductivity (1.4 W/m·K), contribute to the improvement in dimensional stability of the panels [50]. The well-dispersed nano-SiO2 particles fill voids and micropores within the wood fibers and at the fiber-matrix interface, creating a more compact and less porous structure.

Furthermore, nano-SiO₂ has been associated with improved fire retardancy, making it suitable for applications where fire safety is a concern [42,51]. The presence of nano-SiO2 in panels leads to stronger fire retardancy compared to panels without nanomaterials. The protective layer formed during combustion acts as a thermal barrier and slows down heat transfer more effectively when nano-SiO2 is incorporated. For example, when exposed to high temperatures, nano-SiO2 undergoes a reaction with hydrofluoric acid to form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4) and water (H2O). This reaction contributes to the release of non-combustible gases, further enhancing the fire resistance of the panels. Additionally, studies have shown that the incorporation of nano-SiO2 into intumescent fire-retardant coatings improves their flame retardancy and smoke suppression properties. Nano-SiO2 coatings on regenerated cellulose fibers have been found to increase the temperature at which the fiber starts to decompose by 20°C and hinder the flow of oxygen to the generated volatiles during thermal decomposition.

Nano-SiO₂ enhances the wood-adhesive interaction through various mechanisms, despite the size discrepancy between the nanoparticles (typically less than 100 nm) and the larger wood voids such as lumens (up to 30 μm). While nano-SiO2 particles are too small to directly fill these larger voids, they can fill nanoscale crevices and surface roughness on the wood cell walls, creating a more uniform and smoother surface for the adhesive to interact with. This improves the contact area and adhesion between the wood and the adhesive. The high surface area and reactivity of nano-SiO2 particles allow them to form strong interfacial bonds with both the wood surface and the adhesive, enhancing the adhesion and durability of the wood-adhesive interface. These interactions contribute to improved bonding strength and reduced formaldehyde emissions in wood composites. For instance, using the desiccator method and mixing 12% UF resin with nanoclay at three different levels (1.5, 2, and 2.5%), Khorramabadi et al. [52] found that it reduced 5, 15, and 22% of formaldehyde emissions, respectively. The decrease in formaldehyde emission of the MDF with nanoclay can be attributed to the strong absorbability of SiO2 and the barrier property (shielding effect) of nanoparticles. The SiO2 can react with the active group of the pure UF resin and absorb free formaldehyde. Also, after adding nanoclay to UF resin, UF molecules penetrate between clay layers and exfoliate the clay. Exfoliated clay layers create a barrier to gases and water, forcing them to follow a tortuous path.

2.4 Cellulose-based nanoparticle board

Nanocellulose, a nanomaterial derived from natural cellulose, is obtained from cellulose and typically has dimensions ranging from a few to tens of nanometers in width. They can be classified into various forms, including cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), each with their own unique properties and potential applications in particleboard and MDF production (Figure 1). In addition to these two nanomorphologies, bacterial nanocellulose (BCN) also exists [53]. BCN has shown promise for enhancing the mechanical properties of boards due to its high purity, three-dimensional nanofibril network structure composed of ribbon-like nanofibers around 100 nm in diameter and 100 μm in length, and a high bending stiffness ranging from 16 to 18 GPa and ultimate strength up to 260 MPa.

Figure 1 Schematic illustration of cellulosic fibers (nanocrystals and nanofibrils) hierarchical structure [71].
Figure 1

Schematic illustration of cellulosic fibers (nanocrystals and nanofibrils) hierarchical structure [71].

CNCs consist of cylindrical, elongated, and rod-like nanoparticles with a high aspect ratio (length-to-diameter ratio) ranging from 3–5 nm in width and 50–500 nm in length [54]. They are known for their high strength, with a theoretical tensile strength of 7.5–7.7 GPa [55], the bending stiffness ranging between 110 and 220 GPa [56], and a density of 1.6 g/cm3 as well as improved dimensional stability, making them suitable for reinforcing composite materials such as particleboards and MDF [57].

On the other hand, CNFs are long and thin fibrillar nanoparticles that have high aspect ratios, typically ranging from 5 to 50 nm in diameter and several micrometers in length, and a large surface area [58] with a density of 1.25–1.5 g/cm3, the bending stiffness ranges between 50 and 160 GPa, while the tensile strength is between 0.8 and 1 GPa [59].

Several articles support the use of nanocellulose in particleboard production. For instance, Amini et al. [60] demonstrated the utilization of CNFs as a binder for particleboard manufacture, where the CNFs formed a three-dimensional network that held the wood particles together upon drying. A variation of 5% CNFs content increases slightly the MOR from 7.9 to 9.9 MPa and MOE from 1,200 to 1,250 MPa, approximately at 0.60–0.79 g/cm3 density for low-density panels as specified by the ASTM D1037 standard [61]. Additionally, recent advances in nanocellulose-based biomaterials have been reviewed, emphasizing the advantageous features of nanocellulose, such as its nanoscale effect, nontoxicity, biocompatibility, biodegradability, high specific surface area, and high mechanical strength [62].

The integration of nanocellulose in board production offers a promising avenue for enhancing board performance and sustainability. The unique characteristics of CNCs and CNFs, such as their high strength (especially for CNCs), stiffness (Young’s modulus up to 150 GPa for CNCs and CNFs), aspect ratio (10–70 for CNCs and 5–50 for CNFs), and surface area (several hundred m²/g for CNFs), make them valuable reinforcements for composite materials, contributing to the development of advanced nanocellulose-based particleboards with improved strength, stiffness, and dimensional stability [60,63,64,65]. The high surface area (>200 m²/g) and abundant hydroxyl groups (−OH) of nanocellulose form extensive hydrogen bonds (O–H···O) with wood fibers and adhesives, creating a robust 3D network [66]. The high aspect ratio (10–100) of nanocellulose fibrils enables mechanical interlocking and micro-void penetration, improving load transfer [62]. Nanocellulose acts as a coupling agent, enhancing interfacial adhesion and stress distribution. Its nanoscale dimensions (1–100 nm) create a path for water molecules, improving dimensional stability [67]. Nanocellulose can also catalyze cross-linking reactions (R−OH + R′−NCO → R−O−CO−NH−R′) within the adhesive matrix [68]. These mechanisms significantly improve the mechanical properties (e.g., 30–50% increase in MOE) and moisture resistance (20–40% reduction in TS) of nanocellulose-reinforced panels [64]. Additionally, CNCs and CNFs exhibit low thermal conductivity (0.1–0.5 W/m K) and electrical insulation properties, which can be beneficial for applications requiring thermal management and electrical insulation [64,69]. For example, a study by Koga et al. [70] showed that CNFs have a high electrical resistance (>1014 Ω) due to the presence of sp3-hybridized carbons in cellulose molecules.

2.5 Nanolignin reinforcement

Nanolignin particles are lignin components from plant biomass that have been reduced to dimensions below 100 nm. Decreasing the size of lignin to the nanoscale increases its surface area, which can enhance properties such as reactivity and interactions when used in composites [72]. The 3D structure of lignin consists of three monomer units (p-coumaryl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, and coniferyl alcohol) (Figure 2) linked by ether and carbon–carbon bonds, containing aliphatic, aromatic, and hydroxyl functional groups. Isolating cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin from biomass is crucial for effective biomass utilization. Nanolignin exhibits antioxidant, UV-absorption, thermal stability, and biocompatibility, suiting applications such as nanocomposites, packaging, biomedicine, and environmental remediation by acting as a reinforcing agent and improving mechanical strength when incorporated into polymer matrices [73,74,75]. For instance, nanolignin, with a concentration ranging between 1 and 5 wt%, has been used as a reinforcement to improve the adhesion between wood flour and polypropylene matrix in wood-plastic composites [76]. The nanolignin panels’ superior results compared to control with the MOR, MOE, IB, and impact strength vary from 22 to 35 MPa, 1.8 to 2.8 GPa, 15 to 22 MPa, and 0.8 to 1.4 MJ/m2, respectively.

Figure 2 3D structure of lignin [72].
Figure 2

3D structure of lignin [72].

2.6 Nano-chitosan reinforcement

Chitosan nanoparticles are biodegradable, nontoxic carriers for nucleotides and drugs with potential broad applications in human disease. They are derived from chitin, a natural biopolymer found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as shrimp, crab, and lobster. As shown in Figure 3, seafood waste from these marine sources serves as the raw material for chemical extraction processes to obtain chitin [77]. The chitin then undergoes deacetylation to produce chitosan, which is the starting material for synthesizing chitosan nanoparticles. Chitosan is a natural cationic polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed N-acetyld-glucosamine and b-(1,4)-linked d-glucosamine (Figure 4) [77,78]. Further, the chitosan molecules can form crosslinks with epoxidized linseed oil through ring-opening reactions, creating a stronger network structure to enhance the mechanical and physical properties of the composite material [79].

Figure 3 A summary of chitosan nanoparticle extraction [77].
Figure 3

A summary of chitosan nanoparticle extraction [77].

Figure 4 Chitosan, epoxy, and wood fibers molecular reaction [78].
Figure 4

Chitosan, epoxy, and wood fibers molecular reaction [78].

Due to its chemical composition, nano-chitosan reinforcement has shown promising results in improving the properties of boards and other wood-based composites. Studies have demonstrated that producing MDF panels from hardwood fibers using nano-chitosan can significantly improve the panel properties. For example, mixing nano-chitosan with UF decreases the TS and WA from 25% to 5% and 47% to 17%, respectively [78]. Indeed, chitosan nanoparticles are known to enhance bonding through their reactive amino (–NH2) and hydroxyl (–OH) groups, improve water resistance by reacting with formaldehyde, fill micro-voids, and increase crosslinking in the adhesive network. Their nanoscale size (up to 100 nm) allows for uniform distribution and intimate interaction with wood fibers and adhesives, leading to significant improvements in board properties.

3 Material and methods

Nanoparticle boards can be manufactured by mixing nanoparticles such as Al2O3, ZnO, and Fe2O3 with a binder, typically UF, and raw materials including pine wood fibers, rice husk, sawdust, etc. (Figure 5.i). In the study by Gul [80], the next step, after collecting materials, involves SEM (Figure 5.iii) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Figure 5.iv), which are used to determine the void content and chemical composition of the various nanoparticles, binder, and raw materials, respectively. Also, in the same study, MDF panels measuring 450 × 450 × 16 mm and having densities between 700 and 750 kg/m³ were made with Al₂O3-UF nanofiller. The Al₂O3-UF nanofillers were sprayed on Populus deltoides (Poplar) and Euamericana fibers via spray gun, followed by hot pressing at 185°C and 150 bar for 4 min using a hydraulic hot press of Burkle fabricated in Germany. The panels then underwent horizontal cooling for 72 h. For Fe₂O₃-UF nanofillers, panels of identical dimensions and comparable densities were produced. The nanofillers were combined with poplar wood fibers in a rotary drum mixer, hot-pressed at 168°C and 162 bar for 4.2 min using a hydraulic hot press of Burkle manufactured in Germany, and subsequently cooled for 3 days. In preparing ZnO-UF nanofiller MDF, Populus caspica fibers were blended with the nanofillers in a rotary mechanical drum. The final nano-MDF underwent hot pressing at 175°C and 165 bar for 4.1 min. The resulting panels were subjected to cooling for 72 h in a forced convection cooling wheel. These nanoparticle boards were then subjected to physical and mechanical tests according to different standards (e.g., European Standards (EN), ASTM) using a universal testing machine (UTM) (Figure 5.vi), as well as a thermal conductivity test (Figure 5.viii) before the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (Figure 5.v). The results obtained from these tests determine the suitability of the nanoparticle boards for various construction applications, ensuring that they meet standards. To ascertain the dimensional stability of the panel in accordance with ASTM D 1037-06a [81], equations (1) and (2) are employed:

(1) WA ( % ) = w f − w i w i × 100 ,

(2) TS ( % ) = t f − t i t i × 100 ,

where w f and w i symbolize the final and initial weights, respectively, and t f and t i signify the corresponding final and initial thicknesses.

Figure 5 (i) Mixing process: (a) Alumina nanoparticles, (b) UF resin, and (c) natural fibers; (ii) Gold sputtering; (iii) SEM analysis with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) system; (iv) XRD apparatus; (v) TGA/DSC apparatus; (vi) UTM; (vii) Schematic representation of MOE and MOR; (viii) thermal conductivity measuring apparatus, own elaboration based on [80].
Figure 5

(i) Mixing process: (a) Alumina nanoparticles, (b) UF resin, and (c) natural fibers; (ii) Gold sputtering; (iii) SEM analysis with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) system; (iv) XRD apparatus; (v) TGA/DSC apparatus; (vi) UTM; (vii) Schematic representation of MOE and MOR; (viii) thermal conductivity measuring apparatus, own elaboration based on [80].

The mechanical properties, encompassing the bending strength or MOR and bending stiffness or Young’s modulus or MOE, are determined by conducting a three-point bending test utilizing a UTM. Equations (3) and (4) are employed to calculate the MOR and MOE, considering the sample’s width (b), thickness (d), span length (L), maximum load (P), load at the proportional limit (P 1), and center deflection at the proportional limit load (y 1). Figure 5.vii provides a schematic representation of the bending stiffness and bending strength test [82]. The appendix depicts a standardized sample cut-up pattern used for testing various properties of particleboard and similar wood-based panel products according to ASTM test procedures (Figure A1).

(3) MOR ( MPa ) = 3 PL ( 2 b d 2 ) ,

(4) MOE ( MPa ) = L 3 4 b d 3 × P 1 y 1 .

4 Results and discussion

This study reviews the performance of nanoparticle-based MDF and particleboards. Results showed that adding nanoparticle elements in MDF production increases the energy peak and the heat content and decreases the curing temperature. For instance, a study conducted by Gul et al. [31] shows that by analyzing pure UF resin and UF resin containing 3% of alumina nanoparticles, as the SEM in Figure 6, the weight% of oxygen (O) along with potassium (K) and aluminum (Al) increases their energies peaks from 29.69–0.13% to 32.39–1.87% by weight, respectively. The term energy peak here refers to the peak intensities observed in the EDS analysis, indicating the presence and concentration of these elements. Additionally, as depicted in Figure 7, the presence of 4.5% concentration Al–O nanoparticles in the UF resin shows a peak intensity at 21.25, 61.25, and 66.5°C (a) with a heat flow peak at 120°C in 1.5% alumina is formed due to the creation of bonding in UF at the interface (b). This increased intensity (counts/s) suggests a more ordered structure, which can improve the mechanical properties of the composite. The alumina nanoparticles exhibit Lewis acidity, acting as a catalytic agent due to the presence of hydroxyl groups, which polymerize the UF resin, as reported by Kumar et al. [83]. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) curves reveal that adding alumina nanoparticles does not significantly change the curing peak temperature but increases the total heat flow (w/g). The higher heat flow indicates an exothermic reaction during curing, suggesting that the nanoparticles act as catalysts, enhancing the cross-linking density and thermal stability of the resin and leading to improved performance of the panels.

Figure 6 (a) EDS analysis of pure UF resin and (b) EDS analysis of UF resin containing 3% alumina nanoparticles [80].
Figure 6

(a) EDS analysis of pure UF resin and (b) EDS analysis of UF resin containing 3% alumina nanoparticles [80].

Figure 7 (a) XRD of different concentrations of alumina nanoparticles in urea formaldehyde resin and (b) differential scan calorimetry of UF resin with different concentrations of alumina nanoparticles [80].
Figure 7

(a) XRD of different concentrations of alumina nanoparticles in urea formaldehyde resin and (b) differential scan calorimetry of UF resin with different concentrations of alumina nanoparticles [80].

After this initial stage, nanoparticle boards are fabricated with a specific timeline, curing temperature, and pressure, followed by physical and mechanical tests to determine their use and grade according to different board standards [31].

In fact, this research summarizes ten studies highlighting different nanoparticles used to improve the boards’ physical and mechanical properties, including the TS, WA, MOR, and MOE. These nanoparticles are derived from different molecules such as nano-clay (4–7) [84,85], nano-silver (3) [37], nano-silicate (2) [86], nano-wollastonite (5–6) [23,87], calcium carbonate nanoparticle (8) [88], nano-alumina (9) [89], and copper (10) [90]. Figure 8 and Table 1 show the variation in the effect of nanoparticles on the dimensional stability of the particleboards with the maximum requirement of TS of 8% specified by the American National Standard Institute (ANSI A208.1-1999) [91]. However, according to ANSI A208.1, panels for commercialization may exhibit a TS of up to 35% after being immersed in water for 24 h (Figure 8), while the EN 312-2005 standard states that panels should not exceed a TS of 8 and 15% after being immersed in water for 2 and 24 h, respectively [92]. While Figure 9 highlights the minimum requirement of grade M1 for the MOR and MOE with 11.5 and 1,725 MPa, respectively. In addition, the European Standards EN 312 (2003) establish a minimum MOR of 14 MPa for P4 applications, which is raised to 15 MPa for P6 for structural purposes. These standards also specify a needed MOE of 1,600 MPa. Conversely, the Brazilian Standard, ABNT BNR 14810-2 [93], sets the maximum acceptable TS to be 19% minimum required value for MOR at 16 MPa and MOE at 2,300 MPa (Table 1) for P4 boards [94].

Figure 8 WA and TS of panels (own elaboration).
Figure 8

WA and TS of panels (own elaboration).

Table 1

Typical TS, MOR, and MOE

Standard Board type TS (%) MOR (MPa) MOE (MPa)
EN 312 P4 15 15 2,200
P6 14 16 2,400
ABNT P4 19 16 2,300
ANSI M1 8 11 1,725
M2 14.5 2,250
Min. 3 (min) 550 (min)
Figure 9 MOR, and MOE of panels (own elaboration).
Figure 9

MOR, and MOE of panels (own elaboration).

5 Performance of nanoparticle-modified panels

The performance of nanoparticle-modified particleboards and MDF was evaluated through an analysis of the physical and mechanical properties of board samples. Experimental values of TS and WA for MDF samples incorporating clay, calcium carbonate, silver nanoparticles, and wollastonite exhibited varying ranges, with the highest values recorded for wollastonite at 85% for WA [87] and for silver at 62% for TS [37].

However, according to ANSI A208.1, the superior performance of nanoclay [95], alumina [89], and calcium carbonate [40] nanoparticles in reducing TS up to 6% compared to the control can be attributed to several factors. Their high aspect ratio and platelet structure (especially for nanoclay) create a path for water molecules. The strong interactions with the wood matrix and adhesive reduce void spaces where water can accumulate. Additionally, they may contribute to a more tightly crosslinked network within the composite. However, the other nanoparticles (e.g., nano-silver [37], chitosan [78], chitin [96], silicate [86], nano-wollastonite [87], nano-copper [97]) show much higher TS values, sometimes exceeding 25%. This poor performance could be due to the incompatibility with the wood matrix or adhesive system, the agglomeration of nanoparticles, creating weak points in the composite structure, the insufficient dispersion or concentration to effectively improve moisture resistance, and the potential interference with the curing process of the adhesive.

Furthermore, the results demonstrated that lower TS and WA percentages were associated with higher bending strength and stiffness, with values reaching up to 28 MPa and 2.4 GPa, respectively. This suggests that the overall quality of the board, influenced by various parameters including the adhesive system and nanoparticle addition, leads to better mechanical properties. Furthermore, the incorporation of nanoparticles such as alumina was found to enhance the structural performance, resulting in MOR and MOE values of 41 MPa and 3.4 GPa, respectively [89]. This is because alumina as a molecule has a high strength-to-weight ratio, superior hardness (9 on the Mohs scale), compressive strength (it can reach 3 GPa), excellent thermal resistance (high conductivity and a melting point that exceeds 2,000°C) and chemical stability [98] (Table 2). Its small particle size (typically 20–50 nm [99]) allows for uniform dispersion and strong interfacial bonding with the matrix, effectively transferring loads and restricting crack propagation. Compared to copper or calcium carbonate, with MOE board values of 2 and 1.4 GPa (Figure 9), alumina’s covalent bonding and crystalline structure contribute to its superior mechanical properties.

Table 2

Physical and mechanical properties of selected inorganic nanoparticles (own elaboration based on [98,99,100,101,102,103])

Inorganic nanoparticle Particle size (nm) Compressive strength (MPa) Hardness (Mohs scale) Thermal resistance (°C) at melting point Density (kg/m3)
Silver 2–100 200–250 2.5–3 961 10,490
Clay 1–100 Varies widely 1–2.5 Varies widely 1,800–2,600
Wollastonite 20–100 300–400 4.5–5 1,540 2,900
Calcium carbonate 20–50 30–250 (as limestone) 3 825 2,710
Alumina 20–50 3,000 9 2,072 3,950–4,100
Copper 20–100 220 2.5–3 1,084 8,960

These results surpassed the minimum requirements for M1 and M2 particleboards according to ANSI A208.1-1999 and P4 and P6 specified by EN 312, indicating their suitability and sustainability for building construction. The improved mechanical properties and dimensional stability make these nanoparticle-modified boards a viable option for various construction applications, particularly in dry conditions.

6 Conclusion

The investigation into nanoparticle-modified panels has demonstrated their potential to meet or exceed industry standards, particularly in terms of their MOE, MOR, IB, WA, and TS. The formaldehyde emission levels are a crucial property that has also shown improvement with the incorporation of nanoparticles. For instance, adding alumina nanoparticles has been shown to reduce formaldehyde emissions, contributing to the overall performance and safety of the panels. Furthermore, some nanoparticle panels have exhibited reduced electrical resistance, which can help avoid static charge buildup. For example, CNCs and CNFs exhibit low thermal conductivity (0.1–0.5 W/m·K) and electrical insulation properties. This property, combined with the inherent fire resistance and protection against biological degradation provided by certain nanoparticles, enhances the safety and durability of the boards. This research demonstrates the potential of these nanoparticle-modified panels in manufacturing environmentally eco-friendly and versatile materials for structural applications such as partition walls, bathroom countertops, and floors. The eco-friendly nature of these panels is attributed to the reduced formaldehyde emissions and the use of sustainable raw materials, aligning with sustainable development goals. To further advance this field, future research should focus on diversifying the use of nanoparticles (nano-SiO2, nano-Al2O3, CNCs, etc.), such as exploring the use of CNC or combining two or more types of nanoparticles and investigating more eco-friendly adhesive alternatives to UF, such as protein-based, tannin-based, starch-based, or lignin-based adhesives. Additionally, exploring three-layers by combining nanoparticles to manufacture panels should be conducted to understand the impact on dimensional stability and strength. Furthermore, investigating the potential of incorporating Machine Learning and Deep Learning algorithms, such as convolutional neural networks for defect detection and random forest models for property prediction, could provide valuable insights and optimization opportunities. Finally, conducting comprehensive lifecycle analyses and market studies will help understand the environmental impact and consumer preferences, ensuring the development of truly sustainable products. Promoting the benefits of these sustainable nanoparticle panels makes it possible to drive demand and contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally conscious future. However, it is essential to consider the potential health risks associated with nano-chemicals. The impact of nanoparticles on health, especially during mechanical processing such as sanding, cutting, and drilling, needs to be thoroughly investigated. Nanoparticles are under strong surveillance due to their possible health impacts, and this aspect should be discussed and addressed in future research to ensure the safe use of nanoparticle-modified panels.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the reviewers who contributed to the improvement of the quality of the manuscript.

  1. Funding information: The authors state no funding involved.

  2. Author contributions: Derrick Mirindi: writing – review and editing, writing – original draft, visualization, validation, software, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, data curation, and conceptualization. James Hunter: writing – review and editing, writing – original draft, supervision, resources, project administration, and conceptualization. David Sinkhonde: writing – review and editing and writing – original draft. Frederic Mirindi: writing – review and editing and writing – original draft. Fatemeh Yazdandoust: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

Appendix

Test Sections based on the ASTMD 1037-96a: the sample is divided into the following labeled sections (ANSI A-208 1999):

Hardness (H):

  • H1, H2: Used to determine the hardness or resistance to indentation of the particleboard surface.

    IB (I):

  • I1, I2: These specimens are used to measure the IB or tensile strength perpendicular to the board surface.

    Linear Expansion (L):

  • L1: Evaluates the linear expansion or dimensional stability of the material.

    MOR/MOE (M):

  • M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6: These sections are used to determine the MOR (bending strength) and MOE (stiffness) of the particleboard.

    TS (T):

  • T1, T2: Measure the thickness swell or expansion of the board after exposure to moisture.

    Concentrated Load (C):

  • C: Required only for certain higher grades like D-2 and D-3, this section tests the board’s resistance to concentrated loads or point loads.

Figure A1 ANSI A208.1-1999 Test Sections based [91].
Figure A1

ANSI A208.1-1999 Test Sections based [91].

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Received: 2024-02-12
Revised: 2024-10-15
Accepted: 2024-10-24
Published Online: 2024-11-19

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
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  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
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  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
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  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
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https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0119
Keywords for this article
nanoparticle; board; water absorption; thickness swelling; modulus of rupture; modulus of elasticity
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Articles in the same Issue

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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