Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique

Samar Moustafa; Atif Mossad Ali; Jawaher Shawaf; Sharah H. Al dirham; Norah Alqhtani; Salah A. Al-Ghamdi; Saloua Helali; Hesham Fares; Mohamed Rashad

doi:10.1515/ntrev-2024-0041

Artikel Open Access

Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique

Samar Moustafa , Atif Mossad Ali , Jawaher Shawaf , Sharah H. Al dirham , Norah Alqhtani , Salah A. Al-Ghamdi , Saloua Helali , Hesham Fares und Mohamed Rashad

Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 29. Juli 2024

Veröffentlicht von

Veröffentlichen auch Sie bei De Gruyter Brill

Manuskript einreichen Informationen für Autor*innen

Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 13 Heft 1

Abstract

In this study, V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites were synthesized by the sol–gel method. The sol–gel technique is an important process for the fabrication of advanced oxide materials with desirable catalytic, optical, and structural properties. The varieties and flexibilities of sol–gel techniques help in preparing materials with extremely specific properties. For the presented samples, three types of phases were assessed. The average crystalline size of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites were found to be 25, 26, 14.5, and 15.5 nm, respectively. SEM images showed three different shapes of semi-tube, semi-spherical, and semi-flower. The pure samples of V₂O₅ and ZnO showed semi-tube shapes. 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ shows a spherical shape with average dimeter of 0.6 µm. Strong dependence of the direct optical band gap was observed on different compositions that varied within the range of (2.33–2.73 eV). Conversely, the indirect values varied within the range of 2.119–2.35 eV. On the other hand, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ has semi flower shape with different layers. Optical parameters, such as optical band gap, extension coefficient, tails of localized states, and refractive index, were gauged for these nanocomposites. In addition, the mean refractive index of ZnO is lower than that of V₂O₅, with differences observed between 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

Keywords: mixed oxides; ZnO; V2O5 ; optical band gap; nonlinear optical studies

1 Introduction

Nanocrystalline metal oxides with uniform shapes and sizes are considered one of the main building blocks of nanotechnology owing to their high surface area, surface chemistry, and intrinsic optical and catalytic characteristics [1,2]. In addition, these metal oxides offer advantageous electronic and optical properties by combining different properties of their constituent materials. The electronic structures, charge transportation characteristics, and light absorption properties are the key aspects of metal oxides that determine their prowess as photocatalysts. A photocatalyst is a material that can absorb light and produce electron/hole pairs (e⁻/h⁺), thus enabling chemical transformations of reactants and regenerating its chemical composition after each cycle of such interactions. The main features of a photocatalytic system are wide optical band gap energy (E _g), suitable morphology, high surface area, excellent stability, and reusability.

Recently, photocatalysts garnered a lot of attention from scientists because of their appealing applications toward the advantage of humanity. Among these, vanadium-based oxides, especially vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅), are broadly considered due to their exceptional properties [3]. Due to its promising and remarkable optoelectronic properties [4], gas sensors, storage systems, laser scanners, thermochromic coatings, solar cells, optical fiber switching devices, batteries, IR detectors, and ultrafast switching applications [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13] are applicable to V₂O₅. ZnO is an n-type semiconductor material with a wide E _g of 3.37 eV at 300 K and a large exciton binding energy of about 60 meV. Research is currently being conducted to investigate its potential use in optoelectronics, sensors, and ferroelectric memory devices [14].

One of the unique inorganic semiconductor materials is metal-doped zinc oxide (Ni, Co). Based on the oxygen vacancies and wurtzite structure, it has a large exciton binding energy of 60 meV at room temperature and a wide direct bandgap of 3.37 eV [15]. Because of its use in optoelectronic devices, ZnO is a significant II–IV n-type direct bandgap semiconductor material that has garnered a lot of attention [16]. It is regarded as a multifunctional semiconductor compound because of its good physical properties [17]. ZnO belongs to the II–VI groups of the periodic table and manifests three crystalline structures: wurtzite, rock salt (NaCl or Rochelle salt), and zinc blend (ZnS). The wurtzite form is the thermodynamically stable phase under ambient conditions. The wurtzite ZnO exhibits intriguing optical, electrical, and optoelectronic properties in both thin-film and nanostructured forms [18]. The properties of ZnO mainly depend on the growth parameters, such as temperature, concentrations of solutions, the stoichiometry of reagents, and pH of the synthesis method [19]. The size, orientation, density, and morphology of ZnO crystal mainly contribute to numerous applications. The physical properties of ZnO are mainly affected by dopant impurities and defects [18]. Defects play an important role in obtaining desirable optoelectronic and electronic properties of semiconductor materials. ZnO can be fabricated in several shapes, such as single crystal, pellet, fine powder, and thick and thin films. Different experimental conditions, such as solution concentration, temperature, and substrate pretreatment, greatly influence the growth and shape of ZnO nanostructure; therefore, a good understanding of the ZnO growth condition is imperative. The applications of ZnO can be found in electronic apparatuses [20], for eco-friendly buffer layer for thin film solar cell applications [21], gas sensors [17], and photocatalysis processes [22]; hence, modifications of its properties are essential for both practical and scientific interests.

Many nanostructured materials have been used as lithium-ion batteries electrode materials in the last 10 years due to significant advancements in materials science and nanotechnology. Because of its low cost, abundance, ease of synthesis, and good safety, layered V₂O₅ is one of the most appealing potential cathode materials and has been thoroughly studied [23]. Moreover, the cathode material, a crucial component of lithium-ion batteries, has a direct impact on how well these batteries function. However, there is still a need to further improve the energy and power density of electrode materials due to the growing demand for high-power and high-energy devices. V₂O₅ is thought to be the most promising metal oxide to use as a cathode material for lithium-ion batteries [24]. The kinetic behaviors of photogenerated carriers, which increase light absorption and significantly boost photocatalytic activity, are influenced by the heterostructures of V₂O₅. Determining the remaining optical and electrical properties of these materials requires an understanding of their structural and topographical characteristics as well as an understanding of the mechanism underlying grain growth [25,26]. Therefore, in this research, we will focus on these electrical and optical properties of ZnO–V₂O₅ nanocomposites. Therefore, the main purpose of this work is to investigate the structural and optical properties of ZnO–V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

2 Experimental technique

2.1 Materials

The chemicals used to prepare ZnO–V₂O₅ nanoparticles were distilled water, zinc acetate Zn(CH₃COO)₂(H₂O)₂, and ammonium metavanadate (NH₄VO₃). Four samples (pure ZnO, pure V₂O₅, 0.5% ZnO-1.0%V₂O₅, and 1.0%ZnO-1.0%V₂O₅ (molar ratio)) were prepared by the sol–gel method.

2.2 Methods

To synthesize ZnO/V₂O₅ nanocomposites, various routes were proposed, such as the solvothermal process, homogeneous co-precipitation method [27], pulsed-laser ablation [28], electrospinning method [24], spray pyrolysis technique [29], and the sol–gel method [30]. The sol–gel method was used to synthesize metal oxide nanocomposite specimens. The narrow particle size distribution, uniform nanostructure at low temperatures, and high product purity are the main benefits of the sol–gel process. Metal nanooxides are frequently synthesized using this technique [31]. High-purity metal salt powders were used to prepare ZnO–V₂O₅ nanocomposite specimens. In the experiment, (NH₄VO₃) was added to 100 mL of distilled water, and the solution was stirred using a magnetic stir bar at 55°C for 30 min (CH₃.COO)₂Zn·2H₂O) was added to the above solution. The stirring of the solution was continued for additional 2 h. The obtained mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 h utilizing a magnetic stirring hotplate to produce a homogenous solution. Scheme 1 shows the steps of the used chemical method.

Scheme 1

The steps of the used chemical method.

Upon the completion of the stirring, the mixture was dried at 120°C for 24 h. The solution was then gradually dried until it became an amorphous solid or a gel. The as-prepared samples were annealed at 500°C for 3 h. The gel was annealed at high temperatures to crystallize the amorphous solid and to remove the residual carbon and organic chemicals. The properties of ZnO/V₂O₅ were measured to achieve the desired doping concentration.

2.3 Characterizations

Using X-ray Diffraction (XRD) of Cu-Kα radiation of 1.5406 Å, the structural investigation of ZnO–V₂O₅ nanocomposites was done. Moreover, the optical properties were assessed using an Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy. SEM (JEOL Type T200) was used to examine the morphology of samples at 15 kV. Using ImageJ software, a few hundred of the particles were measured in order to estimate the particle size distribution. Reflectance (R) was in the range of wavelength 190–1,000 nm, gauged using a Shimadzu UV-2101 spectrophotometer.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Structural investigations

XRD spectra were analyzed for the crystal structures. Figure 1 shows the XRD charts of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites. Three types of phases are detected and illustrated in Figure 1. The first phase type indexed well to orthorhombic-structured V₂O₅ (JCPDS card no: 41-1426). The main reflection peaks at 2θ values, 15.6°, 20.3°, 21.7°, 26.3°, 31.17°, 32.4°, 34.47°, 41.39°, 45.6° and 47.5°, were attributed to the (200), (001), (101), (110), (400), (011), (310), (002), (411) and (600) crystal planes, respectively, of the V₂O₅. On the other hand, the second phase found was a hexagonal ZnO structure (JCPDS card no: 36-1451).

The peaks at 2θ were 31.86°, 34.5°, 36.27°, 47.59, 56.7, 63.0, 66.46, 58.1, 69.2, 72.5 and 77.1 which were attributed, respectively, to the (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (200), (112), (201), (004) and (202) of ZnO nanoparticles. These peaks positions error is ±0.2. The most important phase was ZnV₂O₆. The obtained ZnV₂O₆ nanostructures exhibited promising hydrogen absorption.

Figure 1

XRD charts of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

The average crystallite size (D) using Scherrer’s equation, dislocation density (δ), and microstrain ( ε ) for the V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites has been calculated as [32,33,34]: D = K λ β cos ( θ ) and δ = 1 D 2 , where the constant K is a function of the crystallite shape which is generally taken as being about unity, and β is the full width at half of the maximum intensity of the diffracted peaks. The average calculated values of D for the V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites were found to be 25, 26, 14.5, and 15.5 nm, respectively. Table 1 shows the recorded values of examined crystal structure parameters, such as D, δ, and ε, for all samples. The values of δ and ε exhibit opposite behaviors compared to the value of D.

Table 1

Structural parameters for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites

Nanocomposites	D (nm)	δ (nm⁻²) × 10⁻³
0ZnO/10V₂O₅	25	1.6
5ZnO/10V₂O₅	26	1.5
10ZnO/0V₂O₅	14.5	4.7
10ZnO/10V₂O₅	15.5	4.2

The surface morphology of the V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites is illustrated in Figure 2 in two different magnifications. The image of the V₂O₅ shows a semi tube shape with length and width of 1.12 and 0.2 µm, respectively. On the other hand, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposite shows a spherical shape with average dimeter of 0.6 µm. Regarding the ZnO nanocomposite, it shows again semi-tube shape with length and width of 0.44 and 0.12 µm, respectively. Finally, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposite shows a semi flower shape with different layers with length and width of 1 µm. By measuring several hundred particles from the SEM image, the particle size distribution was computed using ImageJ software. The average size of 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ is found to be smaller than that of V₂O₅. The nucleation process may be responsible for the phenomenon’s potential. A faster rate of nucleation leads to a higher concentration of nanoparticles. It is interesting to note that semi-flower 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ has a smaller average size than ZnO. This indicates that the presence of V₂O₅ particles within the nanocomposite can inhibit particle growth, leading to a reduction in size [35].

Figure 2

SEM images of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites. Insert Figure: another magnifications of the images, nanocomposites size distribution determined with ImageJ software.

To confirm the presence, composition, and homogeneity of all elements in the samples, we have performed the EDX analyses as displayed in Figure 3. Figure 3(a) indicates the presence of V and O in pure V₂O₅, while Figure 3(b) shows the presence of Zn and O in ZnO, and Figure 3(c) and (d) shows the presence of V, Zn, and O in the final composites.

Figure 3

EDX of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites (Au peak comes from sputtering system).

3.2 Linear optical investigations

3.2.1 Optical absorption region

The optical properties of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites were probed by room-temperature UV-Vis Diffusion Reflectance Spectra (UV-Vis DRS). The diffusion reflectance (R%) spectra of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites are shown in Figure 4. It is observed that the prepared ZnO/V₂O₅ gives a strong visible absorption edge at spectra at around 410 nm. UV-vis measurements were executed in diffusion reflectance mode (R) and converted to the Kubelka-Munk function F(R) to separate the light absorption from scattering. The absorption coefficient α = (R) was found utilizing the Schuster–Kubelka–Munk function expressed as follows [36]:

(1) α ( R ) = ( 1 − R ) 2 2 R ,

where R represents the diffusion reflectance.

Figure 4

Reflectance charts of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

The absorption coefficient vs photon energy for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites are shown in Figure 5. At E ≥ 3.1 eV, the α is higher vaue, on the constract, the minimum value of α at green area. Moreover, it was noticed that at the lower region of absorption, α value as a function of photon energy obeyed the Urbach relation [37].

(2) α ( υ ) = α 0 exp ( h υ / E r ) ,

where α _o is a constant, and the Urbach tail width is represented by E _r.

Figure 5

Absorption coefficient vs photon energy of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

A relation between ln(α) and hυ for the V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites is presented in Figure 6. The evaluated E _r for various samples is computed from the slope in Figure 6 and is listed in Table 2. The change in E _r corresponding to the change in ZnO/V₂O₅ ratio could be related to the change in the disorder degree which changes the band tailing.

Figure 6

ln(α) vs photon energy of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

Table 2

Optical constants for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites

Nanocomposites	E _r (eV)	E g di (eV)	E g ind (eV)
0ZnO/10V₂O₅	0.32	2.33	2.19
5ZnO/10V₂O₅	0.35	2.46	2.20
10ZnO/0V₂O₅	0.47	3.20	3.16
10ZnO/10V₂O₅	8.33	2.73	2.35

The extinction coefficient (k _ext.) for the V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites is investigated. Hence, k _ext. can be computed from [37]:

(3) k ext . = α λ 4 π .

The plots of k _ext vs λ of the incident electromagnetic waves for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites are illustrated in Figure 7. It can be seen, k _ext., of the V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites is steadily independent at λ for λ > 550 nm, while it significantly increased to peak values at λ < 550 nm. Besides, the value and peak position of k _ext. are affected by the change in concentration of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites. These peaks are attributed to the process of particle absorption.

Figure 7

Extinction coefficient vs photon energy of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

The direct/indirect optical band gaps, E g di and E g ind , and absorption coefficient α are correlated through the equation [38]:

(4) α h ν = B 1 ( h ν − E g di ) 1 2 ,

where α represents linear absorption coefficient, h ν is the photon energy, and B 1 is the proportionality constant.

Using equation (1), we can compute the following expression [39]:

(5) α h ν = B 2 ( h ν − E g ind ) 2 .

Figures 8 and 9 show ( α h ν ) 2 and ( α h ν ) 1 / 2 against hν, respectively. The values of E g di and E g ind were calculated. These calculated values of both direct and indirect optical band gaps are tabulated in Table 2, which shows an opposite behavior to the value of E _r. The direct and indirect optical band gap of ZnO are 3.2 and 3.16 eV, respectively. These values are comparable with the reported values of ZnO (∼3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 eV) [40], 3.63 eV [41], (3.17–3.24) eV [42]. On the other hand, direct and indirect optical band gap of V₂O₅ are 2.33 and 2.19 eV. The vanadium ions in the metallic phase (corundum) occupy two-thirds of the octahedral sites formed by oxygen anions [43]. These values of optical band gaps are compatible with pervious reported values of 2.3 eV [44], 2.363 eV, and [45] 2.23 eV [46]. According to both literature review [14] and fitting factor (R ²) The majority types of transition in this samples is direct transition.

Figure 8

(αhν)² vs photon energy of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

Figure 9

(αhν)^1/2 vs photon energy of (a) V₂O₅, (b) 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, (c) ZnO, and (d) 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

3.2.2 Relation between the refractive index and the energy gap

The values of static refractive index, n o , can be calculated from the E g dir values. Few empirical equations showed the relation between n and E g dir that have been proposed by several models, but, there are some main models for calculating the refractive index using the optical band gap which called Moss, Ravindra, Reddy and Kumar and Singh models [47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54]. These values for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites are listed in Table 3 using the different above models.

Moss Model corrected by Ravindra [50]

(6) n Rs = 108 E g d 4 ,

Ravindra and Guptau Model [50]

(7) n R = 4.084 − ( 0.62 E g ) ,

Reddy and Anjanyuku Model [50,51]

(8) n RA = 3.59182 − ln ( E g ) ,

Kumar and Singh Model [48,53]

(9) n KS = 3.3668 E g − 0.32234 .

Table 3

Refractive index obtained from the deduced value of E _g by various approaches along with its average value for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites

Nanocomposites	E g di (eV)	n _RS	n _R	n _RA	n _Ks	n ̅ av .
0ZnO/10V₂O₅	2.33	2.61	2.64	2.75	2.56	2.64
5ZnO/10V₂O₅	2.46	2.57	2.56	2.69	2.52	2.59
10ZnO/0V₂O₅	3.20	2.41	2.1	2.43	2.31	2.31
10ZnO/10V₂O₅	2.73	2.51	2.39	2.59	2.44	2.48

The Z-scan technique was used for obtaining the value of the nonlinear refractive index and nonlinear absorption directly. Also, these values of the nonlinear refractive index could be determined from the calculated linear refractive index values which were recorded from reflectance and transmittance. Finally, it is found that the direct and indirect optical band gap of V₂O₅ is smaller than that of ZnO. On the other hand, the optical band gap of V₂O₅ increases for 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites.

3.3 Nonlinear optical investigations

The calculated values of the refractive index can be used to obtain other optical parameters, including the dielectric constant ( ϵ o ), the third-order susceptibility (χ ⁽³⁾), and nonlinear refractive index (n ₂) from equations (10)–(12), respectively [23,55,56,57].

(10) ε o = n ̅ 2 ,

(11) χ ( 3 ) = A ( 4 π ) 4 ( n ̅ 2 − 1 ) 4 ,

(12) n 2 = 12 π n o χ ( 3 ) ,

where A = 1.7 × 10⁻¹⁰esu. The numerical values of ε o for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites are affected by the change in the different compositions. The values of nonlinear parameters for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites are listed in Table 4. Therefore, it can control the optical properties of these nanocomposites. Moreover, the average refractive index of ZnO is smaller than V₂O₅ and it has values in between for 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites. All these controlled properties lead us to use these nanocomposites in many applications such as photocatalytic, electronic apparatuses, and solar cells [58,59].

Table 4

Nonlinear optical parameters for V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites

Nanocomposites	n ̅	ϵ o	x ( 3 ) × 10⁻¹¹ (esu)	n 2 × 10⁻¹¹ (esu)
0ZnO/10V₂O₅	2.64	6.97	1.38	19.76
5ZnO/10V₂O₅	2.59	6.71	1.16	16.83
10ZnO/0V₂O₅	2.31	5.34	0.39	6.29
10ZnO/10V₂O₅	2.48	6.15	0.77	11.65

4 Conclusion

ZnO/V₂O₅ nanocomposites have been synthesized by the sol–gel technique. The samples are in the form of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ nanocomposites. The orthorhombic structure of V₂O₅ and the hexagonal structure of ZnO were confirmed by the XRD analysis. The average crystal size of the nanocomposites of V₂O₅, 5ZnO/10V₂O₅, and ZnO, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ was determined to be 25, 26, and 14.5 nm, respectively. Semi-flower, semi-sphere, and semi-tube are three different shapes that SEM captures. V₂O₅ and ZnO exhibit semi-tube forms in their pure samples. The average diameter of 0.6 m was obtained for 5ZnO/10V₂O₅ which has a sphere-like form. However, 10ZnO/10V₂O₅ has a semi-flower shape with several layers. Optical diffusion reflectance spectra showed the absorption edge of ZnO/V₂O₅ nanocomposites in the visible region of the spectra. The direct optical band gap showed a strong dependence on various compositions which changed in the range of 2.33–2.73 eV. On the other hand, the values of the indirect changed in the range of 2.119–2.35 eV. Our investigations have shown that ZnV₂O₆ nanostructures have the potential to be used as an energy storage material.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project number 445-9-750.

Funding information: This research work was funded by the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia through the project number 445-9-750.
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

References

[1] Suwanboon S. Structural and optical properties of nanocrystalline ZnO powder from sol-gel method. Sci Asia. 2008;34(1):31–4.10.2306/scienceasia1513-1874.2008.34.031Suche in Google Scholar

[2] Athar T. Metal oxide nanopowder. Emerging nanotechnologies for manufacturing. USA: Elsevier; 2015. p. 343–401.10.1016/B978-0-323-28990-0.00014-2Suche in Google Scholar

[3] Beke S. A review of the growth of V2O5 films from 1885 to 2010. Thin Solid Films. 2011;519(6):1761–71.10.1016/j.tsf.2010.11.001Suche in Google Scholar

[4] Jameel MH, Saleem S, Hashim M, Roslan MS, Somaily HH, Hessin MM, et al. A comparative study on characterizations and synthesis of pure lead sulfide (PbS) and Ag-doped PbS for photovoltaic applications. Nanotechnol Rev. 2021;10(1):1484–92.10.1515/ntrev-2021-0100Suche in Google Scholar

[5] Mane AA, Suryawanshi MP, Kim JH, Moholkar AV. Fast response of sprayed vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) nanorods towards nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gas detection. Appl Surf Sci. 2017;403:540–50.10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.01.220Suche in Google Scholar

[6] Lao ZJ, Konstantinov K, Tournaire Y, Ng SH, Wang GX, Liu H-K. Synthesis of vanadium pentoxide powders with enhanced surface-area for electrochemical capacitors. J Power Sources. 2006;162(2):1451–4.10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.07.060Suche in Google Scholar

[7] Huo F-J, Su J, Sun Y-Q, Yin C-X, Tong H-B, Nie Z-X. A rhodamine-based dual chemosensor for the visual detection of copper and the ratiometric fluorescent detection of vanadium. Dye Pigment. 2010;86(1):50–5.10.1016/j.dyepig.2009.11.007Suche in Google Scholar

[8] Tong Z, Li N, Lv H, Tian Y, Qu H, Zhang X, et al. Annealing synthesis of coralline V2O5 nanorod architecture for multicolor energy-efficient electrochromic device. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cell. 2016;146:135–43.10.1016/j.solmat.2015.11.008Suche in Google Scholar

[9] Shen K, Yang R, Wang D, Jeng M, Chaudhary S, Ho K, et al. Stable CdTe solar cell with V2O5 as a back contact buffer layer. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cell. 2016;144:500–8.10.1016/j.solmat.2015.09.036Suche in Google Scholar

[10] Lee CE, Atkins RA, Gibler WN, Taylor HF. Fiber optic application for thermal switching in vanadium dioxide films. Appl Opt. 1989;28(21):4511–2.10.1364/AO.28.004511Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[11] Julien C, Haro-Poniatowski E, Camacho-Lopez MA, Escobar-Alarcon L, Jı́menez-Jarquı́n J. Growth of V2O5 thin films by pulsed laser deposition and their applications in lithium microbatteries. Mater Sci Eng B. 1999;65(3):170–6.10.1016/S0921-5107(99)00187-7Suche in Google Scholar

[12] Subrahmanyam A, Reddy YBK, Nagendra CL. Nano-vanadium oxide thin films in mixed phase for microbolometer applications. J Phys D Appl Phys. 2008;41(19):195108.10.1088/0022-3727/41/19/195108Suche in Google Scholar

[13] Gökdemir FP, Özdemir O, Kutlu K. Comparison of structural and electrochemical properties of V2O5 thin films prepared by organic/inorganic precursors. Electrochim Acta. 2014;121:240–4.10.1016/j.electacta.2013.12.164Suche in Google Scholar

[14] Zargar RA, Arora M, Ahmad M, Hafiz AK. Synthesis and characterization of vanadium doped zinc oxide thick film for chemical sensor application. 2015;2015(1):196545.10.1155/2015/196545Suche in Google Scholar

[15] Saleem S, Jameel MH, Akhtar N, Nazir N, Ali A, Zaman A, et al. Modification in structural, optical, morphological, and electrical properties of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) by metal (Ni, Co) dopants for electronic device applications. Arab J Chem. 2022;15(1):103518.10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103518Suche in Google Scholar

[16] Saleem S, Jameel MH, Rehman A, Tahir MB, Irshad MI, Jiang ZY, et al. Evaluation of structural, morphological, optical, and electrical properties of zinc oxide semiconductor nanoparticles with microwave plasma treatment for electronic device applications. J Mater Res Technol. 2022;19:2126–34.10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.05.190Suche in Google Scholar

[17] Maswanganye MW, Rammutla KE, Mosuang TE, Mwakikunga BW. The effect of Co and In combinational or individual doping on the structural, optical and selective sensing properties of ZnO nanoparticles. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2017;247:228–37.10.1016/j.snb.2017.02.039Suche in Google Scholar

[18] Rao MSR, Okada T. ZnO Nanocrystals and allied materials. Vol. 180, New Delhi: Springer; 2013.10.1007/978-81-322-1160-0Suche in Google Scholar

[19] Shankar S, Saroja M, Venkatachalam M, Muthukumarasamy N, Kumar V. Influence of pH on structural and optical properties of spin coated ZnO thin films. IJIRSET. 2014;2:8990–3.Suche in Google Scholar

[20] Strelchuk VV, et al. Structural and optical properties of ZnO films produced by a nonvacuum chemical technique. Semiconductors. 2014;48:1145–50.10.1134/S106378261409019XSuche in Google Scholar

[21] Wu S, Chen Z, Wang T, Ji X. A facile approach for the fabrication of Au/ZnO-hollow-sphere-monolayer thin films and their photocatalytic properties. Appl Surf Sci. 2017;412:69–76.10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.03.166Suche in Google Scholar

[22] Purohit A, Chander S, Sharma A, Nehra SP, Dhaka MS. Impact of low temperature annealing on structural, optical, electrical and morphological properties of ZnO thin films grown by RF sputtering for photovoltaic applications. Opt Mater (Amst). 2015;49:51–8.10.1016/j.optmat.2015.08.021Suche in Google Scholar

[23] Wang CC. Empirical relation between the linear and the third-order nonlinear optical susceptibilities. Phys Rev B. 1970;2(6):2045.10.1103/PhysRevB.2.2045Suche in Google Scholar

[24] Liu X, Zeng J, Yang H, Zhou K, Pan D. RSC Advances REVIEW V2O5–based nanomaterials: synthesis and their applications. RSC Adv. 2018;8:4014–31. 10.1039/C7RA12523B.Suche in Google Scholar

[25] Chasta G, Suthar D, Thakur A, Kannan MD, Dhaka MS. Comprehensive investigation on influence of copper doping on physical properties of CdSe thin films for solar cell applications. Mater Res Bull. 2022;152:111845.10.1016/j.materresbull.2022.111845Suche in Google Scholar

[26] Kumari S, Suthar D, Kannan MD, Kumari N, Dhaka MS. Understanding the grain growth mechanism in CdS thin films by CdCl2 treatment and thermal annealing evolution. Opt Mater (Amst). 2022;123:111900.10.1016/j.optmat.2021.111900Suche in Google Scholar

[27] Taleb R, Hadeel R, Thamer SM, Abdullah A, Juzsakova T, Al N. Synthesis, characterization of V2O5 nanoparticles and determination of catalase mimetic activity by new colorimetric method. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2021;145(2):297–307. 10.1007/s10973-020-09725-5.Suche in Google Scholar

[28] Boaes Mendonça LT, Bezerra AG, Mendes de Azevedo W. Preparation and characterization of V2O5 and V2O5/PANI nanocomposite by laser ablation technique in liquid. Mater Chem Phys. 2021;273:125084. 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.125084.Suche in Google Scholar

[29] Ahmed NM, Sabah ZH. Characterization of V2O5 nanorods grown by spray pyrolysis technique. J Mater Sci Mater Electron. 2016;27(5):4613–21. 10.1007/s10854-016-4338-3.Suche in Google Scholar

[30] Babar BM, Mohite AA, Patil VL, Pawar UT, Kadam LD, Kadam PM, et al. Sol-gel prepared vanadium oxide for photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue dye. Mater Today Proc. 2021;43:2673–7. 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.205.Suche in Google Scholar

[31] Bokov D, Turki Jalil A, Chupradit S, Suksatan W, Javed Ansari M, Shewael IH, et al. Nanomaterial by sol-gel method: synthesis and application. 2021;2021(1):5102014.10.1155/2021/5102014Suche in Google Scholar

[32] Rashad M, Darwish AAA. Blue shift of band gap for vanadyl 2,3-naphthalocyanine (VONc) thin films monitored at thermal effect. Mater Res Express. 2018;5(2):026402. 10.1088/2053-1591/aa9ef3.Suche in Google Scholar

[33] Chandekar KV, Alkallas FH, Trabelsi AB, Shkir M, Hakami J, Khan A, et al. Improved linear and nonlinear optical properties of PbS thin films synthesized by spray pyrolysis technique for optoelectronics: An effect of Gd3+ doping concentrations. Phys B Condens Matter. 2022;641:414099.10.1016/j.physb.2022.414099Suche in Google Scholar

[34] Shkir M, Chandekar KV, Khan A, Alshahrani T, El-Toni AM, Sayed MA, et al. Tailoring the structure-morphology-vibrational-optical-dielectric and electrical characteristics of Ce@ NiO NPs produced by facile combustion route for optoelectronics. Mater Sci Semicond Process. 2021;126:105647.10.1016/j.mssp.2020.105647Suche in Google Scholar

[35] Fabrication of ZnO-SiO2 nanocomposite materials prepared by a spray pyrolysis for the photocatalytic activity under UV and Sunlight irradiations fabrication of ZnO-SiO2. In:IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering; 2020. 10.1088/1757-899X/778/1/012105.Suche in Google Scholar

[36] Faisal M, Ibrahim AA, Harraz FA, Bouzid H, Al-Assiri MS, Ismail AA. SnO2 doped ZnO nanostructures for highly efficient photocatalyst. J Mol Catal A Chem. 2015;397:19–25.10.1016/j.molcata.2014.10.027Suche in Google Scholar

[37] Urbach F. The long-wavelength edge of photographic sensitivity and of the electronic absorption of solids. Phys Rev. 1953;92(5):1324.10.1103/PhysRev.92.1324Suche in Google Scholar

[38] Mohamed GA, El-Moiz ABA, Rashad M. Li-doping effects on the electrical properties of ZnO films prepared by the chemical-bath deposition method. Phys B Condens Matter. 2005;370(1–4):158–67.10.1016/j.physb.2005.09.006Suche in Google Scholar

[39] El-Menyawy EM, Elagamey AA, Elgogary SR, El-Enein RANA. Synthesis, crystal structure and thin-film-optical properties of 3-amino-2-(2-nitrophenyl) diazinyl-3-(morpholin-1-yl) acrylonitrile. Spectrochim Acta Part A Mol Biomol Spectrosc. 2013;108:75–81.10.1016/j.saa.2013.02.001Suche in Google Scholar PubMed

[40] Srikant V, Clarke DR. On the optical band gap of zinc oxide. J Appl Phys. 1998;83(10):5447–51.10.1063/1.367375Suche in Google Scholar

[41] Debanath MK, Karmakar S. Study of blueshift of optical band gap in zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles prepared by low-temperature wet chemical method. Mater Lett. 2013;111:116–9.10.1016/j.matlet.2013.08.069Suche in Google Scholar

[42] Sáenz-Trevizo A, Amézaga-Madrid, Pizá-Ruiz, Antúnez-Flores W, Miki-Yoshida M. Optical band gap estimation of ZnO nanorods. Mater Res. 2016;19:33–8.10.1590/1980-5373-mr-2015-0612Suche in Google Scholar

[43] Shaalan NM, Rashad M, Abdel-Rahim MA. CuO nanoparticles synthesized by microwave-assisted method for methane sensing. Opt Quantum Electron. 2016;48(12):2–12. 10.1007/s11082-016-0802-9.Suche in Google Scholar

[44] Scanlon DO, Walsh A, Morgan BJ, Watson GW. An ab initio study of reduction of V2O5 through the formation of oxygen vacancies and Li intercalation. J Phys Chem C. 2008;112(26):9903–11.10.1021/jp711334fSuche in Google Scholar

[45] Kenny N, Kannewurf CR, Whitmore DH. Optical absorption coefficients of vanadium pentoxide single crystals. J Phys Chem Solids. 1966;27(8):1237–46.10.1016/0022-3697(66)90007-2Suche in Google Scholar

[46] Luo Z, Wu Z, Xu X, Du M, Wang T, Jiang Y. Impact of substrate temperature on the microstructure, electrical and optical properties of sputtered nanoparticle V2O5 thin films. Vacuum. 2010;85(2):145–50.10.1016/j.vacuum.2010.05.001Suche in Google Scholar

[47] Ravindra N, Srivastava VK. Variation of refractive index with energy gap in semiconductors. Infrared Phys. 1979;19(5):603–4.10.1016/0020-0891(79)90081-2Suche in Google Scholar

[48] Tripathy SK. Refractive indices of semiconductors from energy gaps. Opt Mater (Amst). 2015;46:240–6.10.1016/j.optmat.2015.04.026Suche in Google Scholar

[49] Moss TS. A relationship between the refractive index and the infra-red threshold of sensitivity for photoconductors. Proc Phys Soc Sect B. 1950;63(3):167.10.1088/0370-1301/63/3/302Suche in Google Scholar

[50] Hervé, Vandamme LKJ. General relation between refractive index and energy gap in semiconductors. Infrared Phys Technol. 1994;35(4):609–15.10.1016/1350-4495(94)90026-4Suche in Google Scholar

[51] Reddy RR, Anjaneyulu S. Analysis of the moss and Ravindra relations. Phys Status Solidi. 1992;174(2):K91–3.10.1002/pssb.2221740238Suche in Google Scholar

[52] V, Gupta, Ravindra NM. Comments on the moss formula. Phys Status Solidi. 1980;100(2):715–9.10.1002/pssb.2221000240Suche in Google Scholar

[53] Kumar V, Singh JK. Model for calculating the refractive index of different materials. Indian J Pure Appl Phys. 2010;48:571–4.Suche in Google Scholar

[54] Ravindra NM, Auluck S, Srivastava VK. On the Penn gap in semiconductors. Phys Status Solidi. 1979;93(2):K155–60.10.1002/pssb.2220930257Suche in Google Scholar

[55] Wemple SH, DiDomenico Jr M. Behavior of the electronic dielectric constant in covalent and ionic materials. Phys Rev B. 1971;3(4):1338.10.1103/PhysRevB.3.1338Suche in Google Scholar

[56] Ticha H, Tichy L. Semiempirical relation between non-linear susceptibility (refractive index), linear refractive index and optical gap and its application to amorphous chalcogenides. J Optoelectron Adv Mater. 2002;4(2):381–6.Suche in Google Scholar

[57] Shkir M, Khan ZR, Khan A, Chandekar KV, Sayed MA, AlFaify S. A comprehensive study on structure, opto-nonlinear and photoluminescence properties of Co3O4 nanostructured thin films: An effect of Gd doping concentrations. Ceram Int. 2022;48(10):14550–9.10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.01.348Suche in Google Scholar

[58] Shkir M, Khan A, Imran M, Khan MA, Zargar RA, Alshahrani T, et al. Spray pyrolysis developed Nd doped Co3O4 nanostructured thin films and their structural, and opto-nonlinear properties for optoelectronics applications. Opt Laser Technol. 2022;150:107959.10.1016/j.optlastec.2022.107959Suche in Google Scholar

[59] Khan ZR, Chandekar KV, Khan A, Akhter N, Sayed MA, Shkir M, et al. An impact of novel Terbium (Tb) doping on key opto-nonlinear optical characteristics of spray pyrolyzed NiO nanostructured films for opto-nonlinear applications. Mater Sci Semicond Process. 2022;138:106260.10.1016/j.mssp.2021.106260Suche in Google Scholar

Received: 2023-12-23

Revised: 2024-03-07

Accepted: 2024-05-17

Published Online: 2024-07-29

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Artikel in diesem Heft

https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0041

Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel

mixed oxides; ZnO; V2O5; optical band gap; nonlinear optical studies

Creative Commons

BY 4.0