Startseite Naturwissenschaften Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
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Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses

  • Tang Xuebang , Muhammad Shoaib Bhutta EMAIL logo , Muneeb Ahmed EMAIL logo , Hidayat Ullah Shah , Khalid A. Alrashidi , Saikh Mohammad und Wail Al Zoubi EMAIL logo
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 17. September 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 13 Heft 1

Abstract

High-voltage outdoor insulating materials face formidable challenges emanating from stresses such as electrical discharge, humidity, and UV radiation, propelling them perilously toward potential failure. To combat this, researchers explored novel materials to enhance insulator performance under these stresses. In this study, samples infused with micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate (ATH) and -magnesium hydroxide (MH) were tested with a base polymer (RTV-SR – room-temperature vulcanizing silicone rubber) during a 100 h electrical discharge aging process. They were simultaneously exposed to AC discharges, UV irradiation, and varying humidity levels. The study found a decline in hydrophobicity in all samples post-discharge exposure. Notably, composites with micro- and nano-fillers exhibited prolonged hydrophobic recovery under stresses such as medium humidity and UV irradiation. Scanning electron microscopy analysis displayed deep cracks and block-like structures on surfaces, particularly in samples R1 (50% micro-MH) and R2 (50% micro-ATH). Aged sections of R3 (10% nano-ATH) and R4 (10% nano-MH) showed heightened surface cracks compared to R5 and R6. Energy-dispersive X-ray analysis detected surface oxidation, emphasizing the severity of electrical and other stresses. FTIR results indicated minimal absorption peak reduction in co-filled samples after aging. These findings highlight the impact of co-filled composite insulators for robust insulating systems to withstand the hostile outdoor environment.

Keywords: silicone rubber; discharge aging; hydrophobicity; magnesium hydroxide

1 Introduction

In overhead transmission and distribution lines, outdoor insulators are employed to both mechanically support the line conductors and electrically isolate them from grounded towers. To accomplish this, insulation must possess a high mechanical strength-to-weight ratio, stable thermal conductivity, high breakdown strength, and low maintenance costs [1]. Polymer coatings for insulation have advanced recently, with an emphasis on reducing flaws caused by humidity, UV light, and other environmental conditions. Despite difficulties such as environmental deterioration and electric discharge aging, polymer composites – especially those containing silicone – are preferred over ceramics because of their hydrophobic, lightweight, and long-lasting qualities [2]. The advancement of silicone rubber (SR) as an insulating material has ushered in great opportunities for operating at high voltage levels, driven by its enhanced hydrophobic properties, heightened mechanical resilience, reduced maintenance demands, and superior dielectric strength. Its hydrophobicity is a key characteristic that sets it apart from ceramic and glass insulators and contributes to its excellent pollution flashover performance [3]. When evaluating SR insulating materials in comparison to other polymers, their capacity to restore hydrophobicity emerges as a paramount attribute. The primary mechanism facilitating hydrophobicity restoration lies in the migration of pre-existing low molecular weight (LMW) polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) from within the material’s core to the deteriorated surface. Remarkably, this transfer of LMW can occur even in cases where the insulator surface is contaminated, thus rendering SR-based insulators suitable for deployment in highly polluted environments. Due to SR’s innate hydrophobic properties, it acts as a barrier against the development of leakage current, consequently deterring surface flashover [4,5,6]. Gubanski et al. examined the impact of UV radiation and surface partial discharge on different types of polymers, which include epoxy resins, RTV-SR (room-temperature vulcanizing silicone rubber), HTV-SR (high-temperature vulcanized silicone rubber), and EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer). They concluded that RTV and HTV-SR are more stable than other polymers [7].

In addition to all of their special attributes, SR insulators are vulnerable to aging and degradation because of their organic structure when subjected to electrical and environmental stresses [8,9,10]. Electrical discharges and dry-band arcing (DBA) are two types of electrical stresses that cause insulation failure. Loss of hydrophobicity causes leakage current on insulator surfaces that travels to the DBA and erodes the surface [11]. Electrical discharge is another stress that is thought to pose a risk to the effectiveness of SR insulators. The discharge’s gaseous byproducts, NO and NO2, can react with moisture to form HNO3, which might harm both the core and the shed material. On the surface of insulators, the discharge may also generate ozone and electrons [12,13]. The type of material used to make the electrodes and the strength of the electric field at the tip both affect when the electrical discharge begins [14,15]. For instance, pointed electrodes with sharp edges produce an electric field with a high intensity and then initiate a discharge [16]. The surrounding air is ionized as a result of the strong electric field, producing ions and electrons that move in the direction of the applied electric field stress [17,18].

A variety of micro-/nano-sized fillers have been employed to enhance the characteristics of base polymeric materials in previous research studies [19,20,21,22]. These investigations have indicated that incorporating fillers improves the physical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal attributes of SR polymers. Nevertheless, it has been observed that composites containing nano-sized particles exhibit superior properties compared to micro-composites. This superiority is attributed to the larger specific surface area of nanoparticles and their enhanced interaction with the polymer [8,23]. In recent studies, the authors investigated various composites filled with micro-/nano-fillers and concluded that co-filled composites outperformed micro- and nano-filled composites [24,25].

In some other research studies, authors claimed that under electrical discharges co-filled composites performed better than micro- and nano-filled composites [26,27].

In the past, alumina trihydrate (ATH) and silica fillers have been utilized to increase the erosion resistance of SR insulating materials. Research conducted by the authors has shown that ATH nanoparticles contribute to flame retardancy, enhanced resistance to tracking, and erosion resistance, while nano-SiO2 fillers provide increased mechanical strength to the base SR [28,29]. Meyer et al. studied the effects of ATH and silica fillers on SR composites with various micro-filler sizes and concentrations. They discovered that composites with 10% ATH fillers outperformed silica in terms of erosion resistance. Additionally, ATH and silica both demonstrated equal effectiveness while enhancing erosion resistance at filler loadings of 30 and 50% [28]. According to Ghunem et al., ATH-filled composites demonstrated superior erosion resistance over silica-filled composites at a 50 wt% loading level and under the crucial IPT voltage [30]. However, in a different study [31], the ability of ATH and silica to halt erosion at the essential IPT voltage was the same. Using IPT, Ghunem et al. investigated how a 50% concentration of silica, ATH, and magnesium hydroxide (MH) affected erosion resistance. They discovered that ATH and MH filler SR composites displayed greater rates of erosion resistance than silica-filled composites due to the water of hydration [32].

Apart from DBA, electrical discharges are the other electrical stress which is the most severe and causes insulation failure. In the study, SR insulators were exposed to electrical discharges, and the authors found that the hydrophobicity of these insulators reduced over time as the ratio of water-repellent C–H, Si–CH3, and Si–O bonds decreased and hydrophilic O–H groups and C═O bonds developed [11]. Micro-ATH and nano-alumina fillers were utilized by Nazir et al. to improve the characteristics of SR against electrical discharges. They discovered that the performance of SR co-filled composites against electrical discharges is greatly improved by the addition of a small amount of nano-alumina to micro-ATH [26]. ATH filled composites outperform in several cases due to the water of hydration present in it. These fillers can efficiently improve the performance of SR insulators when exposed to electrical discharge. The other filler MH also contains water of hydration, which may be a strong contender to improve SR dielectric properties, but it has not yet been explored in the realm of high voltage insulation. Research studies have shown that electrical discharges, humidity, acid fog, or vertical wind can all work together to have synergistic effects on SR insulators that hasten the breakdown of the insulator [33,34,35]. Sufficient research is essential to understand the synergistic effect of electrical discharge and various environmental stressors on aged SR composite materials containing varying concentrations of ATH and MH micro-/nano-fillers. This research is crucial for mitigating the harmful effects of electrical aging on the morphology and chemical composition of SR composites, ultimately for the betterment of the comprehensive performance of SR insulation for HV insulation.

In this research, a comprehensive investigation was carried out to assess the impact of AC discharge aging on composites loaded with ATH and MH. The experiments were conducted for 100 h in a specially designed chamber, allowing for rigorous testing under controlled conditions. Six distinct types of composites were meticulously prepared, incorporating various fillers at the micro-, nano-, and micro-/nano-scales. The primary focus of this research was to delve into the long-term effects of synergistic stresses imposed on different filler types and concentrations within SR composites. A critical aspect of this investigation involved the evaluation of the hydrophobicity recovery phenomenon in the aged samples. We used advanced analytical techniques to study structural and chemical changes in both pristine and aged composites. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was utilized to examine the surface morphology, providing valuable visual data on the materials’ microstructure. Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis enabled the precise determination of the elemental composition, offering crucial information about the distribution of fillers and other components within the composites before and after aging experiments. Additionally, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analysis was performed to investigate the molecular changes, providing detailed insights into the chemical alterations induced by aging stresses.

2 Experimental

2.1 Material preparation

RTV-SR was used as a base material, and RTV-615A which has a density of 1.15 g/m3 was employed. It was made up of 30% vinyl and 70% PDMS. MH and ATH were added as fillers to strengthen the basic polymer. To accomplish adequate deagglomeration, filler particles were first agitated for 15 min in a 100 ml solution of ethanol before being subjected to ultrasonication for 30 min. After that, RTV-615A was added to the filler, and the mixture was blended for 15 min with an HSM-100 LSK high-shear mixer. After that, the mixture was agitated for a further 15 min before the curing agent (RTV-615B) was added. The ratio of Parts A to B was maintained at 10:1. The resulting mixture was subsequently dried for 10 min in a vacuum desiccator to release any trapped air. The prepared solution was then poured into steel molds for the required shape and dimension. The shape was flat, and the dimensions were 120 mm × 50 mm × 5 mm. The vulcanization process was finally completed by applying 30 MPa of pressure using a hydraulic press for 30 min, followed by 4 h of post-curing in an oven heated to 85°C. Table 1 presents the details of the RTV-SR composites that were employed in this study. ATH and MH were the fillers utilized. Rectangular samples with dimensions of 120 mm length, 50 mm width, and 5 mm thickness were employed.

Table 1

Sample notations with base polymer and filler percentages

Sample notation RTV (%) Micro-filler Nano-filler
R1 50 50% ATH —
R2 50 50% MH —
R3 90 — 10% ATH
R4 90 — 10% MH
R5 70 25% ATH 5% ATH
R6 70 25% MH 5% MH

2.2 Electrical stress aging setup

Electrical discharge was produced using a point-to-plane copper electrode arrangement. The arrangement was contained in a stainless-steel chamber with a controlled gaseous atmosphere, as shown in Figure 1. The point electrode has a 2 mm tip diameter and acts as a discharge source [36]. The test sample is placed on the bottom round plate electrode, which has dimensions of 50 mm in diameter by 10 mm in thickness and is connected to the ground.

Figure 1 Experimental setup of electrical stress causing degradation. (a) Schematic view. (b) Photographic view of needle-plane electrodes.
Figure 1

Experimental setup of electrical stress causing degradation. (a) Schematic view. (b) Photographic view of needle-plane electrodes.

Figure 1 illustrates an outline viewpoint and image of the electrical aging setup. Electrical charge was applied to the test samples using 6 single needles, simple electrodes, and a 16 kVA transformer. With the aid of an HV probe with a 1,000:1 ratio that was attached to an oscilloscope, a high voltage was applied. The test samples were exposed to 10 kV, while the voltage was adjusted by a variac. Additionally, UVA 340 lamps were used to provide UV radiation, a humidifier with a sensor, display, and controller was utilized in the chamber to manage the level of humidity, and a circuit breaker was also connected in case of any fault. Three samples of each type were evaluated for repeatability of results till 100 h with 10 kV applied to the samples. The distance between the needle tip and the sample was maintained at 1 mm with the help of a standard gauge block [26,37]. Samples were also examined under the impact of UV radiation. Experiments were performed at two different relative humidity levels, medium (55–65%) and high (75–85%). De-ionized water was used to fill the humidifier to protect the system from breakdown due to ionization in the chamber’s environment.

2.3 Hydrophobicity loss and recovery analysis

Since the aging process begins with the loss of hydrophobicity, it is imperative to evaluate SR’s hydrophobicity. To quantitatively assess the hydrophobicity loss and recovery, a variety of methods can be used, such as water soaking, sliding angle, dynamic contact angle, static contact angle, and the Swedish Transmission Research Institute scale. Measuring the static contact angle, which exists at the point where a liquid drop touches a material surface, is the most common way to determine them. The relationship between the contact angle, solid surface energy, and liquid surface tension is described by the Young–Dupré equation as follows:

(1) γ GS = γ SL + γ LG cos θ ,

where γ GS , γ SL , and γ LG represent the interfacial tension between the gas and solid, the solid and liquid, and the liquid and gas, respectively, and θ represents the contact angle.

Hydrophilic materials enable the water to touch more surfaces because of their high surface energy and ease of wetting, and as a result the contact angle eventually drops from 90°. Contrarily, water cannot flow across the surfaces of hydrophobic materials due to their low surface energy, resulting in a contact angle of larger than 90° [38]. The contact angle of SIR-aged composites was measured using a micropipette with a drop size of 20 µL. De-ionized water was dropped onto the SIR surface, which was being aged just below the needle tip. Then, each droplet was photographed and uploaded to a computer. To determine the static contact angle of each droplet, “ImageJ” software with the low-bond axisymmetric drop shape analysis (LBADSA) technique was utilized [39]. Contact angles of aged samples were determined immediately following the aging through 100 h with various intervals of time to understand the hydrophobicity recovery phenomenon.

2.4 Morphological analysis

Morphological analysis was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The surface topography data can be gathered to detect morphological changes in the tested surfaces. High-energy electron beams were used to scan the sample in a raster scanning pattern to produce SEM micrographs. The electron beam interacts with the surface atoms of the sample to produce signals that reveal information about surface topography and composition. To create high-quality SEM micrographs and determine the elemental compositions on the surface of discharge-aged materials, an FEI Quanta FEG 250 ESEM system, which also has an EDX detector, was employed.

2.5 FTIR analysis

In-depth analysis of the functional chemical groups within the studied materials was carried out with the powerful tool of FTIR spectroscopy. This technique meticulously examined absorbance peaks spanning a spectral range from 500 to 4,000 cm−1. The data captured from both the weathered, aged samples and the pristine, unaged counterparts were rigorously compared. This meticulous comparison served as a beacon, illuminating the extent of degradation inflicted by relentless environmental stresses.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Hydrophobicity loss

All samples had their contact angles assessed both before and immediately after the discharge aging test, which lasted for 100 h. All untreated samples had contact angles greater than 90°, which indicates good hydrophobicity before testing. Regardless of the type or quantity of fillers used, the samples lost their hydrophobicity because of prolonged discharge exposure and other applied stresses. Table 2 displays the measured contact angles for each sample at the beginning (untreated) and immediately following the aging experiment.

Table 2

Contact angles of samples before and immediately after discharge aging

Samples Untreated High humidity (UV) Medium humidity (UV) High humidity (without UV) Medium humidity (without UV)
R1 98.6° 20.2° 21.6° 21.7° 22.4°
R2 97.8° 13.7° 20.4° 18.9° 20.8°
R3 101.3° 25.1° 28.1° 27.1° 30.1°
R4 99.6° 24.5° 26.8° 26.5° 28.2°
R5 102.5° 29.3° 35.9° 30.2° 36.6°
R6 101.6° 28.6° 33.4° 29.9° 35.2°

The aged sample’s contact angles demonstrate that UV has a higher effect on hydrophobicity. Additionally, compared to medium humidity, the loss in contact angle was a little bit larger at high humidity. For samples R1, R2, R3, and R4, Table 2 clearly shows that high humidity had a significantly greater impact on hydrophobicity loss. The contact angles of co-filled samples R5 and R6 were greater than those of R1, R2, R3, and R4, indicating that the co-filled composite had greater hydrophobicity. Under humidity and without UV, samples R5 and R6 performed better, with contact angles of 36.6° and 35.2°, respectively. Moreover, samples filled with ATH had higher contact angles after an aging period, and the co-filled sample R5 showed the highest hydrophobicity in all cases. Figure 2 shows the pictures of droplets on the surface of aged samples showing loss of hydrophobicity.

Figure 2 Images of droplets on the surface of samples after discharge aging experimentation under: (a) UV irradiation and high humidity, (b) without UV irradiation and high humidity, (c) UV irradiation and medium humidity, and (d) without UV irradiation and high humidity.
Figure 2

Images of droplets on the surface of samples after discharge aging experimentation under: (a) UV irradiation and high humidity, (b) without UV irradiation and high humidity, (c) UV irradiation and medium humidity, and (d) without UV irradiation and high humidity.

3.2 Hydrophobicity recovery

The ability of SR insulators to regain their hydrophobicity is a special quality, and a thorough analysis of the behavior was done to adequately pinpoint the causes of recovery of older composites. Due to the initial rapidity of the recovery, the contact angles for aged samples were first assessed at shorter intervals. To ensure consistency, we acquired three photos of each composite and averaged the contact angle values. Four separate cases were examined, and after aging of the samples, 1,296 images of droplets were captured using a high-resolution camera. Then, the recovery phenomena of the samples were examined using ImageJ software. Figures 3 and 4 show the difference in contact angles for all six filled composites under medium/high humidity levels, with or without UV radiation and at a 1 mm electrode–sample distance.

Figure 3 Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites under high humidity and UV irradiation.
Figure 3

Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites under high humidity and UV irradiation.

Figure 4 Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites under high humidity and without UV irradiation.
Figure 4

Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites under high humidity and without UV irradiation.

After 30 min of recovery time, the recorded increase in contact angles of samples aged under high humidity and UV radiation was 11.3°, 17.9°, 13.3°, 9.6°, 8.6°, and 4.7° for samples R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6, respectively. The difference in contact angles after 40 h of recovery time was 43.2°, 42.7°, 42.1°, 39°, 43.4°, and 36.6° for samples R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6, respectively. The recovery rate was the highest for sample R5 when exposed to high humidity and UV radiation. Under the influence of UV radiation and high humidity, the contact angles recorded were 66.3°, 65.8°, 71.1°, 69.6°, 78.7°, and 73.6° for samples R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6, respectively, after 100 h of recovery time.

In the case of ATH fillers, the contact angles recorded were higher than those of MH filled composites. However, the micro-filled composites showed the least recovery after 100 h when exposed to discharge aging. From Figures 3 and 4, it can also be seen that the composites co-filled with micro/nano-filler concentration showed a faster recovery rate from the start up to 100 h of recovery time. Figure 5 shows the curves of all samples that were exposed to discharge, UV radiation, and medium level of humidity. It is quite obvious that the loss of hydrophobicity was higher in the case of high humidity, but looking at the recovery phenomenon it was slower in the case of medium humidity level during 100 h of recovery time.

Figure 5 Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites aged under UV irradiation and medium humidity level.
Figure 5

Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites aged under UV irradiation and medium humidity level.

We also found that the impact of UV radiation along with discharge exposure causes more degradation on the surface of all composites. The recovery rate was also slower in all samples because of the impact of UV radiation. Figures 5 and 6 show the curves of hydrophobicity recovery for samples that were aged under discharge, medium humidity level, UV irradiation, and without UV irradiation. It can be seen that the recovery rate was slower from the start till the end of 100 h of recovery time than in the case of high humidity level.

Figure 6 Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites aged under medium humidity and without UV radiation exposure.
Figure 6

Hydrophobicity recovery of electrical stress exposed composites aged under medium humidity and without UV radiation exposure.

The contact angles recorded for sample R5 after 100 h of recovery were 72.7° and 75.7° under medium humidity level, UV radiation, and without UV radiation exposure, respectively. The other co-filled sample R6 had a faster recovery rate than micro-filled and nano-filled composites showing its better recovery rate. From Figures 5 and 6, it can be seen that the recovery rate is the fastest in the case of co-filled composites and slowest in the case of micro-filled composites. The filler type and concentration also had a major role in the case of hydrophobicity recovery rate. The loss of hydrophobicity was more in the case of samples filled with MH fillers, micro-fillers, and nano-fillers. Whereas the ATH filler and co-filled composites experienced the least amount of hydrophobicity loss and recovered more quickly. The synergetic impact of electrical discharge along with UV irradiation and humidity showed a damaging impact on the composite’s surface, and the contact angles of all composites never recovered back to 90°. This shows the severity of electrical discharge, humidity, and UV irradiation on the surfaces of composites having different concentrations of fillers.

3.3 SEM analysis

SEM micrographs show that the portions of the SR samples that were directly underneath the high-voltage electrode underwent surface deterioration. The samples R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6 were put to test under various humidity levels, UV rays, and electrical discharge application at a 1 mm distance. Figure 7 demonstrates that the degraded surfaces of R1 and R2 subjected to UV irradiation, high humidity, and electrical discharge show a higher degree of deterioration and more cracks. High humidity levels and UV irradiation caused more deep fissures and cracks to appear on R1 and R2 surfaces than they did at medium hydrophobicity, which results in a loss of hydrophobicity. The deterioration of the aged portion of R3 at various humidity levels is depicted in Figure 7. The size of the cracks was larger at high humidity levels and UV irradiation for samples R1 and R2 having only micro-fillers. Samples treated under medium humidity level and UV radiation recorded smaller cracks. Additionally, the surface of samples treated without UV radiation similarly exhibited electrical discharge and caused deterioration, although the surface morphology was superior to that of samples exposed to UV light.

Figure 7 SEM micrographs of composites treated under electrical discharge, high humidity, and UV irradiation.
Figure 7

SEM micrographs of composites treated under electrical discharge, high humidity, and UV irradiation.

Under high humidity and UV exposure, sample R2 displayed significant degradation that led to larger fissures and a block-looking structure. Additionally, as seen in Figure 8, sample R2 at a medium humidity level with UV exposure showed higher degradation with cracks, a blocky structure, and white powder on its surface than other samples. In every situation, the surface morphology of the R5 (25% ATH + 5% nano-ATH) and R6 (25% MH + 5% nano-MH) treated areas produced improved outcomes that are also consistent with the earlier hydrophobicity recovery results. In comparison to samples R3 and R4, the treated portion of sample R4 showed significant deterioration at medium humidity level and under UV radiation. Additionally, R4 displayed deeper fissures, a blockier structure, and white powder when tested under UV radiation and at medium humidity. Due to the damaging effects of electrical discharge, humidity, and UV radiation, samples R1, R2, R3, and R4 showed a higher degree of degradation than R5 and R6 composites. In every instance, it appears that the UV rays are more harmful, causing deep fissures and the development of white powder on the surface.

Figure 8 SEM micrographs of composites exposed to electrical discharge, medium humidity, and UV irradiation.
Figure 8

SEM micrographs of composites exposed to electrical discharge, medium humidity, and UV irradiation.

3.4 EDX analysis

Before and after the discharge test, EDX analyses were conducted to identify changes in various composite components. Silicon (Si), oxygen (O), carbon (C), aluminum (Al), and magnesium (Mg) are the main components of composites as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 EDX analysis to identify changes in various composite components – silicon (Si), oxygen (O), carbon (C), aluminum (Al), and magnesium (Mg).
Figure 9

EDX analysis to identify changes in various composite components – silicon (Si), oxygen (O), carbon (C), aluminum (Al), and magnesium (Mg).

The samples were examined at a distance of 1 mm under various humidity conditions, UV light, and without UV light. The elemental compositions of untreated and stress-aged 50% filled composites under various circumstances are shown in Table 3. After aging, samples R1 and R2 revealed a reduction in their filler content, with the largest reduction reported from 16.38 to 7.69%, indicating a loss of more than 50% under conditions of high humidity and UV exposure. Under various humidity levels, samples R1 and R2 demonstrated an increase in the oxygen level while experiencing a drop in silicone and filler contents. After aging, sample R2 likewise showed a reduction in filler content; under high humidity and medium humidity with UV exposure, the Mg reduction was noted to be 17.16–9.79% and 10.69%, respectively. Additionally, it was observed in all cases that the silicone and oxygen levels had increased. Spectra of samples R1 and R2 are shown in Figure 9, illustrating the impact of stress, high humidity, and UV radiation on the reduction of filler content and increase in the oxygen level due to the oxidation process.

Table 3

Elemental composition of stress-aged composites (50% micro-filler concentration)

R1 %C %O %Al %Si
Unaged 20.91 38.96 16.38 23.74
Without UV radiation and high humidity 18.35 47.15 10.30 24.20
With UV radiation and high humidity 16.66 50.59 7.69 25.06
Without UV radiation and medium humidity 18.55 46.01 10.78 24.66
With UV radiation and medium humidity 16.10 50.32 8.83 24.75
R 2 %C %O %Mg %Si
Unaged 23.65 32.32 17.16 26.87
Without UV radiation and high humidity 22.98 35.96 13.62 27.44
With UV radiation and high humidity 17.52 42.77 9.79 29.92
Without UV radiation and medium humidity 23.11 35.21 14.19 27.49
With UV radiation and medium humidity 17.37 42.30 10.69 29.64

The chemical constituents of samples R3 and R4 that were exposed to high humidity, medium humidity, UV radiation, and without UV radiation are shown in Table 4. For sample R3, the loss of aluminum content was the greatest when exposed to high humidity and UV radiation, demonstrating the severity of the discharge effect and the additive effects of humidity and UV radiation on the filler concentration. Under conditions of high humidity and UV radiation, the proportion of O for sample R4 on the surface increased from 35.45 to 39.85%. This demonstrates the auto-oxidation and development of OH hydrophilic groups on the sample’s surface [40].

Table 4

Elemental composition of stress-aged composites (10% nano-filler concentration)

R3 %C %O %Al %Si
Unaged 25.70 34.92 4.96 34.42
Without UV radiation and high humidity 23.33 36.75 4.35 35.57
With UV radiation and high humidity 22.39 38.06 3.75 35.80
Without UV radiation and medium humidity 23.85 35.79 4.66 35.70
With UV radiation and medium humidity 22.92 37.15 4.22 35.71
R 4 %C %O %Mg %Si
Unaged 24.84 35.45 5.82 33.89
Without UV radiation and high humidity 22.24 37.64 4.57 35.55
With UV radiation and high humidity 19.85 39.85 3.96 36.34
Without UV radiation and medium humidity 22.35 37.33 4.85 35.47
With UV radiation and medium humidity 20.96 38.47 4.35 36.22

The percentage increase in silicone for samples R3 and R4 shows the recovery phenomena because of the movement of LMWs on the surface of the samples. Due to the synergistic effects of stresses, samples R5 and R6 of co-filled composites also displayed an increase in oxygen content and a decrease in the percentages of silicon and carbon (Table 5). Under conditions of high humidity and UV radiation, the sample R6 with micro-MH + nano-MH also showed a drop in Mg from 13.36 to 7.72%. Additionally, the concentration of silicon and oxygen was increased, demonstrating how LMWs diffused throughout the sample’s surface. The sample R5 showed the least amount of filler content loss across all cases, and the recorded oxygen level was not particularly high, indicating less oxidation on the surface of this co-filled composite.

Table 5

Elemental composition of stress-aged composites (5% nano-filler and 25% micro-filler concentration)

R5 %C %O %Al %Si
Unaged 23.68 33.02 12.08 31.22
Without UV radiation and high humidity 20.36 36.95 9.72 32.97
With UV radiation and high humidity 19.75 39.28 7.29 33.68
Without UV radiation and medium humidity 21.05 36.37 9.88 32.70
With UV radiation and medium humidity 20.02 38.25 8.67 33.06
R 6 %C %O %Mg %Si
Unaged 21.58 34.36 13.36 30.70
Without UV radiation and high humidity 18.78 38.93 10.34 31.95
With UV radiation and high humidity 17.11 41.63 7.72 33.54
Without UV radiation and medium humidity 18.91 38.39 10.82 31.88
With UV radiation and medium humidity 18.04 40.68 8.33 32.95

3.5 FTIR analysis

The aged and unaged samples were tested using attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The samples were tested under the following conditions: un-aged, medium humidity without UV mode, high humidity without UV mode, and high humidity with UV mode. The FTIR spectra of R2, R3, and R5 are presented in Figure 10. Figure 10(a) shows the decrease in absorption peaks of sample R2 along with associated functional groups.

Figure 10 FTIR spectra of aged and unaged samples illustrating the functional groups under different stresses: (a) R2, (b) R3, and (c) R5.
Figure 10

FTIR spectra of aged and unaged samples illustrating the functional groups under different stresses: (a) R2, (b) R3, and (c) R5.

Each peak in the graph displays the corresponding wavenumbers in FTIR spectra. The hump-shaped peak in aged composites between 3,200 and 3,300 cm−1 indicates the presence of hydrophilic H bonded OH stretch, which emerged because of electrical stress treatment. In comparison to deteriorated R5, the increase in OH peak heights in degraded R2, and R3 is relatively significant. The peak at 2,962 cm−1 deviates from the virgin state values by 76.5, 66.5, and 35.2%, respectively, and reveals CH stretch in CH2 and CH3 in the spectra. In comparison to its virgin value, the degraded R2 shows a higher drop of 17%.

The functional groups CH and NO (nitro) are represented by the peak heights at 1,413 and 1,350 cm−1, respectively. After electrical stress exposure, both functional groups’ peak heights significantly increase. Additionally, all aged composites exhibit a substantial increase in the absorbance intensity of the nitro group, indicating the presence of nitride compounds on the deteriorated composites [41]. The Si–O–Si is discovered to be more stable in R5 (25% micro-ATH + 5% nano-ATH) than in R3 (10% nano-ATH), in contrast to Si-CH3. As a result of electrical stress exposure, Si (CH3)2 in the composites has been severely damaged, as shown by a dramatic decrease in peak heights at 787 cm−1 in Figure 10. The decrease in Si (CH3)2 absorbance intensities is discovered to be in the same order as the Si–O–Si main chain of composites. In all composites, there is a little increase in the Si (CH3)3 absorption intensity. In damaged R2, Si (CH3)3 peak heights increased by 16% but only by 8% and 5 in R3 and R5, respectively. This suggests enhanced Si (CH3)3 deformation resistance provided by R3 and R5. There was a noticeable decrease in absorption peaks of all samples because of the applied stresses. The samples treated under high humidity and UV irradiation caused more degradation than in other conditions. Moreover, the co-filled composite R5 showed less increase in its absorption peaks when tested under electrical stress, UV irradiation, and high humidity conditions which validates our previous results.

4 Discussion

The important findings of hydrophobicity recovery studies on different composites under different environmental conditions and electrical stress exposure are noticed. The samples having both micro- and nano-fillers showed faster recovery than samples filled with micro-fillers and nano-fillers. This might be a result of easier LMW component transit from the bulk to the surface in co-filled composites. The higher filler concentrations in 50% micro-filled composites may serve as a barrier that slows down the diffusion of LMW components. Moreover, because of electrical discharges, an increase in oxygen content was also noticed on SR’s surface, which causes the development of a hydrophilic layer that resembles silica and polar silanol groups on the PDMS surface. Severe oxidation, according to the mechanism outlined in the study of Hillborg and Gedde [42], transforms the hydrophobic –CH3 groups to –CH2 and produces hydroxyl (Si–CH2OH) and peroxides (Si–CH2OOH) as a result of a reaction between the oxygen content and PDMS. Higher electrical discharge intensities below the needle tip may cause more severe surface oxidation and the development of hydrophilic layers. Additionally, the hydrophobicity recovery phenomena after electrical stress exposure are attributed to the polar group reorientation, condensation of silanol groups, and the migration of LMW components from the bulk to the surface of PDMS [18].

The contact angles had lower values under the influence of UV radiation for all types of composites which showed the increase in severity of the test because of UV radiation. Another important finding of this study is that at the start just after aging most samples had the highest recovery of contact angle only after 10 min of recovery time. That is why, we took a lot of images during the first hour of recovery time. After 10 h of recovery time, the contact angles of all composites had a marginal increase in their values. Moreover, the impact of humidity level also showed that at lower values of humidity, the recovery of hydrophobicity was slower than that at higher levels of humidity. Samples R5 and R6 showed better results than samples R1, R2, R3, and R4 tested under different conditions.

Figures 7 and 8 depict the micrographs of aged areas of composites showing cracks, pits, block type structure, and white powder because of the impact of electrical stress and other applied stresses. The development of surface cracks may contribute to higher contact angle recovery because these defects enable LMW constituents of PDMS a less-resisting route to diffuse from the bulk to the surface. Below the needle tip, there was a greater loss and greater return of hydrophobicity. According to Hillborg and Gedde [43], modest mechanical stress might cause the hydrophilic layer to crack, which leads to a quicker recovery. Gubanski [44] hypothesized that electrical discharge-induced deformation of the PDMS surface starts the angle recovery process at a faster rate. Moreover, at high humidity levels, the increase in oxygen content and silicone content was noticed, which can be attributed to the movement of LMWs from the bulk to the surface and also showed oxidation on the surface. The elemental composition of all samples under different operational conditions noticed an increase in oxygen level due to oxidation, an increase of silicone content due to the movement of LMWs to the surface, and a decrease in the filler content and carbon content due to the synergistic impact of stresses. FTIR results of micro-filler, nano-filler, and co-filled samples showed the better discharge resistance of co-filled composites under UV exposure and humidity. The formation of OH groups was visible in the FTIR spectra, suggesting the higher intensity of electrical stress along with other environmental stresses. The decrease in SiCH3 peaks of sample R2 was the highest, showing the loss of hydrophobicity, which is validated with the results of hydrophobicity and recovery.

5 Conclusions

In this study, electrical discharges were applied to six different types of composites for 100 h under different environmental stresses. The fillers used were ATH and MH with 50% micro-, 10% nano-, and 5% nano-/25% micro-concentrations. Different diagnostic techniques were employed to see the impact of stresses and electrical discharges on the surface of prepared composites. Hydrophobicity recovery was studied after different intervals of time and noticed that after 100 h of recovery, the contact angle did not reach 90° for each sample treated under different conditions. The samples having micro-fillers of 50% showed the slowest recovery because of the higher filler concentration that restricts the movement of LMWs to the surface of samples. The co-filled sample R5 had the highest contact angle of 78.9° at high humidity without UV after 100 h of recovery. Sample R1 filled with only micro-filler recorded the least recovery in the contact angle at the end of 100 h. Moreover, ATH-filled composites showed better results than those of MH, regardless of the concentration of fillers. The treated surface of samples R5 and R6 co-filled with two fillers showed better surface morphology than those of samples filled with only micro- and nano-filled composites. SEM micrographs for treated areas of R1 and R2 showed much more cracks and white powder on their surface under the impact of UV radiation. However, the surface just below the needle tip of samples R5 and R6 had better surface morphology. The elemental composition of all composites showed a decrease in filler concentrations, which are attributed to the impact of electrical discharges and synergistic stresses on the molecular structure of samples. As the severity of stresses increased, the oxygen percentage and silicone percentage also increased, which shows the formation of the oxidation process on the surface of samples, and the movement of LMWs to the surface was recorded. The formation of OH groups also shown in FTIR curves validates the process of oxidation due to the severity of electrical stress, UV, and high humidity. The loss of hydrophobicity can also be attributed to the loss of peaks of CH3 methyl groups shown in FTIR spectra. In all cases, the co-filled sample R5 having 5% nano-ATH and 25% micro-ATH performed better than other samples filled with micro- and nano-fillers. The co-filled composites R5 and R6 showed higher resistance to electrical discharges, UV, and humidity than the samples R1, R2, R3, and R4. This study contributes significantly to the understanding of the complex interplay between filler types, concentrations, and aging stresses in SR composites. The findings not only enhance our knowledge of material behavior under challenging environmental conditions but also pave the way for the development of more resilient and durable composite materials.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the 2022 Guilin Key R&D Plan Project (20220106-3) and 2022 Yulin City Central Leading Local Science and Technology Development Special Fund Project (20223402). This work was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSPD2024R645) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: This work was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project Number (RSPD2024R645) King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Data availability statement: The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Received: 2024-03-26
Revised: 2024-06-18
Accepted: 2024-08-04
Published Online: 2024-09-17

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2024-0093
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
silicone rubber; discharge aging; hydrophobicity; magnesium hydroxide
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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