Startseite Naturwissenschaften Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
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Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications

  • Ahmed B. Khoshaim , Essam B. Moustafa EMAIL logo und Rasha A. Youness
Veröffentlicht/Copyright: 27. Februar 2024
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Nanotechnology Reviews
Aus der Zeitschrift Nanotechnology Reviews Band 13 Heft 1

Abstract

We made nanocomposites with different amounts of hydroxyapatite (HA), cordierite (Cord), and zirconia (ZrO2), then sinterized them and studied them using X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). Additionally, the bioactivity of the sintered samples was assessed in vitro following treatment with simulated bodily fluid (SBF), and FESEM was used to validate the creation of the HA layer on their surfaces. Measurements were also made for mechanical and antibacterial properties. All materials' electrical and dielectric characteristics were assessed before and after being treated with SBF solution. All of the samples that were studies had porosity increases of about 7.14, 22.44, 43.87, and 73.46%. This was because the sintering temperature was lowered while the concentration of ZrO2 in the samples increased. Also, the microhardness got 5.35, 14.28, 28.57, and 55.35% better because there was more ZrO2 and Cord in the samples than in the sample that did not have them. In addition, the compressive strength of all studied samples followed this trend, as it increased by 2.81, 7.79, 17.74, and 34.32% due to the reasons mentioned above. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity of the tested samples decreased as they increased their ZrO2 and Cord contents. The bioactivity of the research materials also somewhat decreased as the concentrations of Cord and ZrO2 were enhanced over time. Due to the magnesium (Mg2+) ions found in Cord's composition and the samples' porousness, which aided in forming an apatite layer on their surface, their bioactivity behavior was slightly reduced. All the samples that were looked at had a strong antibacterial effect on Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis bacteria), which stopped their growth to a point between 2.33–3.30 mm. These results supported the notion that the generated porous nanocomposites have great potential for use in bone tissue engineering.

Keywords: porous nanocomposites; osseointegration; antibacterial effect; mechanical properties; bone tissue engineering applications

1 Introduction

Focusing on biomaterials used in the treatment of bone tissue, much effort has recently been put into designing biomaterials for repairing injured human tissues. It should be noted that these endeavors do not end due to the wide variety of standards for materials used in orthopedic applications, which are strongly affected by industrial progress [1,2,3,4,5]. Unfortunately, bone resorption, partly caused by wear and corrosion debris from the implants infiltrating the surrounding tissue and causing the implants to become loose, necessitates the replacement of 10–20% of implanted joints within 15–20 years. A superb biomaterial for surgical implantation should thus have a good combination of various physical properties. It should, first and foremost, be highly wear and corrosion resistant and also have good biocompatibility. Second, a material with a low modulus and high strength closer to the bone will be preferred. The material surface must maintain its integrity under pressure as the third important component [6]. Based on this, the best candidate materials should possess several properties such as osteoconductivity, biocompatibility, antimicrobial, electrical, and mechanical properties. Since no single material can satisfy all these needs, scientists have created composite materials to meet these diverse requirements [7,8].

HA (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) is one of the materials with the best prospects for use in orthopedic and dental applications. Its biocompatibility and capacity for bone bonding account for this remarkable significance in these various biological applications. In addition, the formation of B‒type carbonated hydroxyapatite (B‒CHA), which gives HA more desirable qualities, is the consequence of the partial replacement of certain phosphate ( PO 4 3 − ) groups in its crystal structure by carbonate ( PO 3 2 − ) groups [9]. Another important element in improving CHA’s biological importance is its preparation in the nanometer range, which allows for stronger interactions with proteins and osteoblastic cells [10]. However, its weak mechanical qualities limit its potential for use in biomedicine. The composites’ preparation or morphology can be changed to enhance HA’s mechanical properties [11,12,13].

Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and MgO, make up the ternary system of oxide that makes up Cord (Mg2Al4Si5O18) [14]. Due to its hardness, resistance to compression, chemical inertness, and porosity, which are suitable for the majority of the requirements for the success of biological materials, Cord has demonstrated remarkable success in various manufacturing methods in a variety of applications, particularly those involving biology [15].

One of the most often used biomaterials is ZrO2 because of its promising properties, which include remarkable mechanical and thermal capabilities. As the color is so remarkably similar to the color of teeth, it also offers great aesthetic attributes. Because of these positive characteristics, it was initially used in dentistry in the 1990s [16,17]. As ZrO2 is a chemical oxide, it also has the advantage of not dissolving in water, which lowers bacterial adhesion and exhibits minimum cytotoxicity. Moreover, it offers excellent corrosion resistance. The characteristics mentioned earlier have led to an expansion of the biological applications of ZrO2 to orthopedic applications. Nevertheless, ZrO2’s fundamental drawback limiting its clinical application is that it is bioinert [18]. As a result, creating nanocomposites with bioactive phases is one of the most promising ways to solve this issue.

The incidence of biomaterial-centered illnesses is one of the main disadvantages of using biomaterials. The host will interact with the biomaterial after implantation by developing a conditioning coating on its surface. The surface characteristics of the biomaterial mediate microorganism adhesion. The infection will begin when microorganisms on the surface start to multiply. For example, according to an in vitro investigation, Staphylococcus epidermidis multiplied in the first 8–12 h following implantation. Efforts have been made to avoid microbial contamination of foreign materials during implantation. Antibiotic usage undoubtedly helps limit the frequency of infections focused on biomaterials, but a sizable proportion of patients struggle with this illness [19].

The effect of ZrO2 on enhancing HA’s mechanical and antibacterial properties has been studied by many researchers [20,21,22,23]. However, according to the authors’ knowledge, the effect of adding different contents of Cord on HA has not gained the attention of researchers before. Therefore, one might expect that the combination of adding these two reinforcements, i.e., ZrO2 and Cord, to HA and studying the biological, physical, mechanical, electrical, and dielectric properties of the resulting nanocomposites has not been studied. In addition, the novelty of this study extends to the investigation of the electrical and dielectric properties of samples after soaking them in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 10 days.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Preparation of CHA nanopowders

To physically activate the chemical interaction between calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium hydrogen phosphate dihydrate (CaHPO4·2H2O) powders as reported in the studies by Youness et al. [24,25], CHA nanopowders have been created in this study with the use of a high-energy ball mill (HEBM). In a nutshell, HEBM was combined with CaHPO4·2H2O and CaCO3 for 5 h while rotating at 150 rpm. After that, milling was carried out for 10 h in dry conditions using 10 mm-diameter alumina balls and a 10:1 ball-to-powder ratio (BPR). The obtained CHA nanopowders phase composition, particle size, and crystallinity were investigated by XRD technique (Philips PW 1373; diffractometer with CuK–Ni filtered radiation at a scan speed of 0.5 min−1) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy–selected area electron diffraction (HRTEM-SAED; JEOL JEM-2100 Japan, operated at accelerating voltage of 120 kV).

2.2 Preparation of Cord nanopowders

Al2O3 (98.5%), SiO2 (97.5%), and MgO (98%) powder were used to create the first combination of the Cord stoichiometric composition (2MgO·2Al2O3·5SiO2). The powder was mechanically blended for 30 min to verify the homogeneity of the representative batch. This mixture was dried and then heated for 3 h at 1,300°C with air present to study the reaction process. Then, the resultant Cord powders were investigated using XRD and HRTEM-SAED techniques.

2.3 Fabrication of HA/Cord/ZrO2 nanocomposites

The purchased ZrO2 powders (purity 99.5%) were mixed with the as-prepared materials, i.e., CHA and Cord, using HEBM for 20 h and BPR = 5:1 running in the dry condition in alumina vials and balls with diameters of 10 mm at 150 rpm as a rotational speed. Then, the nanocomposite powders were pressed using a hydraulic press at 30 MPa and sintered at 600°C for 1 h at a heating rate of 5°C/min. The compositions of the samples prepared and their abbreviations are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Scheme of the prepared nanocomposites referring to the sample code and its composition (vol%)

Samples code HA Cord ZrO2
CZ0 100 0 0
CZ1 97 2.5 0.5
CZ2 94 5 1
CZ3 88 10 2
CZ4 76 20 4

2.4 Investigation of phase composition and microstructure of the sintered nanocomposites

With the XRD method’s assistance, the sintered nanocomposites’ phase composition was examined. In addition, FESEM (Philips XL3000 type) was used to analyze the microstructure of the sintered nanocomposites.

2.5 Biological properties of the tested samples

2.5.1 In vitro bioactivity assessment

It was possible to assess the in vitro bioactivity of the materials by letting the created nanocomposites soak in an SBF prepared in accordance with the guidelines provided by Kokubo et al. [26,27] for 10 days while maintaining the ratio of glass grains to the volume of solution = 0.01 g/ml [28]. FESEM was then used on the soaked samples to look into the changes to their surfaces brought on by soaking them in SBF solution.

2.5.2 Antibacterial effect

The disc‒diffusion method was used in the current study to assess the antibacterial activity of sintered nanocomposites against S. epidermidis and Escherichia coli, two typical species of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively.

2.6 Measurement of the different properties of the obtained nanocomposites

2.6.1 Physical properties

We sintered all the samples at 600 °C for one hour and used the Archimedes method (ASTM B962-13), which is explained in Ref. [29], to figure out their bulk density and apparent porosity.

2.6.2 Mechanical properties

The microhardness of the sintered samples was determined in accordance with ASTM: B933-09, as mentioned in our most recent papers [30,31]. Notably, each data point included measurements of at least five indentations per specimen. On the other hand, all samples underwent the compressive strength test under ASTM E9.

2.6.3 Electrical and dielectric properties

Using a broadband dielectric spectroscopic method, the produced samples’ AC electrical conductivity, dielectric constant, and dielectric loss were assessed at room temperature before and after soaking in the SBF solution for 10 days.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Investigation of the phase composition, crystallinity, and particle size of the starting materials

XRD equipment was used to investigate the phase composition of all starting materials, such as HA, Cord, and ZrO2. The results are shown in Figure 1. By analyzing the obtained data, it is possible to see the clarity of distinct HA XRD peaks without the presence of any other XRD peaks. This result suggests that the HA was produced correctly. The original materials, such as HA, Cord, and ZrO2, may also be found to be in the nanoscale range based on the observed broadness in their diffraction peaks. One of the most important advantages of nanostructured biomaterial is its improved capacity to interact with proteins and cells that make bone [32].

Figure 1 XRD patterns of the as-prepared powders, i.e., (a) HA, (b) Cord, and (c) ZrO2 powders.
Figure 1

XRD patterns of the as-prepared powders, i.e., (a) HA, (b) Cord, and (c) ZrO2 powders.

The particle sizes and crystallinity of the HA, Cord, and ZrO2 powders used are shown in Figure 2(a)–(c). The pictures in these figures make it very clear that the HA, Cord, and ZrO2 are made up of spherical nanoparticles. This is because the milling process seems to have strongly grouped the HA powder particles together.

Figure 2 HRTEM images and their corresponding SAED patterns for the starting materials, i.e., (a) HA, (b) Cord, and (c) ZrO2 powders.
Figure 2

HRTEM images and their corresponding SAED patterns for the starting materials, i.e., (a) HA, (b) Cord, and (c) ZrO2 powders.

It is important to remember that the average particle sizes of HA, Cord, and ZrO2 are 42.34, 56.62, and 77.74 nm, respectively. In addition, the SAED patterns demonstrated the presence of polycrystalline diffraction rings generated from the d-spacing ICCD file cards previously described.

3.2 Characterization of the sintered nanocomposites

3.2.1 XRD analysis

The XRD patterns of each sintered sample are displayed in Figure 3. The following key facts are supported by this figure and can be distilled as follows:

  • The typical XRD peaks for HA, Cord, and ZrO2 are clearly visible.

  • Despite being treated to a high sintering temperature, there is no evidence that the HA particles decompose and form β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP; Ca3(PO4)2).

  • No other peaks could be detected on the X-ray diffractogram, indicating that the component phases of these nanocomposites did not interact and that there was no contamination during the synthesis of the nanocomposites or the sintering process.

  • The sintering process, which reflects improved crystallization, shows a noticeable sharpness at all peaks compared to Figure 1.

Figure 3 XRD patterns of sintered HA/Cord/ZrO2 nanocomposites samples.
Figure 3

XRD patterns of sintered HA/Cord/ZrO2 nanocomposites samples.

3.2.2 Investigation of the microstructure of the samples by FESEM

The microstructure of all fabricated samples was analyzed using FESEM, as shown in Figure 4(a)–(e). From this figure, one can observe the porous structure of all samples. The reason for obtaining a porous structure for all the samples prepared from the initial sample, i.e., CZ0, to the last sample, i.e., CZ4, is the high melting temperatures of HA (1,650°C), Cord (1,460°C), and ZrO2 (2,715°C) compared to the temperature used to perform the sintering process (600°C). As discussed earlier, since ZrO2 has the highest melting temperature among the other materials used to prepare nanocomposites, increasing its volume percent is considered a major factor in increasing the porosity level. This conclusion is based on the significant increase in the number of pores and the proportion of ZrO2. Another explanation for the observed increase in porosity as a result of increasing the content of ZrO2 is the difference in particle sizes between HA (42 nm) and ZrO2 (77 nm), as discussed in Section 3.1, which led to more pores between their particles due to a reduction in the contact area between HA and ZrO2 particles, which resulted in hollow areas [33].

Figure 4 FESEM micrographs of all sintered samples; namely (a) CZ0, (b) CZ1, (c) CZ2, (d) CZ3, and (e) CZ4.
Figure 4

FESEM micrographs of all sintered samples; namely (a) CZ0, (b) CZ1, (c) CZ2, (d) CZ3, and (e) CZ4.

3.3 Biological properties of the tested samples

3.3.1 In vitro bioactivity assessment

In general, treatment in an SBF solution is known as a straightforward and affordable test to reliably assess a biomaterial’s capacity to create a bone-like layer on its surface following immersion in it. It should be noted that the “bioactivity property” refers to a substance’s capacity to build the desired layer. Based on this, the substance is thought to exhibit superb adhesion to nearby living bone tissue when it is transplanted into a person [34]. The sintered samples, i.e., CZ0, CZ2, and CZ4, were incubated in the SBF solution for 10 days, and then they were submitted to FESEM to provide the reader with visual proof of the creation of the HA layer on their surfaces shown in Figure 5(a)–(c). Given that the bioactivity of the sintered nanocomposites displays a falling sequence, CZ0 > CZ2 > CZ4, it is clear that all sintered samples have shown a good formation for the apatite layer on their surfaces. In other words, when Cord and ZrO2 concentrations rise, but HA amounts fall, the investigated samples’ bioactivity marginally declines. This observation is supported by the generated layer almost completely covering the CZ0 sample’s surface. On the other hand, this layer gradually thins down as Cord and ZrO2 levels rise, thankfully without significantly affecting the samples’ bioactivity. The obtained results can be explained in terms of many factors. First, the presence of negative charge content of HA, namely, (PO4)3‒, which may quickly absorb the cations, specifically calcium (Ca)2+, present in the solution and result in the creation of an amorphous calcium phosphate layer, as indicated in our previous study [35]. The generated layer is then crystallized on the sample surface to produce HA crystals. Second, the Mg2+ ions in the Cord composition encouraged the growth of apatite on the sample surface [36]. Third, an increase in sample porosity encourages the development of apatite on a sample’s surface. This is because materials with larger porosities will have better SBF flow, which will provide simpler ion dissolution between samples and SBF solution [37]. Noteworthy, the literature highly supports the obtained results [38,39]. Based on the findings, it is possible to restore injured tissues, such as the hip, knee, teeth, and joints, using the nanocomposites that have been created [40].

Figure 5 FESEM micrographs of (a) CZ0-, (b) CZ2-, and (c) CZ4-sintered samples after their treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days.
Figure 5

FESEM micrographs of (a) CZ0-, (b) CZ2-, and (c) CZ4-sintered samples after their treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days.

3.3.2 Antibacterial effect

In most cases, bacterial infections acquired during surgical procedures cause severe difficulties following the implantation of biomaterials into people [41]. Based on this reality, assessing a possible biomaterial's antibacterial performance is crucial. Therefore, using disc diffusion tests, the antibacterial properties of the sintered samples were examined against S. epidermidis (ATCC12228) and E. coli (ATCC25922), which are Gram+ and Gram‒ bacteria, respectively. The results are displayed in Figure 6(a) and (b), and the measured diameter of the inhibition zones is tabulated in Table 2. The acquired images show that the growth of E. coli was markedly inhibited in all tested samples, including Cord and ZrO2-free samples. These results can be attributed to the strong antibacterial effects of ZrO2 and MgO present in the Cord and possible changes in the pH value due to the possible dissolution of the CZ0 sample in the surrounding medium. It is important to remember that these nanocomposites do not affect the growth of S. epidermidis. Here, we summarize how nano-ZrO2 and nano-MgO in Cord kill bacteria.

Figure 6 Photos of Petri dishes after conducting agar disc–diffusion assays against (a) S. epidermidis and (b) E. coli for sintered samples.
Figure 6

Photos of Petri dishes after conducting agar disc–diffusion assays against (a) S. epidermidis and (b) E. coli for sintered samples.

Table 2

The measured inhibition zone diameters for all examined nanocomposites samples against S. epidermidis and E. coli bacteria

Samples’ code Inhibition zone (mm)
S. epidermidis E. coli
CZ0 2.33 …
CZ1 2.50 …
CZ2 2.78 …
CZ3 3 …
CZ4 3.3 …

Nano-ZrO2 particles harm bacterial cell membranes by releasing active oxygen. As a result of this disruption, the cytoplasmic regions of the cells degrade, which also raises permeability [42]. On the other hand, the different possible antibacterial effects of MgO nanoparticles can be attributed to the fact that, according to references [43–45], the effects of MgO nanoparticles can be attributed to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production preventing E. coli from growing. The capacity of MgO to attach to the cell membrane and induce damage, resulting in an observable change in the shape of the cell membrane and causing deformation and cell death, is another antibacterial mechanism for Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria, on the other hand, have a strong peptidoglycan protective coating; therefore, this method does not apply to them.

3.4 Measurement of the different properties of the obtained nanocomposites

3.4.1 Physical properties

All samples’ bulk density and apparent porosity are depicted in Figure 7(a) and (b), respectively. The findings show that the bulk density of the samples under investigation noticeably decreased when the volume percentages of Cord and ZrO2 were successively increased. It is interesting to note that this decrease is not significant because HA (3.15 g/cm3) was substituted with a lighter material, namely, Cord (2.28 g/cm3), and a heavier material, namely, ZrO2 (5.68 g/cm3), while percentage increases for ZrO2 were only 4 and Cord 20 vol%, respectively. In contrast, as discussed in Section 3.2.2, the low temperature used in the sintering process and the presence of ZrO2 with a higher melting temperature, i.e., 2,715°C, contributed to the increased porosity of the sintered samples.

Figure 7 (a) Bulk density and porosity and (b) relative density of samples sintered at 600°C for 1 h.
Figure 7

(a) Bulk density and porosity and (b) relative density of samples sintered at 600°C for 1 h.

These findings are well aligned with those covered in Section 3.2.2. Various variables greatly influence ceramic materials’ densification, including the sintering temperature, the surrounding environment, and the initial powder’s grain size. Most notably, it can be assumed that if the materials utilized are in the small size range, the porosity of the generated composites will be higher since nano-sized powders exhibit superior condensation behavior than micron-sized ones at lower sintering temperatures [46].

3.4.2 Mechanical properties

The microhardness and compressive strength measurements for all nanocomposites are shown in Figure 8(a) and (b). These figures demonstrate how the combined effects of Cord and ZrO2 boosted all the tested mechanical qualities. CZ0, CZ1, CZ2, CZ3, and CZ4 samples’ microhardness values are 2.80, 2.95, 3.20, 3.60, and 4.35 Hv, respectively, whereas their compressive strength values are 60.30, 62, 65, 71, and 81 MPa, respectively. Better mechanical properties of the reinforcements used in this study, i.e., Cord and ZrO2, can be used to explain the results obtained. These outcomes are quite consistent with those mentioned in Abushanab et al. [47]. It is important to note that the CZ4 sample’s compressive strength is close to that of cortical bone (100–150 MPa), indicating that the surrounding bone would not experience the stress-shielding effect if the CZ4 sample was implanted into human bone. Importantly, the stress-shielding effect is extremely damaging and causes a major weakening of the bone since it lacks the stimuli required for the ongoing remodeling process, according to Wolff’s law [48].

Figure 8 (a) Microhardness and (b) compressive strength of samples sintered at 600°C for 1 h.
Figure 8

(a) Microhardness and (b) compressive strength of samples sintered at 600°C for 1 h.

3.4.3 Electrical and dielectric properties

There is no denying that the good electrical properties of biomaterials greatly aid in encouraging bone formation [49]. This research examines the electrical and dielectric characteristics of sintered nanocomposites and the effect of the produced apatite layer on their surfaces. Readers interested in studying diverse biomaterial characteristics will find this article new due to its immense relevance. The electrical conductivity and dielectric properties, such as the dielectric constant and dielectric loss, were tested in this regard at various frequencies. Measurements at 1, 5, 10, and 20 MHz were made, and the results are displayed in Tables 3 and 4. It is clear that the materials’ electrical conductivity significantly decreased when the amounts of Cord and ZrO2 increased due to their electrical insulating behavior. However, this propensity increased a little bit with frequency increasing. Polarization typically confers HA’s dielectric properties, which are known to significantly improve bone tissue regeneration. Interestingly, the ε′ represents the real component of the dielectric, i.e., and the ε″ represents the imaginary part.

Table 3

AC conductivity of all examined samples measured at different frequencies, i.e., 1, 5, 10, and 20 MHz

AC conductivity (S/cm)
1 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 20 MHz
CZ0 1.21 × 10−6 3.31 × 10−6 6.55 × 10−5 1.35 × 10−4
CZ1 9.71 × 10−7 2.60 × 10−6 5.24 × 10−5 1.11 × 10−4
CZ2 7.71 × 10−7 1.77 × 10−6 3.90 × 10−5 9.30 × 10−5
CZ3 5.29 × 10−7 9.61 × 10−7 1.92 × 10−5 5.70 × 10−5
CZ4 1.08 × 10−7 4.42 × 10−7 5.76 × 10−6 1.05 × 10−5
Table 4

ε′ and ε″ of all examined samples measured at different frequencies, i.e., 1, 5, 10, and 20 MHz

1 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 20 MHz
ε′
CZ0 4.911 3.401 1.991 1.477
CZ1 5.977 4.398 2.511 1.741
CZ2 7.700 6.072 3.362 2.228
CZ3 10.908 8.385 4.837 3.130
CZ4 14.548 11.929 7.829 4.351
ε″
CZ0 1.112 8.991 7.011 5.101
CZ1 0.136 0.132 0.099 0.078
CZ2 0.177 0.169 0.146 0.124
CZ3 0.264 0.256 0.232 0.194
CZ4 0.397 0.392 0.364 0.291

The natural frequency of these ions is the same as the frequency used in the AC field, according to Arul et al. [50]. The conduction of nano-sized HA at lower frequencies is due to the mild oscillation of Ca2+, PO 4 3 − , and OH‒ ions. These dipole moments oscillate, resulting in ε′ changes with a lower frequency. However, according to other research, the presence of protons (H+), oxide ions (O2‒), and lattice hydroxyl (OH‒) ions is all that is necessary for HA to conduct, with Ca2+ and PO 4 3 − ions having no impact on the conductance of the substance [51,52]. Given that the AC conductivity is subject to the following relationship, the CZ0 sample exhibits a constant rise with the increasing frequency at high frequencies:

(1) σ ac = σ dc + B ωs ,

where σ dc is the DC electrical conductivity, B is a constant, ω is the angular frequency, and s is an exponent [53].

The rise in AC conductivity with higher frequency is due to the separation of a complex set of ions along the c-axis of the HA crystal structure [50]. The AC conductivity continuously declines when the amounts of Cord and ZrO2 are increased because there are fewer charge carriers, which raises the nanocomposites’ resistance [54,55].

After analyzing the data, it is evident that ε′ rises with higher Cord and ZrO2 levels while falling with higher applied frequency. Notably, the values drastically dropped with frequency up to 10 MHz, but the decline in values becomes less pronounced at 20 MHz. The fact that the tested samples’ dipoles prefer to point in the direction of the applied electric field may be used to explain why the values of ε′ decreased as frequency increased. In contrast, because of the slower relaxation of the highly oriented dipoles at lower frequencies, ε′ records substantially greater values [50]. Conversely, a reduction in the number of dipoles that point in the direction of the AC field is brought on by increasing the concentrations of Cord and ZrO2. With the increasing frequency, a similar declining trend was also seen for ε″. The electric dipoles do not have enough time to align themselves with the applied electric field before it changes direction, which accounts for the apparent reduction caused by rising AC frequency; however, because there are fewer charge carriers, the higher contents of Cord and ZrO2 aid in raising the measured ε″ values [56].

When the same frequencies were used, the AC electrical conductivity, ε′, and ε″ were also measured to see what happened to the samples’ electrical and dielectric behavior when a bone-like layer on the surface. The results were listed in Tables 5 and 6 as well. The characteristics of the nanocomposites indicated earlier before and after treatment in the SBF solution at lower and higher frequencies, i.e., 1 and 20 MHz, are further depicted in Figures 9–11, respectively, to simplify the comparison of these properties before and after incubation in the SBF solution. The findings showed that the tested sample’s AC conductance is very minimally increased by the produced HA layer. This favorable outcome can be due to reducing surface pores, which enhances conductivity. In addition, the insulating ceramic components present in the CZ1, CZ2, CZ3, and CZ4 samples are covered by this surface semiconductor layer. After incubation in the SBF solution, the values of ε′ and ε″ displayed an opposite pattern, declining, which reflected the reduced dielectric characteristics of the examined samples.

Table 5

AC conductivity of all samples examined at different frequencies after incubation in SBF solution for 10 days

AC conductivity (S/cm)
1 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 20 MHz
CZ0 1.31 × 10−6 3.61 × 10−6 7.14 × 10−5 1.44 × 10−4
CZ1 1.11 × 10−6 3.12 × 10−6 6.12 × 10−5 1.36 × 10−4
CZ2 9.36 × 10−7 7.12 × 10−6 4.79 × 10−5 1.18 × 10−4
CZ3 6.44 × 10−7 1.20 × 10−6 2.47 × 10−5 7.09 × 10−5
CZ4 1.35 × 10−7 5.53 × 10−7 7.11 × 10−6 1.32 × 10−5
Table 6

ε′ and ε″ of all samples evaluated at various frequencies after a 10-day incubation period in SBF solution

1 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz 20 MHz
ε′
CZ0 4.549 3.224 1.883 1.297
CZ1 5.352 3.911 2.207 1.510
CZ2 6.769 5.429 2.874 1.879
CZ3 9.205 7.172 4.002 2.570
CZ4 11.788 10.150 6.194 3.724
ε″
CZ0 0.10 0.083 0.063 0.047
CZ1 0.123 0.120 0.084 0.064
CZ2 0.161 0.150 0.121 0.106
CZ3 0.228 0.211 0.191 0.149
CZ4 0.348 0.321 0.298 0.232
Figure 9 AC conductivity of all sintered samples before and after treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 20 MHz.
Figure 9

AC conductivity of all sintered samples before and after treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 20 MHz.

Figure 10 Dielectric constant of all sintered samples before and after treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 20 MHz.
Figure 10

Dielectric constant of all sintered samples before and after treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 20 MHz.

Figure 11 Dielectric loss of all sintered samples before and after treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 20 MHz.
Figure 11

Dielectric loss of all sintered samples before and after treatment in the SBF solution for 10 days at (a) 1 MHz and (b) 20 MHz.

4 Conclusions

In the present study, nanopowders of Cord, and HA have been successfully prepared with the help of high-energy ball mill and sintering process. Subsequently, different contents of Cord were added to HA in combination with ZrO2 to produce nanocomposites with promising properties for use in bone tissue engineering applications. The findings demonstrated that there were porosity increases of around 7.14, 22.44, 43.87, and 73.46% in all of the studied samples. This occurred as a result of the samples' increasing ZrO2 concentration and decreasing sintering temperature. Furthermore, compared to the sample without ZrO2 and Cord, the microhardness was enhanced as a result of the higher ZrO2 and Cord contents. Additionally, due to the previously described factors, the compressive strength of each of the examined samples increased by 2.81, 7.79, 17.74, and 34.32%. Additionally, as ZrO2 and Cord concentrations are raised, the resistance of the nanocomposites increases because there are fewer charge carriers, which causes the AC conductivity to constantly decrease. As the quantities of ZrO2 and Cord increased over time, the study materials' in vitro bioactivity also slightly diminished. Thankfully, the porous nature of the samples and the presence of Mg2+ ions in Cord's composition prevented the samples' bioactivity behavior from significantly declining. Strong antibacterial effects against S. epidermidis bacteria were seen in all examined samples. However, none of the materials under examination had any effect on the development of E. coli bacteria. The results show that the developed nanocomposites may be used to repair damaged bone tissues.

Acknowledgments

This research work was funded by Institutional Fund Projects under grant no. (IFPIP-85-135-1443). The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical and financial support provided by the Ministry of Education and King Abdulaziz University, DSR, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

  1. Funding information: This research work was funded by Institutional Fund Projects under grant no. (IFPIP-85-135-1443). The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical and financial support provided by the Ministry of Education and King Abdulaziz University, DSR, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

  2. Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.

  3. Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

  4. Ethical approval: The research related to human use has been complied with all the relevant national regulations, institutional policies and in accordance the tenets of the Helsinki Declaration, and has been approved by the authors’ institutional review board or equivalent committee.

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Received: 2023-09-09
Revised: 2023-11-22
Accepted: 2023-11-28
Published Online: 2024-02-27

© 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0175
Schlagwörter für diesen Artikel
porous nanocomposites; osseointegration; antibacterial effect; mechanical properties; bone tissue engineering applications
Creative Commons
BY 4.0

Artikel in diesem Heft

  1. Research Articles
  2. Tension buckling and postbuckling of nanocomposite laminated plates with in-plane negative Poisson’s ratio
  3. Polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilised gold nanoparticle coatings inhibit blood protein adsorption
  4. Energy and mass transmission through hybrid nanofluid flow passing over a spinning sphere with magnetic effect and heat source/sink
  5. Surface treatment with nano-silica and magnesium potassium phosphate cement co-action for enhancing recycled aggregate concrete
  6. Numerical investigation of thermal radiation with entropy generation effects in hybrid nanofluid flow over a shrinking/stretching sheet
  7. Enhancing the performance of thermal energy storage by adding nano-particles with paraffin phase change materials
  8. Using nano-CaCO3 and ceramic tile waste to design low-carbon ultra high performance concrete
  9. Numerical analysis of thermophoretic particle deposition in a magneto-Marangoni convective dusty tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow – Thermal and magnetic features
  10. Dual numerical solutions of Casson SA–hybrid nanofluid toward a stagnation point flow over stretching/shrinking cylinder
  11. Single flake homo p–n diode of MoTe2 enabled by oxygen plasma doping
  12. Electrostatic self-assembly effect of Fe3O4 nanoparticles on performance of carbon nanotubes in cement-based materials
  13. Multi-scale alignment to buried atom-scale devices using Kelvin probe force microscopy
  14. Antibacterial, mechanical, and dielectric properties of hydroxyapatite cordierite/zirconia porous nanocomposites for use in bone tissue engineering applications
  15. Time-dependent Darcy–Forchheimer flow of Casson hybrid nanofluid comprising the CNTs through a Riga plate with nonlinear thermal radiation and viscous dissipation
  16. Durability prediction of geopolymer mortar reinforced with nanoparticles and PVA fiber using particle swarm optimized BP neural network
  17. Utilization of zein nano-based system for promoting antibiofilm and anti-virulence activities of curcumin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  18. Antibacterial effect of novel dental resin composites containing rod-like zinc oxide
  19. An extended model to assess Jeffery–Hamel blood flow through arteries with iron-oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles and melting effects: Entropy optimization analysis
  20. Comparative study of copper nanoparticles over radially stretching sheet with water and silicone oil
  21. Cementitious composites modified by nanocarbon fillers with cooperation effect possessing excellent self-sensing properties
  22. Confinement size effect on dielectric properties, antimicrobial activity, and recycling of TiO2 quantum dots via photodegradation processes of Congo red dye and real industrial textile wastewater
  23. Biogenic silver nanoparticles of Moringa oleifera leaf extract: Characterization and photocatalytic application
  24. Novel integrated structure and function of Mg–Gd neutron shielding materials
  25. Impact of multiple slips on thermally radiative peristaltic transport of Sisko nanofluid with double diffusion convection, viscous dissipation, and induced magnetic field
  26. Magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an exponentially stretching sheet with thermal convective and mass flux conditions: HAM solution
  27. A numerical investigation of the two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic water-based hybrid nanofluid flow composed of Fe3O4 and Au nanoparticles over a heated surface
  28. Development and modeling of an ultra-robust TPU-MWCNT foam with high flexibility and compressibility
  29. Effects of nanofillers on the physical, mechanical, and tribological behavior of carbon/kenaf fiber–reinforced phenolic composites
  30. Polymer nanocomposite for protecting photovoltaic cells from solar ultraviolet in space
  31. Study on the mechanical properties and microstructure of recycled concrete reinforced with basalt fibers and nano-silica in early low-temperature environments
  32. Synergistic effect of carbon nanotubes and polyvinyl alcohol on the mechanical performance and microstructure of cement mortar
  33. CFD analysis of paraffin-based hybrid (Co–Au) and trihybrid (Co–Au–ZrO2) nanofluid flow through a porous medium
  34. Forced convective tangent hyperbolic nanofluid flow subject to heat source/sink and Lorentz force over a permeable wedge: Numerical exploration
  35. Physiochemical and electrical activities of nano copper oxides synthesised via hydrothermal method utilising natural reduction agents for solar cell application
  36. A homotopic analysis of the blood-based bioconvection Carreau–Yasuda hybrid nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with convective conditions
  37. In situ synthesis of reduced graphene oxide/SnIn4S8 nanocomposites with enhanced photocatalytic performance for pollutant degradation
  38. A coarse-grained Poisson–Nernst–Planck model for polyelectrolyte-modified nanofluidic diodes
  39. A numerical investigation of the magnetized water-based hybrid nanofluid flow over an extending sheet with a convective condition: Active and passive controls of nanoparticles
  40. The LyP-1 cyclic peptide modified mesoporous polydopamine nanospheres for targeted delivery of triptolide regulate the macrophage repolarization in atherosclerosis
  41. Synergistic effect of hydroxyapatite-magnetite nanocomposites in magnetic hyperthermia for bone cancer treatment
  42. The significance of quadratic thermal radiative scrutinization of a nanofluid flow across a microchannel with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  43. Ferromagnetic effect on Casson nanofluid flow and transport phenomena across a bi-directional Riga sensor device: Darcy–Forchheimer model
  44. Performance of carbon nanomaterials incorporated with concrete exposed to high temperature
  45. Multicriteria-based optimization of roller compacted concrete pavement containing crumb rubber and nano-silica
  46. Revisiting hydrotalcite synthesis: Efficient combined mechanochemical/coprecipitation synthesis to design advanced tunable basic catalysts
  47. Exploration of irreversibility process and thermal energy of a tetra hybrid radiative binary nanofluid focusing on solar implementations
  48. Effect of graphene oxide on the properties of ternary limestone clay cement paste
  49. Improved mechanical properties of graphene-modified basalt fibre–epoxy composites
  50. Sodium titanate nanostructured modified by green synthesis of iron oxide for highly efficient photodegradation of dye contaminants
  51. Green synthesis of Vitis vinifera extract-appended magnesium oxide NPs for biomedical applications
  52. Differential study on the thermal–physical properties of metal and its oxide nanoparticle-formed nanofluids: Molecular dynamics simulation investigation of argon-based nanofluids
  53. Heat convection and irreversibility of magneto-micropolar hybrid nanofluids within a porous hexagonal-shaped enclosure having heated obstacle
  54. Numerical simulation and optimization of biological nanocomposite system for enhanced oil recovery
  55. Laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition to prepare a nanostructured PPy layer on the Ti surface
  56. Cilostazol niosomes-loaded transdermal gels: An in vitro and in vivo anti-aggregant and skin permeation activity investigations towards preparing an efficient nanoscale formulation
  57. Linear and nonlinear optical studies on successfully mixed vanadium oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized by sol–gel technique
  58. Analytical investigation of convective phenomena with nonlinearity characteristics in nanostratified liquid film above an inclined extended sheet
  59. Optimization method for low-velocity impact identification in nanocomposite using genetic algorithm
  60. Analyzing the 3D-MHD flow of a sodium alginate-based nanofluid flow containing alumina nanoparticles over a bi-directional extending sheet using variable porous medium and slip conditions
  61. A comprehensive study of laser irradiated hydrothermally synthesized 2D layered heterostructure V2O5(1−x)MoS2(x) (X = 1–5%) nanocomposites for photocatalytic application
  62. Computational analysis of water-based silver, copper, and alumina hybrid nanoparticles over a stretchable sheet embedded in a porous medium with thermophoretic particle deposition effects
  63. A deep dive into AI integration and advanced nanobiosensor technologies for enhanced bacterial infection monitoring
  64. Effects of normal strain on pyramidal I and II 〈c + a〉 screw dislocation mobility and structure in single-crystal magnesium
  65. Computational study of cross-flow in entropy-optimized nanofluids
  66. Significance of nanoparticle aggregation for thermal transport over magnetized sensor surface
  67. A green and facile synthesis route of nanosize cupric oxide at room temperature
  68. Effect of annealing time on bending performance and microstructure of C19400 alloy strip
  69. Chitosan-based Mupirocin and Alkanna tinctoria extract nanoparticles for the management of burn wound: In vitro and in vivo characterization
  70. Electrospinning of MNZ/PLGA/SF nanofibers for periodontitis
  71. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue by Nd-doped titanium dioxide thin films
  72. Shell-core-structured electrospinning film with sequential anti-inflammatory and pro-neurogenic effects for peripheral nerve repairment
  73. Flow and heat transfer insights into a chemically reactive micropolar Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid with cross-diffusion theory
  74. One-pot fabrication of open-spherical shapes based on the decoration of copper sulfide/poly-O-amino benzenethiol on copper oxide as a promising photocathode for hydrogen generation from the natural source of Red Sea water
  75. A penta-hybrid approach for modeling the nanofluid flow in a spatially dependent magnetic field
  76. Advancing sustainable agriculture: Metal-doped urea–hydroxyapatite hybrid nanofertilizer for agro-industry
  77. Utilizing Ziziphus spina-christi for eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Antimicrobial activity and promising application in wound healing
  78. Plant-mediated synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a copper oxide/silicon dioxide nanocomposite by an antimicrobial study
  79. Effects of PVA fibers and nano-SiO2 on rheological properties of geopolymer mortar
  80. Investigating silver and alumina nanoparticles’ impact on fluid behavior over porous stretching surface
  81. Potential pharmaceutical applications and molecular docking study for green fabricated ZnO nanoparticles mediated Raphanus sativus: In vitro and in vivo study
  82. Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics
  83. Characteristics of induced magnetic field on the time-dependent MHD nanofluid flow through parallel plates
  84. Flexural and vibration behaviours of novel covered CFRP composite joints with an MWCNT-modified adhesive
  85. Experimental research on mechanically and thermally activation of nano-kaolin to improve the properties of ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete
  86. Analysis of variable fluid properties for three-dimensional flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid on a stretching sheet with MHD effects
  87. Biodegradability of corn starch films containing nanocellulose fiber and thymol
  88. Toxicity assessment of copper oxide nanoparticles: In vivo study
  89. Some measures to enhance the energy output performances of triboelectric nanogenerators
  90. Reinforcement of graphene nanoplatelets on water uptake and thermomechanical behaviour of epoxy adhesive subjected to water ageing conditions
  91. Optimization of preparation parameters and testing verification of carbon nanotube suspensions used in concrete
  92. Max-phase Ti3SiC2 and diverse nanoparticle reinforcements for enhancement of the mechanical, dynamic, and microstructural properties of AA5083 aluminum alloy via FSP
  93. Advancing drug delivery: Neural network perspectives on nanoparticle-mediated treatments for cancerous tissues
  94. PEG-PLGA core–shell nanoparticles for the controlled delivery of picoplatin–hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin inclusion complex in triple-negative breast cancer: In vitro and in vivo study
  95. Conduction transportation from graphene to an insulative polymer medium: A novel approach for the conductivity of nanocomposites
  96. Review Articles
  97. Developments of terahertz metasurface biosensors: A literature review
  98. Overview of amorphous carbon memristor device, modeling, and applications for neuromorphic computing
  99. Advances in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) of proteins extracted from nature
  100. A review of ternary polymer nanocomposites containing clay and calcium carbonate and their biomedical applications
  101. Recent advancements in polyoxometalate-functionalized fiber materials: A review
  102. Special contribution of atomic force microscopy in cell death research
  103. A comprehensive review of oral chitosan drug delivery systems: Applications for oral insulin delivery
  104. Cellular senescence and nanoparticle-based therapies: Current developments and perspectives
  105. Cyclodextrins-block copolymer drug delivery systems: From design and development to preclinical studies
  106. Micelle-based nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive properties for drug delivery
  107. Critical assessment of the thermal stability and degradation of chemically functionalized nanocellulose-based polymer nanocomposites
  108. Research progress in preparation technology of micro and nano titanium alloy powder
  109. Nanoformulations for lysozyme-based additives in animal feed: An alternative to fight antibiotic resistance spread
  110. Incorporation of organic photochromic molecules in mesoporous silica materials: Synthesis and applications
  111. A review on modeling of graphene and associated nanostructures reinforced concrete
  112. A review on strengthening mechanisms of carbon quantum dots-reinforced Cu-matrix nanocomposites
  113. Review on nanocellulose composites and CNFs assembled microfiber toward automotive applications
  114. Nanomaterial coating for layered lithium rich transition metal oxide cathode for lithium-ion battery
  115. Application of AgNPs in biomedicine: An overview and current trends
  116. Nanobiotechnology and microbial influence on cold adaptation in plants
  117. Hepatotoxicity of nanomaterials: From mechanism to therapeutic strategy
  118. Applications of micro-nanobubble and its influence on concrete properties: An in-depth review
  119. A comprehensive systematic literature review of ML in nanotechnology for sustainable development
  120. Exploiting the nanotechnological approaches for traditional Chinese medicine in childhood rhinitis: A review of future perspectives
  121. Twisto-photonics in two-dimensional materials: A comprehensive review
  122. Current advances of anticancer drugs based on solubilization technology
  123. Recent process of using nanoparticles in the T cell-based immunometabolic therapy
  124. Future prospects of gold nanoclusters in hydrogen storage systems and sustainable environmental treatment applications
  125. Preparation, types, and applications of one- and two-dimensional nanochannels and their transport properties for water and ions
  126. Microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion characteristics of Mg–Gd–x systems: A review of recent advancements
  127. Functionalized nanostructures and targeted delivery systems with a focus on plant-derived natural agents for COVID-19 therapy: A review and outlook
  128. Mapping evolution and trends of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: A bibliometric analysis and scoping review
  129. Nanoparticles and their application in the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
  130. In situ growth of carbon nanotubes on fly ash substrates
  131. Structural performance of boards through nanoparticle reinforcement: An advance review
  132. Reinforcing mechanisms review of the graphene oxide on cement composites
  133. Seed regeneration aided by nanomaterials in a climate change scenario: A comprehensive review
  134. Surface-engineered quantum dot nanocomposites for neurodegenerative disorder remediation and avenue for neuroimaging
  135. Graphitic carbon nitride hybrid thin films for energy conversion: A mini-review on defect activation with different materials
  136. Nanoparticles and the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma
  137. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials and Composites for Energy Conversion and Storage - Part II
  138. Highly safe lithium vanadium oxide anode for fast-charging dendrite-free lithium-ion batteries
  139. Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery energy storage: A patent landscape analysis, technology updates, and future prospects
  140. Special Issue on Advanced Nanomaterials for Carbon Capture, Environment and Utilization for Energy Sustainability - Part II
  141. Calcium-, magnesium-, and yttrium-doped lithium nickel phosphate nanomaterials as high-performance catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation reaction
  142. Low alkaline vegetation concrete with silica fume and nano-fly ash composites to improve the planting properties and soil ecology
  143. Mesoporous silica-grafted deep eutectic solvent-based mixed matrix membranes for wastewater treatment: Synthesis and emerging pollutant removal performance
  144. Electrochemically prepared ultrathin two-dimensional graphitic nanosheets as cathodes for advanced Zn-based energy storage devices
  145. Enhanced catalytic degradation of amoxicillin by phyto-mediated synthesised ZnO NPs and ZnO-rGO hybrid nanocomposite: Assessment of antioxidant activity, adsorption, and thermodynamic analysis
  146. Incorporating GO in PI matrix to advance nanocomposite coating: An enhancing strategy to prevent corrosion
  147. Synthesis, characterization, thermal stability, and application of microporous hyper cross-linked polyphosphazenes with naphthylamine group for CO2 uptake
  148. Engineering in ceramic albite morphology by the addition of additives: Carbon nanotubes and graphene oxide for energy applications
  149. Nanoscale synergy: Optimizing energy storage with SnO2 quantum dots on ZnO hexagonal prisms for advanced supercapacitors
  150. Aging assessment of silicone rubber materials under corona discharge accompanied by humidity and UV radiation
  151. Tuning structural and electrical properties of Co-precipitated and Cu-incorporated nickel ferrite for energy applications
  152. Sodium alginate-supported AgSr nanoparticles for catalytic degradation of malachite green and methyl orange in aqueous medium
  153. An environmentally greener and reusability approach for bioenergy production using Mallotus philippensis (Kamala) seed oil feedstock via phytonanotechnology
  154. Micro-/nano-alumina trihydrate and -magnesium hydroxide fillers in RTV-SR composites under electrical and environmental stresses
  155. Mechanism exploration of ion-implanted epoxy on surface trap distribution: An approach to augment the vacuum flashover voltages
  156. Nanoscale engineering of semiconductor photocatalysts boosting charge separation for solar-driven H2 production: Recent advances and future perspective
  157. Excellent catalytic performance over reduced graphene-boosted novel nanoparticles for oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil
  158. Special Issue on Advances in Nanotechnology for Agriculture
  159. Deciphering the synergistic potential of mycogenic zinc oxide nanoparticles and bio-slurry formulation on phenology and physiology of Vigna radiata
  160. Nanomaterials: Cross-disciplinary applications in ornamental plants
  161. Special Issue on Catechol Based Nano and Microstructures
  162. Polydopamine films: Versatile but interface-dependent coatings
  163. In vitro anticancer activity of melanin-like nanoparticles for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma
  164. Poly-3,4-dihydroxybenzylidenhydrazine, a different analogue of polydopamine
  165. Chirality and self-assembly of structures derived from optically active 1,2-diaminocyclohexane and catecholamines
  166. Advancing resource sustainability with green photothermal materials: Insights from organic waste-derived and bioderived sources
  167. Bioinspired neuromelanin-like Pt(iv) polymeric nanoparticles for cancer treatment
  168. Special Issue on Implementing Nanotechnology for Smart Healthcare System
  169. Intelligent explainable optical sensing on Internet of nanorobots for disease detection
  170. Special Issue on Green Mono, Bi and Tri Metallic Nanoparticles for Biological and Environmental Applications
  171. Tracking success of interaction of green-synthesized Carbopol nanoemulgel (neomycin-decorated Ag/ZnO nanocomposite) with wound-based MDR bacteria
  172. Green synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles using genus Inula and evaluation of biological therapeutics and environmental applications
  173. Biogenic fabrication and multifunctional therapeutic applications of silver nanoparticles synthesized from rose petal extract
  174. Metal oxides on the frontlines: Antimicrobial activity in plant-derived biometallic nanoparticles
  175. Controlling pore size during the synthesis of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles using CTAB by the sol–gel hydrothermal method and their biological activities
  176. Special Issue on State-of-Art Advanced Nanotechnology for Healthcare
  177. Applications of nanomedicine-integrated phototherapeutic agents in cancer theranostics: A comprehensive review of the current state of research
  178. Smart bionanomaterials for treatment and diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease
  179. Beyond conventional therapy: Synthesis of multifunctional nanoparticles for rheumatoid arthritis therapy
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